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Faculty First: Promoting Translanguaging in TESOL Teacher Education

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DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-36983-5_10

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Faculty First: Promoting Translanguaging
in TESOL Teacher Education

Zhongfeng Tian

Abstract Translanguaging has been recently identified as a promising pedagogy

that could better serve emergent bilinguals in the U.S. by incorporating their full
linguistic repertoires in academic learning. Therefore, it is important to promote
translanguaging in teacher education and such change should start with faculty. This
qualitative case study examines how one teacher educator (Elizabeth) and her stu-
dents engaged with translanguaging in a TESOL teacher preparation course.
Findings reveal that Elizabeth not only integrated translanguaging as a course con-
tent, but also created translanguaging spaces in her classroom. She realized that the
social justice agenda of translanguaging resonated with her teaching philosophy and
pushed her to be more critical of the dominant structure. Moreover, the students
developed a translanguaging stance during the course and utilized a variety of strat-
egies to implement translanguaging in their teaching. This chapter ends with sug-
gestions for future teacher education program development.

Keywords Translanguaging · TESOL · Teacher education · Emergent bilinguals ·

Bi/multilingualism · Culturally sustaining pedagogy · Social justice

1 Introduction

In today’s superdiverse world (Blommaert, 2010), U.S. schools have greater num-
bers of immigrant youth who bring to classrooms a wide range of cultural and lin-
guistic backgrounds. Paradoxically, educational spaces for the development of bi/
multilingualism have shrunk dramatically due to language policies that place
emphasis on high-stakes testing and English-only mandates, which promote reduc-
tive literacy practices with instructional focus on teaching a narrow range of basic
skills and standard American English only (Gutiérrez, 2001). Such one-size-fits-all

Z. Tian (*)
Lynch School of Education and Human Development, Boston College,
Chestnut Hill, MA, USA
e-mail: tianza@bc.edu

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 215

S. M. C. Lau, S. Van Viegen (eds.), Plurilingual Pedagogies, Educational
Linguistics 42, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36983-5_10
216 Z. Tian

language policies and approaches deny the heterogeneity that exists among c­ hildren,
especially emergent bilinguals,1 and effectively erase their rich cultural and linguis-
tic resources (García & Kleifgen, 2018; Molle, Sato, Boals, & Hedgspeth, 2015). To
counteract this trend, translanguaging pedagogy (García, 2009; García & Li, 2014)
represents an emerging attempt to foster culturally sustaining contexts of learning
(Paris, 2012; Paris & Alim, 2017) wherein students’ full language repertoires are
valued and leveraged to meet academic challenges. Translanguaging pedagogy
holds the promise of “liberating the voices of language minoritized students”
(García & Leiva, 2014, p. 200) and “enabling a more socially just and equitable
education for bilingual students” (García & Kleyn, 2016, p. 17). To follow through
on this promise requires caring and competent teachers who understand what com-
prises a translanguaging pedagogy, and who are capable of its implementation to
better serve emergent bilinguals in their classrooms. Nevertheless, most teachers do
not receive adequate training or have little knowledge in this area. More crucially,
as Kleyn (2016a) argues, “before teacher candidates can become equipped to enact
translanguaging pedagogies, their education professors must at least have a baseline
understanding of dynamic bilingualism and translanguaging so that they can be
included in all courses that address equity, literacies, and methodology” (p. 211).
The purpose of this chapter is to explore how such change might begin by engaging
teacher education faculty and supporting them to teach pre-service teachers about
translanguaging pedagogy.
To facilitate systematic change and education reform, teacher educators are on
the front lines of promoting translanguaging for pre-service teachers to better
address the learning needs of emergent bilinguals. However, there are few studies
that examine how teacher education faculty engage with translanguaging as a new
approach to their own teaching. This study was pursued to investigate one professor,
Elizabeth’s initiative of integrating translanguaging into one of her teacher prepara-
tion courses called TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages)
Practice.
The course TESOL Practice was originally designed as a practicum where
teacher candidates would learn and apply Sheltered English Immersion (SEI) tech-
niques for working with emergent bilinguals. SEI requires teachers to use clear,
direct, simple English and a wide range of scaffolding strategies (Short & Echevarria,
1999) to make content area instruction more accessible to learners while developing
their language proficiency (Faltis, 1992; Fritzen, 2011; Genesee, 1999; Short, 1991).
While widely adopted and implemented across school districts in the state of
Massachusetts where this study conducted, this approach fails to recognize bi/mul-
tilingualism as a resource and tends to reinforce an English-only space which limits
the use of students’ multilingual language resources and cultural funds of knowl-

1
“Emergent bilinguals” are traditionally referred as “English Language Learners” or “English
Learners” (e.g., in language policy documents) with a deficit orientation, focusing only on their
learning process or absence of English. To emphasize the potential of these students to become
bilingual and biliterate during schooling, I refer to them as “emergent bilinguals” from an asset-
based orientation (García & Kleyn, 2016).
Faculty First: Promoting Translanguaging in TESOL Teacher Education 217

edge. By contrast, translanguaging pedagogy incorporates students’ home language

practices strategically into classrooms, and cultivate a heterogeneous, inclusive edu-
cational space where emergent bilinguals are encouraged to draw upon their entire
cultural and linguistic repertoires in meaning-making activities (García & Li, 2014).
Thus, SEI represents an assimilationist ideology to promote standardized English;
translanguaging reflects an asset-based perspective to support language and content
learning while challenging the dominance of English. It was with this aim anchored
in a social justice commitment that Elizabeth took the initiative to integrate trans-
languaging into her course.
Through exploring Elisabeth’s use of translanguaging pedagogy in one teacher
education course and her students’ subsequent engagement with translanguaging
theories, this chapter contributes to the empirical basis for how teacher education
faculty and teacher candidates can take up translanguaging, shedding light on the
opportunities and challenges of translanguaging in teacher education, and offering
suggestions on how translanguaging could be better embedded into teacher educa-
tion curriculum to prepare future teachers to work more effectively with emergent
bilinguals. The chapter begins by reviewing related literature on translanguaging, its
philosophical principles and pedagogical applications in K-12 education and teacher
education. Elaborating on the educational potential of translanguaging in teacher
education, I present a collaborative research study with a teacher educator and pre-­
service teacher candidates, describing and analysing their engagement with trans-
languaging theory and practices. Finally, these findings will be discussed in relation
to their practical implications for future teacher education program development.

2 Related Literature

2.1 Translanguaging as Theory and Pedagogy

García’s (2009) notion of translanguaging focuses on the “multiple discursive

practices in which bilinguals engage in order to make sense of their bilingual
worlds” (p.45, original emphasis). This perspective provides researchers and educa-
tors with theoretical and pedagogical approaches to reconceptualize how we think
of languages and how we can better educate emergent bilinguals in plurilingual and
multicultural educational contexts. As theory, translanguaging interrogates the
duality of bilingualism and suggests that emergent bilinguals’ language repertoires
should be seen as comprising a single, dynamic semio-linguistic system and not
separate, bounded languages. Through this lens, bilingual speakers/writers are seen
as making meaning using the totality of their linguistic resources, from which they
strategically select language features that are employed and adapted to suit the soci-
olinguistic purposes of the context (García & Li, 2014). Bilinguals are therefore
always in a fluid state of becoming in which “language practices are multiple and
ever adjusting to the multilingual and multimodal terrain of the communicative act”
(García, 2014, p. 109).
218 Z. Tian

Different from understanding bi/multilingualism as comprising separate,

bounded linguistic systems (for example, English and Spanish or English and
Mandarin), translanguaging starts from the view of a unitary linguistic system, with
bilinguals having a linguistic repertoire of combined features that are socially
defined according to named language categories (Otheguy, García, & Reid, 2015).
Thus, this study sees translanguaging as shifting epistemological understandings of
bilinguals’ language practices: bilingual speakers do not “switch” (as in code-­
switching) between two separate, autonomous named languages, but select or
inhibit (or not) different features in their unitary repertoire in response to the locally
situated task (García, 2014). The “trans-” prefix further indicates that the bilinguals’
languaging in fact goes beyond the conventions of socially constructed named lan-
guages and encompasses multisensory and multimodal forms of communication to
make meaning (García & Li, 2014).
As pedagogy, translanguaging starts from the lips and minds of children them-
selves as it treats emergent bilinguals as resourceful agents with full semio-­linguistic
repertoires and competence to navigate appropriately within various communica-
tive situations (García & Kleifgen, 2018). It aims to leverage all the features of
children’s repertoires and incorporate learners’ familiar cultural and language prac-
tices in academic learning. At the same time, translanguaging acknowledges the
social reality of mastering “standardized” ways of using named languages (e.g., the
external state standards) and therefore the teachers in a translanguaging classroom
also show students “when, where, and why to use some features of their repertoire
and not others, enabling them to also perform according to the social norms of
named languages as used in schools” (García & Kleyn, 2016, p. 15). Translanguaging
pedagogy values and supports translanguaging practices as the norm in bilingual
communities, and expands students’ linguistic repertoires to include new “aca-
demic” features so they may successfully navigate different contexts of school-­
based literacies and subject-matter knowledge.
Specifically, García, Johnson, and Seltzer (2017) identify three interwoven
strands of translanguaging pedagogy: they claim that in order to implement
translanguaging in instruction, a teacher must: (1) develop translanguaging
stance – they believe the value of bilingualism in content and language learning
and position language-minoritized children as legitimate users of language; (2)
plan translanguaging design – they purposefully and strategically create hetero-
glossic, inclusive educational spaces (such as appropriating multilingual materi-
als and grouping students according to home languages) where students are
encouraged to use their complete communicative repertoires to engage in learn-
ing; and (3) be ready for translanguaging shifts – they must be flexible and will-
ing to deviate and change their lessons to respond to the needs of children who
are at different points of the bilingual continuum. These interrelated strands
work together “to advance social justice and to ensure that bilingual learners are
educated for success and not just to conform to monolingual norms” (García &
Kleifgen, 2018, p. 81).
Faculty First: Promoting Translanguaging in TESOL Teacher Education 219

2.2 Translanguaging Pedagogy in U.S. Classrooms

A growing body of research has shown the educational potential of translanguag-

ing pedagogy in various U.S. K-12 classrooms – English-medium mainstream
classrooms (e.g., Ebe & Chapman-Santiago, 2016; Woodley & Brown, 2016),
transitional bilingual education classrooms (e.g., Cioè-Peña & Collins, 2016;
Kleyn, 2016b; Sayer, 2013; Seltzer & Collins, 2016), and dual-language bilingual
education classrooms (e.g., Espinosa & Herrera, 2016; Gort & Sembiante, 2015;
Mateus & Palmer, 2017; Palmer, Martínez, Mateus, & Henderson, 2014).
Translanguaging pedagogy has been demonstrated as a scaffold to contribute to
both content and language development for emergent bilinguals in mainstream
classrooms, and to support bilingualism and biliteracy development in bilingual
education contexts.
Specifically, by utilizing translanguaging pedagogical strategies in English-­
medium classrooms, such as providing translations on handouts, grouping stu-
dents based on their same home languages, and employing multilingual and
multimodal resources, teachers can provide multiple points of access to engage
learners’ entire semio-linguistic repertoires to participate and interact with con-
tent, materials, and peers. These adaptations make content area teaching and
learning more accessible and comprehensible for bilingual learners to promote
their performance in language and content learning (see more at García & Kleyn,
2016). Likewise, despite strict language allocation policies in some bilingual edu-
cation programs (e.g., one teacher/one language c.f. Gort & Sembiante, 2015),
partner teachers can cross diglossic boundaries strategically to perform translan-
guaging practices such as bilingual recasting, translation, and language brokering.
Such flexible bilingual pedagogy affords bilingual learners opportunities to exper-
iment with hybrid language forms/uses to buttress their meaning making while
engaging them in academic discourse, and to increase critical metalinguistic
awareness for developing bilingualism and biliteracy (see more in the special issue
by Gort, 2015, 2018).
Translanguaging pedagogy is more than a scaffold; it has also been thought to
potentially transform English-medium and bilingual education. Adopting translan-
guaging in mainstream education means that the language practices of all students
are legitimized and leveraged as a resource for learning at all times (García &
Kleifgen, 2018). This shift in the language use of the classroom challenges the
hegemonic status of standard English to include bilingual learners’ minoritized
voices in meeting academic challenges. For example, Ebe and Chapman-Santiago
(2016) demonstrated that the use of culturally relevant texts incorporating translan-
guaging as a literary device in a mainstream English Language Arts (ELA) class
allowed the students to make strong connections to their cultural and linguistic
funds of knowledge, enabling students to bring their whole selves into the class-
room. In bilingual education contexts, translanguaging pedagogy validates students’
220 Z. Tian

hybrid language uses and identities in their own right and develops both teacher and
student agency. Sayer (2013), Palmer et al. (2014), and Mateus and Palmer (2017)
have found that by creating spaces in which the teachers and students translan-
guaged among a mix of standard and vernacular English and Spanish, students
developed agency to become critical and creative language users, and their bilingual
identities were recognized, validated, and promoted. Further, by allowing, valuing,
and mirroring students’ voices and linguistic choices, teachers also became agentive
social actors in challenging traditional language isolation policies in bilingual pro-
gram settings.
In sum, by integrating bilingualism as an instructional resource, translanguaging
pedagogy encourages emergent bilinguals to use their full semiotic meaning-­making
repertoires actively to acquire, understand, and demonstrate knowledge. It holds the
potential of creating a culturally sustaining context of learning (Paris, 2012) which
“supports young people in sustaining the cultural and linguistic competence of their
communities while simultaneously offering access to dominant cultural compe-
tence” (p. 95). By empowering bilingual students, protecting their language rights,
and affirming their identities, translanguaging pedagogy ultimately aims to trans-
form schooling in ways that advance a social justice agenda: “the language practices
of minoritized speakers cease to be an excuse to deny access to rich educational
experiences and instead are leveraged to educate deeply and justly (García &
Kleifgen, 2018, p. 81).

2.3 Translanguaging in U.S. Teacher Education

Presently, two empirical studies have examined the potential of translanguaging in

U.S. teacher education. Musanti and Rodríguez (2017) explored translanguaging
practices that occurred in a Spanish-English bilingual teacher preparation program,
with a particular focus on bilingual teachers’ academic writing. They found through
translanguaging practices, bilingual teachers developed creativity in leveraging
their full linguistic repertoire to produce meaningful content, and seemed to develop
a stance that defied the monolingual tradition that tends to prevail in bilingual
teacher preparation. Flores and Aneja (2017) introduced translanguaging as a frame-
work in a TESOL teacher education course and asked participating pre-service
teachers to develop a project that enacted the new understanding of language prac-
tice associated with translanguaging. They revealed that many non-native English
teachers developed more positive conceptualizations of their own identities as mul-
tilingual teachers, and created pedagogical approaches built on students’ home lan-
guages in ways that challenge dominant language ideologies. These studies point to
the transformative potential of translanguaging in supporting teachers’ multilingual
identities and in cultivating teachers’ agentic disposition to counteract monolingual
bias in language education.
Faculty First: Promoting Translanguaging in TESOL Teacher Education 221

3 Methodology

Building upon these findings, this study explores how translanguaging can be inte-
grated into teacher education curriculum to facilitate systematic change in teacher
education programs. The study operates from the perspective that pre-service
teacher education should comprise opportunities for teacher candidates to engage in
translanguaging practices during teacher education courses in order to warrant
potential uptake and implementation of translanguaging pedagogy in their own
classrooms. To this end, this qualitative case study was pursued to highlight how
one teacher educator and her students engaged with translanguaging in a TESOL
teacher preparation course. A case study design permits the investigation of “a phe-
nomenon within its real-life context” (Yin, 2003, p. 13) and is particularly useful for
its rich description and heuristic value to illustrate the complexities of a situation
(Stake, 2000; Yin, 2003). In this case, I focused my inquiry in one undergraduate-­
level course titled TESOL Practice to unpack one professor and her students’ pro-
cess of engaging with translanguaging. This study was guided by two overarching
research questions:
1. How does one teacher educator, Elizabeth, make sense of and integrate translan-
guaging in her course?
2. How do the students make sense of and integrate translanguaging into their
teaching practices?

3.1 Context

This study took place at a city university located in Massachusetts. The previous
education policies in the state required all teachers to be certified in Sheltered
English Immersion (SEI) to work with English Learners (ELs). The goals of SEI are
to develop subject matter knowledge, academic skills, and English proficiency
simultaneously. In all sheltered English classes, teachers deliver language-rich,
grade-level content area instruction in English in a manner that is comprehensible to
learners. However, SEI utilizes English as the only valid mode of instruction, which
excludes the rich sociocultural and linguistic experiences that all children can bring
to learning tasks. This approach can be seen as subtractive bilingualism, which adds
an additional language without attending to support or maintenance of students’
first or home language(s) (Valenzuela, 2010), an underlying assimilationist ideology.
In order to obtain licensure to teach in Massachusetts, all teacher candidates,
regardless of their content area, must have an SEI certification. This certification can
be obtained through an SEI course within a teacher preparation program or by pass-
ing a licensing test on the principles and practices of SEI. Within this context, a
TESOL Certification program was developed in 2017 at this university to equip
teacher candidates with SEI theory and practice. Given that this university had no
222 Z. Tian

specific Education department, the program was housed under the Education Studies
Program in the Sociology Department and therefore open to any undergraduate stu-
dents interested in working with or obtaining a certification for teaching ELs.
I came to know Elizabeth through my network and involvement with local
teacher educators. As a White female from a middle-class family, Elizabeth self-­
identified as monolingual English speaker with some knowledge in Spanish. She
had obtained a doctoral degree from a university in Massachusetts, and had received
training in SEI and taught teacher education courses based on SEI. At the time of
the project, Elizabeth was a professor and director of the teacher education program,
and had been working at the university for 7 years with prior teaching experience in
ESL/EFL both in the U.S. and overseas. Her research interests included English as
a Second Language (ESL), teacher education, urban education, and teachers’
engagement with research.
Her interest in translanguaging started after our first encounter in January 2017.
With a strong belief in the educational potential of translanguaging and an ultimate
goal of teaching for social justice, Elizabeth collaborated with me to modify/re-­
design the courses of the TESOL Certificate program, including the TESOL Practice
course which provided the context for this study. During our initial meetings in
January 2017, I shared with her the aims of my doctoral work and research on trans-
languaging. Elizabeth was keen to learn about translanguaging; unlike the state’s
SEI model, she felt that translanguaging connected with her goal of teaching for
social justice, particularly its valorization of students’ full linguistic repertoires.
With these aims in mind, together we embarked on a collaborative project with the
goal of promoting translanguaging in the TESOL Certificate program; each of us
acting as knowledge brokers to mutually inform and reinforce one another’s under-
standing of research and practice. The project involved meeting regularly on an
ongoing basis to exchange ideas relating to translanguaging and to discuss ways to
modify the current SEI curriculum.
Notably, the state legislature was reviewing its approach to teaching ELs at this
time, and in June 2017, the MA House of Representatives approved a bill that elimi-
nated “one size fits all” teaching for ELs, because the SEI-only policy had failed to
account for differing needs of ELs and caused higher dropout rates. The new bill,
H.3736 “An Act Relative to Language Opportunity for Our Kids” aimed to differen-
tiate instruction for ELs in Massachusetts schools. The bill provided school districts
with greater room to maneuver, allowing flexibility to adopt and adapt instructional
approaches to better serve the state’s culturally and linguistically diverse learners.
Aware of this significant change in Massachusetts education policy, Elizabeth deter-
mined that the time was right to explore way to shift the TESOL Certificate program
from teaching the English-only SEI approach to teaching a translanguaging
approach, providing motivation to integrate translanguaging into her teacher prepa-
ration courses.
The course under examination, TESOL Practice was one of three required
courses for the TESOL certificate program. The course was offered in Spring 2018,
and as a practicum course, it was designed to provide teacher candidates with both
weekly seminars (90 min in length) to explore theory and fieldwork (30 h) to develop
and apply pedagogic content knowledge, put theory into practice, and help teacher
Faculty First: Promoting Translanguaging in TESOL Teacher Education 223

candidates to create a Teaching and Service Portfolio. Eight undergraduate students

enrolled in the course TESOL Practice and seven of them, four female and three
male (aged 19–22), agreed to participate in the study. Notably, participating stu-
dents had cultural and linguistic backgrounds that were different from traditional
(predominately White, monolingual female) demographics in the state’s teacher
preparation programs. Among the participants, there were four self-identified
monolingual and three bilingual students who spoke English in addition to Spanish,
Pashto, or Portuguese. Five students were seniors and two were juniors, majoring in
different subject areas, including sociology, psychology, fine arts, history, and
Spanish. Although all participants had limited teaching experience and basic knowl-
edge in English teaching and learning, many of them expressed enthusiasm about
education and aspired to becoming a teacher. Overall, participating students’ diverse
background provided a valuable opportunity for us to explore their unique response
to and engagement with translanguaging.

3.2 Research Activities and Data Analysis

Multiple sources of data were collected to provide rich, in-depth understanding

about the teacher educator and students’ engagement with translanguaging.
Specifically, I attended each weekly seminar (fourteen 90-min sessions) as partici-
pant observer, video-recorded the classes, and took detailed field notes. I conducted
three open-ended interviews (25–35 min each) with Elizabeth at the beginning, dur-
ing and after the course to gather her perceptions about and experiences with imple-
menting a translanguaging approach. A student focus group interview (20 min) was
conducted at the end of the semester to gather perceptual data about students’ expe-
riences of and reflections on translanguaging in the course. Finally, artifacts were
collected throughout the semester, including Elizabeth’s teaching materials and
teaching journal and teacher candidates’ lesson plans, written reflections and port-
folios, to provide further insight into their understanding of translanguaging and
implementation strategies.
Using a grounded theory approach (Strauss & Corbin, 1998), data analysis was
an iterative and recursive process with all the data read separately using a method
of constant comparison. First, examining classroom videos and comparing them
against the field notes, open coding was used to mark instances that highlighted
the teacher educator’s and students’ sense-making and integration of translan-
guaging, and these data were triangulated with participants’ perceptions to provide
insights into their understandings and teaching practices. Secondary analysis
involved axial coding to organize and collapse open codes into broader categories
and patterns. In the final phase of analysis, theoretical memos were drafted for
each major category to elucidate a grounded description of how the teacher educa-
tor and teacher candidates engaged with translanguaging both theoretically and
practically. Participant member checks were conducted following completion of
analysis to ensure reliability.
224 Z. Tian

4 Findings

4.1 Integrating Translanguaging into TESOL Preparation

Elizabeth integrated translanguaging into the course on TESOL Practice in multiple

ways. She not only introduced translanguaging as part of the course content, but
also created translanguaging spaces in her classroom to support teacher candidates
in experiencing and using translanguaging practices. Further, she offered teacher
candidates the opportunities to apply translanguaging pedagogy throughout their
lesson design, mock teaching and fieldwork experiences. Below,
Teaching About Translanguaging Before the course started, Elizabeth revisited
the terminology used throughout the syllabus and changed the terms that reflected a
monolingual bias (for example, changing “English learners” to “emergent bilin-
guals” or “bilingual learners”). During the course, she introduced the students the
framework of translanguaging to deepen their understanding in various ways. The
book The Translanguaging Classroom: Leveraging Student Bilingualism for
Learning (García et al., 2017) was selected as the core text, including topics on what
translanguaging is, why translanguaging is needed, and how to create and imple-
ment translanguaging lessons with appropriate assessments for emergent bilinguals
in K-12 classrooms. To further familiarize the students with translanguaging, stu-
dents watched a video lecture by Dr. Ofelia García, participated in class discussions
on translanguaging, and wrote reflections on translanguaging related topics, includ-
ing a Philosophy of Language Statement for their teaching portfolio to articulate
and demonstrate their knowledge of language and the role of translanguaging in
their instructional practice. Alongside this work, Elizabeth continued to introduce
SEI strategies; however, she invited teacher candidates to reflect critically upon
them (i.e., comparing SEI and translanguaging approaches). Given that the students
had only limited teaching experience, Elizabeth taught some basic knowledge about
TESOL (e.g., pedagogical grammar) and curriculum design (e.g, backwards design,
universal design for learning). Finally, taking a critical sociocultural approach,
Elizabeth engaged teacher candidates in regular conversations about the connec-
tions among language, culture, and power to develop a political understanding of
TESOL and how translanguaging might be used as a pedagogical approach to edu-
cate language learners in more just and socially meaningful ways.

Creating Translanguaging Spaces To reinforce teacher candidates’ learning

about translanguaging, Elizabeth intentionally created translanguaging spaces to
engage students in translanguaging. This practice comprised a form of modelling
for teacher candidates how to integrate translanguaging practices into their class-
rooms. For instance, Elizabeth modeled translingual writing opportunities through
journaling tasks, wherein students could reflect, in any language they felt comfort-
able, on course concepts and activities; she invited teacher candidates to share and
teach each other routine communications in their home languages such as welcomes
Faculty First: Promoting Translanguaging in TESOL Teacher Education 225

and greetings; and, in student-led demonstration lessons, bilingual teacher candi-

dates were invited to teach their home languages to the class.
Although these simple moves might not have been seen as transformative in
inverting language hierarchies, Elizabeth aimed to, through modeling in her own
practice, push back the monolingual (English) ideologies and instruction in higher
education settings. She intentionally cultivated students’ language awareness, inter-
culturalism, and openness to cultural and linguistic diversity (e.g., by hearing a
variety of languages circulating in the classroom, monolingual students might
become comfortable and start to develop multilingualism appreciation). Moreover,
modelling gave teacher candidates examples to use in their own instructional
practice.
Providing Opportunities to Enact Translanguaging Elizabeth asked the stu-
dents to implement translanguaging pedagogy in their lesson plans, mock lesson
demonstrations, and practice teaching. Building on teacher candidates developing
translanguaging stance, and their new experiences of translanguaging in teacher
education, Elizabeth engaged her class in the enactment of translanguaging design
and shifts in their practice teaching. Teacher candidates were from a variety of dis-
ciplinary backgrounds, and were also required to develop lesson plans in their spe-
cialized content areas. Specifically, the task involved integrating both content and
language learning objectives, and incorporating translanguaging strategies as a scaf-
fold and resource for emergent bilingual students. Elizabeth provided teacher can-
didates with a translanguaging lesson plan template, and each teacher candidate was
required to present a 10-min mock lesson demonstration, followed by a whole-class
debriefing for feedback on its strengths, and on improving translanguaging strate-
gies in particular. Finally, for their practicum, teacher candidates were asked to
write a final reflection paper on the opportunities and challenges of implementing
translanguaging strategies in their respective placement contexts.
In summary, Elizabeth provided the students with ample opportunities to engage
with translanguaging. She taught about translanguaging and modeled translanguag-
ing spaces in the classroom. Teacher candidates also enacted translanguaging in
their practice teaching activities. Through these three dimensions, Elizabeth worked
to equip the students with necessary knowledge and skills to achieve the goal of
teaching ESL for social justice.

4.2 Teacher Identity and Translanguaging

Along with documenting the changes in Elizabeth’s practice, I gained insight into
her perceptions of and reflections on developing a nuanced understanding of trans-
languaging through analysis of our interviews and her teaching journal. In general,
Elizabeth identified congruence between her teaching philosophy and the concept
of translanguaging. Learning about translanguaging provided her with a theoretical
226 Z. Tian

lens and rationale for critiquing the monolingual paradigm that dominated the
teacher education program’s approach to language education, shedding light on the
tensions between the SEI model and translanguaging pedagogy.
Congruence with Teaching Philosophy As an ESL teacher educator, Elizabeth
aimed to provide a more just, equitable education for emergent bilingual students.
Her philosophy comprised a belief in the significant role of schema in teaching
and learning, and she used a critical sociocultural approach in her previous courses
to develop students’ understanding of the role of language plays in the “dynamic
and dialogic power relationships between the social and individual, the global and
the local, the institutional and the everyday” (Lewis & Moje, 2003, p. 1992).
Elizabeth shared:

Schema is my buzzword; it means funds of knowledge … that’s a big concept that I want to
pass on to my students that every single person has a different perspective and experiences
the world in slightly different ways. I think the notion of translanguaging allowing students
to bring their linguistic repertoires to the classroom, very much resonates with what I have
talked about for years in terms of valuing students’ funds of knowledge, and their schema,
and that being a building block of learning in any classroom.

Translanguaging as pedagogy, which values and mobilizes students’ cultural and

linguistic funds of knowledge, echoed Elizabeth’s attention to schema. Both empha-
size building upon what students already have (i.e., existing sociocultural and lin-
guistic knowledge, and their familiar experiences) in teaching and learning. In this
sense, translanguaging helped furnish Elizabeth’s understanding of schema with a
sociocultural layer, incorporating students’ personal histories, accumulated knowl-
edge, and cultural identities into the contributions of background knowledge to
learning.
A translanguaging perspective resonated with Elizabeth’s conceptualization of
language and multilingualism in education. She expressed in her first interview:
I feel like translanguaging is a more comprehensive view of language; it really makes more
sense to me than keeping languages just as separate entities or like boxes, things.
This notion that there is a commonality between all languages, theoretically, makes a lot
more sense to me.

Translanguaging offers a holistic and fluid understanding of language, which

aligned with Elizabeth’s exception to the monoglossic view of languages as static,
separate or compartmentalized. It captures dynamic language practices of everyday
communication between bi/multilinguals, thereby challenging the arbitrary bound-
aries between socially constructed languages. She further connected a translanguag-
ing theory of language to teaching for social justice:
I’ve always sort of viewed my ESL world as more practice, I mean, there are theories of
language acquisition, etc., but I never really connected to my understanding of how teach-
ing can be for justice. I’ve always sort of feel like social justice was on one side, and teach-
ing ESL on the other … I rarely ever see much connection between them.
But through translanguaging, I feel like it’s very much bringing both of those interests of
mine together.
Faculty First: Promoting Translanguaging in TESOL Teacher Education 227

Elizabeth stated that she had viewed language teaching and social justice as two
separate interests; however, the critical component embedded in translanguaging
pedagogy bridged the gap between these interests in its potential to foster a more
equitable and culturally sustaining approach to ESL teaching. Further, translan-
guaging provided her with concrete theoretical and pedagogical frameworks to
name her teaching orientation and pedagogy and to guide her future teaching prac-
tices. In our final interview, Elizabeth said, “[Translanguaging] just supports all of
the fundamental beliefs I have about learning, theoretically and also pedagogically
… it feels like I’ve found an overarching theory or approach for everything that I’ve
always done.” Nonetheless, with these new understanding, Elizabeth felt there was
still room for developing and refining translanguaging learning tasks for teacher
candidates.
Adopting a Critically Reflexive Stance In addition to the resonance with her
teaching philosophy, making sense of translanguaging pushed Elizabeth to reflect
upon dominant structures more critically. By “dominant structure”, she meant two
things: the power of monolingualism or standard English in the U.S., and the domi-
nant power held by professors/teachers in a classroom. As expressed in her second
interview,

[I]t makes me question my own power and dominance even more, especially since I am not
a bilingual speaker, I mean I have, I can speak other languages but I don’t feel like I’m
bilingual speaker of any languages. I think it really impresses on me like the skills and the
assets of bilingualism, multilingualism that I don’t have, which makes me even like more
humble as a teacher. It makes me … I’m so not the expert here.

As translanguaging theory disrupts monolingual ideology and legitimizes all lin-

guistic varieties/performances, it provided Elizabeth with a rationale to resist the
dominant power of standard English. Thinking about her own language background,
as a monolingual English-speaking faculty member, she wondered the extent to
which monolingual instructors were capable of translanguaging pedagogy in and
for teacher education; meaning, how might they legitimately promote translanguag-
ing when they themselves are monolingual. The following quote illustrates:
[Translanguaging] made me realize where I have resistance to it and where I do things the
same old way I’ve always done things. But there is awareness I need to do it differently. So
I need to in my classroom bring in more languages than I do, everybody’s, I think I worked
very hard on bringing in people’s identities and cultural things, but I am not, I could’ve even
do more with that … Translanguaging makes me see where I am unwilling to move out of
my comfort. My comfort is not in other languages. But I need to figure out how to do that
because I’m asking the students to do that.

Recognizing that translanguaging pedagogy flourishes in a learning community

where teachers position themselves as co-learners and treat students as resourceful
agents (not deficient, non-native speakers), Elizabeth understood the importance to
create spaces for student agency and engagements with critical and creative learning
opportunities. She noted that bi/multilingual students bring rich assets or funds of
knowledge into the classroom, which invited her to be “more humble as a teacher”
228 Z. Tian

and to recognise that “[she’s] not the expert here”. To Elizabeth, modeling
­translanguaging comprised a critical step along this path, part of an effort to debunk
the notion that monolingual teachers cannot promote or enact translanguaging.
While endeavouring to break down the walls of English-only spaces by incorporat-
ing different cultural and linguistic resources, Elizabeth noted that she harboured
some reservations towards opening the class to other languages, and that her posi-
tion as professor reinforced the power and dominance of English. She admitted that
it would take time and effort to come out of her comfort zone to truly realize the
creation of a translanguaging space in her classroom.
Possibilities for Translanguaging in English Immersion As a teacher educator
trained in and practicing SEI strategies for years, Elizabeth identified challenges
and opportunities in aligning translanguaging with the English immersion
approach:

My pedagogical home is not sheltered English immersion anymore, although I was there.
Translanguaging is where I would like to live, as my home, but it is not the comfortable
home. I think I definitely would not throw out sheltered English instruction because I think
a lot of strategies are [still valuable] … it is just not allowing the language piece to come in,
and that’s where I defer. So that’s where I would say like I don’t think [SEI’s] the best
approach. I do think that translanguaging is a better approach, because from my only expe-
riences, I cannot imagine learning another language without using language tools they have.

As the quote illustrates, Elizabeth did not completely discard SEI strategies, as
she still believed in their value for scaffolding instruction to support emergent bilin-
gual learners. However, she noticed that the SEI approach tends to reinforce an
English-­only educational space by prohibiting or limiting the use of students’ home
languages, whereas a translanguaging approach should purposefully leverage the
role of home languages in and for academic learning. Elizabeth stated that translan-
guaging can be a pedagogy orientated towards “respect for humanity and for peo-
ple” in that it recognizes that learners use the extant tools (schema) they have to
learn. Hence, to Elizabeth, translanguaging pedagogy provided a more “realistic
and respectful way to learn by allowing people to use what they have to learn.”
Elizabeth felt she was now akin to a translanguaging stance as she believed in the
utilization of students’ full linguistic repertoire to promote a more equitable
approach to emergent bilinguals’ learning.
Despite this shift, she felt that some instructional strategies offered in the SEI
program were still relevant. She noted, “I think I’m still doing the same design with
the exception of making sure there is acknowledgement and inclusion of other lan-
guages and cultures. And I’ve always done it culturally; I just never did it linguisti-
cally.” Elizabeth further expressed that she wanted to figure out how to modify SEI
strategies to make them more culturally and linguistically sustaining. These efforts,
however, were met with some challenges, as she expressed in her final interview:
I’m trying to figure out translanguaging while also trying to figure out how to fit in every-
thing that students might need to be actually able to stand at the front of the classroom. I’m
still concerned that if they were going to take for example the ESL teacher test, the MTEL,
I don’t know that if they would pass that because we haven’t really done all of the language
approach theories that are probably on the test …
Faculty First: Promoting Translanguaging in TESOL Teacher Education 229

Given the program expectation to educate teacher candidates about foundational

theories and teaching methods, Elizabeth juggled to find a balance between cover-
ing all the necessary content (e.g., the test content) and integrating translanguaging
pedagogies. She noted that these dual aims comprised the next step in her ongoing
development.

4.3  eveloping Understanding of Translanguaging

D
in Teacher Candidates

Teacher candidates’ engagement with the translanguaging-oriented perspectives,

materials and activities in the TESOL Practicum course promoted their understand-
ing of translanguaging theory and pedagogy. Analysis of class activities and interac-
tions, coursework, and focus group data highlights how monolingual and bilingual
teacher candidates understood translanguaging theory from different entry points
and how they came to adopt a translanguaging stance in their understanding of lan-
guage, culture and power and in their pedagogy.
Different Entry Points to Understand Translanguaging Theory The TESOL
course foregrounded how a translanguaging perspective offered an altogether differ-
ent epistemological understanding of language than what the teacher candidates had
presumed prior to starting the program. Notably, those with bilingual language
backgrounds seemed to connect translanguaging to their own everyday use of lan-
guage, receptive to a new concept to describe their linguistic repertoires. In one
classroom discussion, when Elizabeth asked the students to reflect on translanguag-
ing theory after watching the video lecture given by Dr. García, two bilingual
teacher candidates found the notion of having a unitary linguistic system to be a
good explanation of their daily communicative practices; both expressed the same
idea that “sometimes you don’t even realize you’re speaking a language which is not
English, like ‘Spanglish’ as a whole”. Bilinguals may not feel that they “switch”
between languages in their minds, but social realities render their use of linguistic
features as either English or Spanish. Monolingual teacher candidates seemed to
understand translanguaging from a different perspective, though similarly connect-
ing their life experiences with the theory. One monolingual student, Lauren,2 whose
family was from the United Kingdom, talked about how she translanguaged between
different Englishes – British and American English – using different accents and
words when travelling. Another monolingual student, Mary pointed out the regional
dialects within American English, which she experienced with friends from various
states who used different words to express things. Discussing translanguaging
across languages, language varieties and dialects, both bilingual and monolingual
teacher candidates found entry points to a translanguaging perspective and devel-
oped an understanding of the concept through their unique lived experiences. The

2
All student names are pseudonyms.
230 Z. Tian

teacher candidates’ insights aligned with recent, expansive definitions of translan-

guaging (e.g., Rymes, 2018, April 27), which is not exclusive to bi/multilingual
speakers. Of particular interest was the awareness shown in the monolingual teacher
candidates about the blurry boundaries between English varieties, dialects and
accents, pointing to the limitations of understanding of monolingualism. Does
monolingualism really exist because even for monolinguals, they select different
linguistic features or various modes to “translanguage” between regional dialects
and standard English under different contexts to maximize their communicative
potential with different audiences. Such understanding prompts the students to real-
ize how translanguaging is naturally occurring in both “monolingual” and multilin-
gual people’s lives.

Adopting a Critical Translanguaging Pedagogy Analysis of teacher candidates’

teaching portfolios, in-class lesson demonstrations, and focus group data high-
lighted the strategies they employed to integrate translanguaging into their practice
teaching, as well as their experiences and perceptions about using a translanguaging
approach. As part of their coursework, teacher candidates designed and taught les-
sons in their disciplinary content areas. These lessons were delivered during their
practicum assignments with K-12 learners in local schools. Nearly all took emer-
gent bilinguals’ needs into consideration and utilized a range of specific strategies
to implement translanguaging pedagogy in their teaching and lesson plans.

Providing Translations In Tom’s Chinese history lesson, he provided a vocabulary

sheet listing all the key terms in both English and students’ home languages to scaf-
fold their understanding of history concept. In Jack’s poetry lesson, he provided
English translation to a Spanish poem, highlighting shared cognates in the two lan-
guages to facilitate understanding of the poem as well as metalanguage awareness.
In Lauren’s ESL lesson, she allowed students to use bilingual dictionaries to under-
stand unfamiliar words.

Using Multimodality Highlighting the principles of Universal Design for Learning,

specifically the need to use multiple means of expression and representation,
Elizabeth encouraged the teacher candidates to incorporate multimodality in their
lesson planning and teaching practice. In Tom’s Chinese history lesson, he used
pictures/visuals with keywords in students’ home languages to deepen their under-
standing of the historical background. In Gina’s art lesson on abstract art and
Georgia O’Keeffe, she allowed students to emulate their paintings based on
O’Keeffe artistic style in order to embody the experience of creating American
Modernist art. In Sama’s science lesson on the water cycle, she asked students to
illustrate the cycle and label the different stages using multiple languages.

Grouping Students Based on Home Languages Teacher candidates utilized

grouping strategies that allowed emergent bilinguals to use their home languages in
discussion. In Lauren’s ESL lesson on adjectives, using same-language groups, stu-
dents discussed and compared the use of adjectives in their home languages,
Faculty First: Promoting Translanguaging in TESOL Teacher Education 231

e­ xamining specifically their position in a sentence. Similarly, in Sama’s science

lesson, students talked about their experiences and observations of water cycle in
their shared home language.

Incorporating Students’ Funds of Knowledge With Elizabeth’s emphasis on

“schema” or funds of knowledge, Mary invited her social studies students to com-
pare the health system in the U.S. to that in their home country. In Sama’s water
cycle lessons, when mentioning rain as one of the water sources, she asked students
to share their various experiences of rainy seasons in places they had lived.
Reflecting on their practice teaching experiences, teacher candidates reported
their perception that the incorporation of minoritized children’s experiences and
voices seemed to motivate these children’s active participation in class as well as
interest and agency in learning. Broadly, teacher candidates agreed that translan-
guaging offered a rationale for moving beyond a monolingual English approach.
They perceived that translanguaging pedagogy could better serve emergent bilin-
guals by valuing bi/multilingualism as a resource and challenge existing language
hierarchies in U.S. schools. As one teacher candidate articulated, “I believe that the
concept of translanguaging, rather than sheltered English immersion, creates an
even playing field for all students to communicate effectively and efficiently with
one another.”
Teacher candidates also made sense of the merits/benefits of translanguaging
pedagogy in relation to language, culture, and power. For instance, in the focus
group interview, Lauren mentioned that “Translanguaging makes students’ expe-
riences valid, and knowing that their language and culture is appreciated and
accepted, and allowing them to use that to their advantage while trying to learn a
new language.” She saw the potential of translanguaging in validating students’
various sociocultural experiences and affirming their language and culture iden-
tity so that learners could fully develop their agency in academic learning. Sama
also endorsed translanguaging because “[it] incorporates other children from dif-
ferent cultures … to help educate children who only know one language or don’t
know much about other culture. It allows everyone to see different sides of the
world …” Translanguaging here could help all the students, especially monolin-
gual/monocultural children, widen their horizon and learn from their bilingual
peers. Tom further related translanguaging to power because it “breaks down the
idea that studying in the United States, English is the best; being bilingual as a
child is often seen as a disadvantage.” To him, translanguaging challenges the
dominant power of English in the U.S. society and promotes the view of bilin-
gualism as assets, not problems.
Broadly, as these excerpts illustrate, teacher candidates demonstrated develop-
ment of a translanguaging stance, recognizing the value of bi/multilingual funds of
knowledge as a resource for teaching and learning. They deepened critical under-
standing of English teaching, and raised awareness of the potential transformative
power of translanguaging pedagogy in countering monoglossic approaches in lan-
guage education and promoting social justice for emergent bilinguals.
232 Z. Tian

Concerns About Implementing Translanguaging Pedagogy Although all of the

teacher candidates seemed to embrace translanguaging pedagogy, they identified
some potential challenges. In particular, they noted the constraints of macro-level
language policies. Although Massachusetts had just reversed the SEI-only policy,
teacher candidates noted that not all states allowed for bilingual education, circum-
stances that could limit the extent to which schools might embrace bilingualism and
translanguaging approaches. Expressing a critical understanding of U.S. language
policy, one student noted: “People wouldn’t want to lose that power… [they may
think] if we don’t have English, then what do we have?” Importantly, teacher candi-
dates drew connections between English-only policy mandates and the interest in
maintaining privilege and power of dominant groups in the United States (i.e.,
White, monolingual speakers). They articulated how fear of losing privilege and
power could manifest as resistance to translanguaging pedagogy, possibly limiting
its use. Further, teacher candidates identified limitations at the school- and
classroom-­level. For instance, Mary mentioned reluctance to change, stating:
“[some] teachers don’t want to change; they don’t want to learn anything new.”
Sama echoed this comment and pointed out that monolingual teachers may get
scared or confused about translanguaging because they may still think, “I don’t
know this language. How am I supposed to incorporate it?”

5 Discussion

This qualitative case study chronicles how one teacher educator and her teacher
candidates negotiated and integrated translanguaging practices in a TESOL teacher
preparation course. As a TESOL teacher educator believing in teaching for social
justice, Elizabeth found that a translanguaging stance resonated with her teaching
philosophy and shifted her practice from teaching only about sheltered English
immersion (i.e. SEI) approaches to teaching about bi/multilingualism and translan-
guaging pedagogy. Embracing a translanguaging theory of language provided her
with critical theoretical understandings and tools to examine and improve her teach-
ing practices. She not only gave teacher candidates ample opportunities to reflect
upon and implement translanguaging pedagogy, but also orchestrated translanguag-
ing spaces to bring bi/multilingual language practices into the classroom. Though
she struggled with these changes, they nonetheless comprised a significant step in
her challenging English monolingualism in ESL teacher education. I argue for the
importance of supporting teacher education faculty to experiment with translan-
guaging in their classrooms, like Elizabeth did, and to critically interrogate the ide-
ology and inequitable nature of monolingual approaches in both teacher education
and K-12 education.
Learning about translanguaging developed teacher candidates’ awareness and
appreciation of bi/multilingualism as a resource for learning. It provided a critical
lens to examine the dominance of English and the structural constraints of language
policy in the U.S. education system. Continued and sustained critical engagements
Faculty First: Promoting Translanguaging in TESOL Teacher Education 233

with classroom-, school- and macro-level analysis of language policies and prac-
tices together with their effects on students can potentially foster teacher candi-
dates’ agentive identities in counteracting the influence of monolingual English
ideologies in teaching and learning, and provide a more supportive and humanizing
learning environment for emergent bilinguals.
Teacher candidates in this study developed a translanguaging stance and used a
variety of pedagogic strategies (e.g., providing translations and using multimodal-
ity) to engage emergent bilinguals in translanguaging in the classroom. While
teacher candidates experienced translanguaging in action, this opportunity came
about through mandated course work and explicit support from their teacher educa-
tor. A question remains as to whether teacher candidates would feel capable of and
interested in integrating translanguaging strategies into their instructional practice
on their own as in-service teachers. Whether they use translanguaging pedagogy as
scaffold for emergent bilinguals or to transform their approach to ESL and related
area education more broadly, teacher candidates need to further develop their peda-
gogical content knowledge and skills in differentiating translanguaging practices in
situated contexts to cultivate culturally and linguistically sustaining classrooms.

6 Conclusion and Implications

This case study provides an empirical basis for how one teacher educator and pre-­
service teachers engaged with translanguaging in a TESOL teacher preparation
course. It carries implications for how translanguaging can potentially be embedded
into teacher education curriculum and professional learning to support pre- and in-­
service teachers to work more effectively with emergent bilinguals. Reflecting on
the strategies highlighted in this chapter, Elizabeth’s initiative can inform the devel-
opment of a viable, comprehensive framework to incorporate translanguaging into
teacher education courses. Overall, the integration should include three interrelated
dimensions informed by García et al.’s (2017) framework for translanguaging peda-
gogy: teaching about translanguaging, modeling translanguaging, and practicing
translanguaging:
1. Teaching about translanguaging can provide teacher candidates with multi-
modal resources (e.g., texts, videos) and various tasks (e.g., group discussion,
written reflections) to engage with translanguaging as theory and pedagogy. This
dimension can support teacher candidates to develop understandings of what
translanguaging is and how it can be implemented in different contexts. Another
key aspect of teaching about translanguaging is to develop students’ critical
socio-political understanding of language, culture, and power to understand
translanguaging as both an educational and political act with social justice
agenda;
2. Modeling translanguaging should provide teacher candidates with opportunities
to experience fluid language practices. Sample activities include journaling,
234 Z. Tian

l­inguistic landscape study (e.g., ask students to do community walks to observe

and document multilinguals’ translanguaging practices), and multilingual text
creation (e.g., ask students to design a multilingual poster or write a translingual
text). These activities aim to develop students’ understanding and appreciation
of bilingualism as a normal social reality;
3. Practicing translanguaging should require teacher candidates to incorporate
translanguaging strategies in their lesson plans, in-class lesson demonstrations,
and/or teaching practica. It is through their embodied experience that they gain a
deepened understanding of translanguaging design and shifts in action and fur-
ther debunk the myth that monolinguals cannot enact translanguaging. Teacher
candidates can also be encouraged to critically reflect on these implementation
experiences and discuss the challenges of implementing these strategies in
monolingual English teaching and learning contexts at both local and national
levels.
Given that this study only focuses on one monolingual teacher educator from the
TESOL field, future research should examine how teacher education faculty of
other content areas engage with translanguaging and how teacher educators with
diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds take up translanguaging. Due to the
uniqueness of the pre-service teacher participants in this study, future studies might
probe into the impact of translanguaging on teacher candidates at a broader level,
particularly their identities and language ideologies. Ultimately, it is imperative for
teacher education programs to explore the potential of translanguaging as an
approach for all faculty and teacher candidates across the disciplines to prepare for
the sociopolitical realities of culturally and linguistically diverse classrooms and
communities.

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