430.213A Introduction to Circuit Theory and Lab.

, Spring 2024, Seoul National University

Lecture 11.
AC Steady-State Power

Wooyeol Choi, PhD

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea

Copyright Statement: The materials provided by the instructor in this course are for the use of the students enrolled in the
course. Copyrighted course materials may not be further disseminated.
 Outline
§ Reading – Textbook Chapter 11

§ Goals
• Part 1 – Learn definition and physical meaning of various AC power
• Part 2 – Learn the operation of transformers

§ Contents
• Power – Instantaneous, average, complex
• Effective voltage and current – root mean square
• Power factor and (correction)
• Superposition (of power)
• Maximum power transfer (of AC)
• Transformers

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 2
 Instantaneous vs. Average Power
§ Instantaneous power Total energy from 0s to Ta
𝑝 𝑡 =𝑣 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 &"
5 𝑝(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑇( 𝑃
§ If they are sinusoids '
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉! cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃" ) When Ta=NT
𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼! cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃# )
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑉! 𝐼! cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃" ) cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃# ) Same as the case
1 1 with DC power P!
= 𝑉! 𝐼! cos(𝜃" − 𝜃# ) + 𝑉! 𝐼! cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃" + 𝜃# )
2 2

§ Average power
1 $!%& 1
𝑃= 5 𝑝(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑉! 𝐼! cos(𝜃" − 𝜃# )
𝑇 $! 2
2𝜋
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇 = 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 Trigonometric identities
𝜔
cos 𝑎 + 𝑏 = cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏 − sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏
cos 𝑎 − 𝑏 = cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏 + sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏
1
cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏 = cos 𝑎 + 𝑏 + cos 𝑎 − 𝑏
2
Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 3
 Instantaneous Power

§ Instantaneous power varies at twice

the frequency of the voltage and
current

§ Positive instantaneous power is being

delivered to the circuit

§ Instantaneous power can be negative,

indicating power is being drawn from
the circuit. Where is it coming from?

§ Notice the DC offset in instantaneous

power! This is where the “average”
power comes from.

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 4
 V I
2

Example
E X A M P L E 1 1 . 3 - 1 Average Power

§ Expression for the current

Find the average power delivered to a resistor R when the current through the resistor is i(t), as shown in Figure
𝐼!
11.3-2. 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇
Im 𝑇
§ Voltage using Ohm’s law
𝑣 𝑡 =𝑖 𝑡 𝑅
–T 0 T 2T t (s)
§ Instantaneous power
FIGURE 11.3-2 Current through a resistor in Example 11.3-1.
𝑝 𝑡 =𝑣 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡
Solution 𝐼! " "
The current waveform repeats every T seconds and attains a maximum value=of Im. Using𝑅𝑡 the period from t ¼ 0 to
t ¼ T, we have 𝑇
Im § Average power
Periodic current applied to Ri ¼ t 0 ( t < T 1 $
T
Power? 𝑃 = 1 𝑝(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 #
𝐼!"𝑅1 $ 𝐼 "𝑅
!
= % 𝑡% 6 = W
𝑇 3 # 3

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 5
 Instantaneous Power

p(t) = v(t) · i(t)

R v 2 (t)
p(t) = = i2 (t)R
R


L di(t)
p(t) = L i(t)
dt

C 
dv(t)
p(t) = v(t) C
dt

Question: What is phase shift

Answer: ±90°
between v and i in L or C?

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 6
 Power in Elements
§ Resistors
𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖
𝑖 = 𝐼# cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) → 𝑣 = 𝑅𝐼# cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
& &
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝐼#" 𝑅 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜃
" "
& "
𝑃= 𝐼 𝑅
" #
§ Capacitors
'(
𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶
')
𝑣 = 𝑉# cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) → 𝑖 = 𝐶𝑉* 𝜔 −sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 = 𝐶𝑉# 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + 90°)
& &
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉#" cos 90° + cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜃 + 90°
" "
𝑃=0
§ Inductors
'+
𝑣 𝑡 =𝐿
')
𝑖 = 𝐼# cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) → 𝑣 = 𝐿𝐼# 𝜔 − sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 = 𝐿𝐼# 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + 90°)
& &
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝜔𝐿𝐼#" cos 90° + cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜃 + 90°
" "
𝑃=0

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 7
 where Ieff is the dc current that will deliver the same power as the periodically varying current. Tha

Effective Value (rms)

Ieff is defined as the steady (constant) current that is as effective in delivering power as the periodic
varying current.

i Ieff

FIGURE 11.4-1 The goal is to find a dc voltag

vs +– R Veff –
+
R for a specified vs(t) that will deliver the same av
power to R as would be delivered by the ac sour

1 & 𝑅 &
𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑡 → 𝑃)* = 5 𝑖 𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 = 5 𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
+
𝑇 ' 𝑇 '
+
𝑖 = 𝐼,-- → 𝑃.* = 𝐼,-- 𝑅
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃)* = 𝑃.*
1 & +
𝐼,-- = 5 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 Root mean square = rms
𝑇 '

In the same manner,

The average power of this AC source is
same as the DC source with its rms value! 1 & +
𝑉/!0 = 5 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 '
1#
For sinusoids, 𝑖 = 𝐼! cos 𝜔𝑡 → 𝐼/!0 = +
𝑉!
𝑣 = 𝑉! cos 𝜔𝑡 → 𝑉/!0 =
2
Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 8
 rms and Power
+
𝑉/!0
𝑃)* = 𝑉/!0 𝐼/!0 = + 𝑅
= 𝐼/!0
𝑅

For sinusoids

𝑉! 𝐼!
𝑃)* = 𝑉/!0 𝐼/!0 =
2

Same formula can be used for DC power and AC power

For this reason, rms values are more commonly used in power electronics
(not so much in signal electronics...)

e.g. 220 V AC à 155.56 Vrms AC

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 9
 Complex Power
§ Q: Can we use phasor for power calculation?
Short answer: No, phasor is valid only for linear functions
𝑉! 𝐼!
𝑝 = 𝑉! cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃" ) 𝐼! cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃# ) = (cos 𝜃" − 𝜃# + cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃" + 𝜃#
2

§ Inputs at 𝜔 output at 0 and 2𝜔, power calculation is NOT linear function!

§ But the average power are relatable to the phasor

𝑉! 𝐼! 𝑉! 𝐼! 2 32 𝐕𝐈∗
𝑃= cos(𝜃" − 𝜃# ) = ℜ 𝑒 $ % =ℜ
2 2 2
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝐕 = 𝑉! 𝑒 2$ , 𝐈 = 𝐼! 𝑒 2%

§ We define 𝐕𝐈∗ complex power

𝐕𝐈∗
𝐒= = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄
2 ∗
𝐕𝐈 𝑉! 𝐼!
𝑄=ℑ = sin(𝜃" − 𝜃# ) ; 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
2 2

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 10
 AC Power Definitions
Complex power [VA] Apparent power, |S| [VA]

𝐒 = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄
Average power [W] Reactive power [VAR]

Power Expression Unit Meaning

Average Power, P 𝑉! 𝐼! W Real power
cos 𝜃
2
Reactive Power, Q 𝑉! 𝐼! VAR Imaginary power
sin 𝜃
2
Complex Power, S 𝑉! 𝐼! 52 VA
𝑒
2
Apparent Power, |S| 𝑉! 𝐼! VA Maximun possible
2 real power
*𝜃 = 𝜃" − 𝜃#
Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 11
 Power Plots

Phase shift = 0dg

60 What kind of load
v is present if there
i
40 p is zero phase shift
P between V and I?
v or i Q
20
Answer: Purely
resistive load.
0
Note: The reactive
-20 power (Q) is 0. The
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 average power (P)
freq (Hz)
is maximized.
Phase shift = 22.5dg
60
v
i
40 p
P
Q
v or i

20
What if there IS a
phase shift
0
between them? P
goes down. Q goes
-20
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 up.
freq (Hz)

FYI: Voltage leads current –> Inductive element

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 12
 Power Plots

Phase shift = 45dg At 45° phase shift

60
v between V and I, Q
i
p
and P are equal?
40
P
Q How can p(t) be
v or i

20 negative?

0 Answer: inductor
returns stored
-20 power.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
freq (Hz)
Phase shift = 90dg
What kind of load
30 v is present if there
i
20 p is 90° phase shift
10
P
Q
between V and I?
v or i

0 Answer: Purely
-10 reactive load.
-20
Note: The reactive
-30 power is non-zero.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 The average power
freq (Hz) is zero.

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 13
 Power Plots

Phase shift = 22.5dg

60
v
i
40 p
P
Q
v or i

20 Notice how voltage

leads current à
0 inductive element

-20
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
freq (Hz)

Phase shift = -22.5dg

60
v
i
40 p
P
Q Notice how voltage
lags current à
v or i

20
capacitive element
0 Q goes negative!

-20
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
freq (Hz)

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 14
 Impedance and Complex Power
§ Complex power
𝐕𝐈∗
𝐒=
2
§ Impedance
𝐕 = 𝐈𝑍
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 = 𝑍 𝑒 52&
§ Combining the two
𝐈𝐈∗ 𝐈+ 𝐈+
𝐒= 𝑍= 𝑅+𝑗 𝑋
2 2 2
+ +
𝐼! 𝐼!
𝑃= 𝑅, 𝑄= 𝑋
2 2
§ Impedance angle is same as the complex power angle

4 11. AC Steady-State Power

Im (Z) Im (S)
⎜S ⎜
⎜Z ⎜ Q
X
θ θ
R Re (Z) P Re (S)

(a) (b)
Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 15
plex Power Example
ad. The
+ § Impedance
1 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐿
i(t) v(t) R L
𝑍6 = = = 12𝑒 578°
1 1 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿
–
+
ce to the 𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐿
source load
§ Current
hen the FIGURE 11.5-3 A circuit consisting 𝐈 = 1.25𝑒 5(3;7°)
of a source driving a load.
§ Voltage
𝐕 = 𝐼𝑍 = 15𝑒 58=°
+
e 11.5-4, § Complex power
el resistor I V R jωL
𝐕𝐈∗
– 𝐒= = 9.375𝑒 578°
2
source load § Apparent power
FIGURE 11.5-4 The circuit from 𝐒 = 9.375 VA
Figure 11.5-3, represented in the § Average power
frequency domain.
𝑃 = 5.64 W
§ Reactive power
𝑖 𝑡 = 1.25 cos(5𝑡 − 15°) A 𝑄 = 7.49 VAR
𝑅 = 20Ω, 𝐿 =3H
ff
3% Þ ¼ 15 38% V

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 16
 Power Conservation
§ Any linear circuit can be modelled as Thevenin or Norton equivalent
§ KVL and KCL are valid for phasors
−𝐕$, + 𝐕-!" + 𝐕-# = 0
−𝐕$, 𝐈 ∗ + 𝐕-!" 𝐈 ∗ + 𝐕-# 𝐈 ∗ = 0
−𝐒 $, + 𝐒-!" + 𝐒-# = 0
K 𝑆 = 0 → K 𝑃 = 0, K 𝑄 = 0

𝑖6
→
𝑅&>
+
𝑉&> + 𝑣6
−
= 𝑣?@ −
𝑅6

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 17
 Power Factor
§ Power factor is used to quantify this effect in devices we purchase and use
§ It is the ratio between the average power (P) and apparent power (|S|)
𝑉! 𝐼!
𝑃= cos(𝜃( − 𝜃+ )
2
𝑉! 𝐼!
𝐒 =
2
𝑃
𝑝𝑓 = = cos(𝜃( − 𝜃+ )
𝐒

www.automationdirect.com

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 18
 Power Factor
§ Power factor
𝑝𝑓 = cos 𝜃" − 𝜃#
0 ≤ 𝑝𝑓 ≤ 1

§ Cosine is symmatric around zero

cos(𝜃" − 𝜃# ) = cos(𝜃# − 𝜃" )

§ Leading power factor if current leads voltage (capacitive); 𝜃# > 𝜃"

§ Lagging power factor if current lags voltage (inductive); 𝜃# < 𝜃"

For example
pf = cos(30°) = 0.866 lagging or 87% lagging

A purely resistive load has pf = 100%

A purely reactive load has pf = 0%

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 19
 Power
ð11:6-1Þ
Factor Importance
("y). So
I "§yVLow
Þ power factor is a problem. Why?
m pf without
• some
Low additional information.
power factor means higher voltage or current should be supplied for the same
average power (e.g. pf=50% means 2x higher current)
• Higher current means more power loss along the transmission line!
e the cosine is even, both cos (36.87% ) ¼
Power
r y§V " utility
yI ¼ "36:87 %
companies
. This difficulty is often impose a monetary penalty when the net power
hen yVfactor 0, thelarge
" yI > for powerindustrial
factor is said loads is less than a pre-set value (e.g., 0.95)
aid to be leading. If the power factor is
Canif we
ther§ hand, increase
the power factor isthe power factor by adding additional components?
specified
à power factor correction
the
mis- R1 L1 𝑉! 𝐼!
a 2 2 R 𝑃6 = 𝑝𝑓
2
m- + +
us- i(t)
+
𝐼! 𝑅; 2𝑃6
+ v(t) 𝑃A?00 = 𝑅 =
2 ;
vs(t) = A cos ω t – L
ny 2 𝑉! 𝑝𝑓
–
wer Assuming
the L1
R1
2
𝑉B ≈ 𝑉C
we 2
1
Power plant Transmission line Customer’s load 𝑃A?00 ∝ +
of FIGURE 11.6-1 Power plant supplying a customer’s 𝑝𝑓
the electrical load. A transmission line connects the power
iveSpring
plant to the customer’s terminals.
2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 20
 Power Factor and Impedance
§ Complex power
𝑉𝐼 ∗
𝑆= = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄
2
§ Average power
𝑉𝐼 ∗ 𝑉! 𝐼! 𝑒 5 2$32% 𝑉! 𝐼!
𝑃=ℜ =ℜ = cos(𝜃" − 𝜃# )
2 2 2
§ Power factor
𝑝𝑓 = cos(𝜃" − 𝜃# )
§ Impedance
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑍
𝑉! 𝑒 52$ = 𝐼! 𝑒 52% 𝑍 𝑒 52&
𝑉! = 𝐼! 𝑍 , 𝜃" − 𝜃# = 𝜃D
§ Power factor and impedance
ℜ𝑍
cos 𝜃" − 𝜃# = cos 𝜃D =
|𝑍|
ℑ𝑍
𝜃D = tan3;
ℜ{𝑍}

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 21
 Power Factor Correction
§ Adding a capacitor in parallel (shunt) with an inductive load helps mitigate an
inductive (lagging) power factor
§ The power factor angle, and the power factor, below has improved due to the
capacitor (ϴ is the phase angle between V and I)
• power factor angle decreased (power factor closer to unity) is good
§ Process of making the total impedance pure real!

𝜃1 and 𝜃2 are the power factor angles before Ideally 𝜃2 à 0

and after addition of the capacitor

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 22
 E X A M P L E 1 1 . 6 - 2 Power Factor Correction

Example
A load as shown in Figure 11.6-5 has an impedance of Z ¼ 100 þ j100 V. Find the paralle
correct the power factor to (a) 0.95 lagging and (b) 1.0. Assume that the source is ope
§ 𝑉B = 𝐼𝑍 Transmission
line current
𝑉𝐼 ∗ +
𝐼! I
𝑃=ℜ = ℜ𝑍 Power I1
2 2 company Vs – + Customer’s
terminals
Z1
Parallel
impedance
Z Load
§ Power factor generator

100
𝑝𝑓 = FIGURE≈ 0.707
11.6-5 Use of an added parallel impedance Z1 to correct the customer’s power factor.
+
100 + 100 +
§ Total impedance 𝑍 = 100 + 100𝑗 Ω
Solution
1 𝜔 = 377 rad/s
𝑍,E = The phase angle of the impedance is y ¼ 45𝑍& , to so the original
correct load has
power a lagging powe
factor?
1 1 ;
+ cos y ¼ cos 45& ¼ 0:707
𝑗𝑋; 𝑍
§ For Zeq to be real, denominator
First, we wishshould
to correct the pf so that pfc ¼ 0.95 lagging. Then, we use Eq. 11.6-5 a
be real 1002 þ 1002
1 1 XC ¼ ¼ '297:9 V
100 tan ðcos'1 0:95Þ ' 100
ℑ + =0
𝑗𝑋; 100 + 100𝑗 The capacitor required is determined from
1 1
− − 0.005 = 0 ' ¼ XC
𝑋; oC
1
𝑋; = −200 = − → 𝐶 = 13.3 µF
𝜔𝐶

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 23
 Superposition of Powers
§ Q: Can we apply superposition principle for power calculation?
§ Short answer. NO – again the power calculation is not a linear function!

§ Suppose we have a voltage across a resistor from two sources

𝑣- = 𝑣-& + 𝑣-"
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 1 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦
"
𝑣-&
𝑃-& =
𝑅
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 2 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦
"
𝑣-"
𝑃-" =
𝑅
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
" "
𝑣-& + 𝑣-" " 𝑣-& + 𝑣-"
≠ 𝑃-& + 𝑃-" =
𝑅 𝑅
§ Unless…
2𝑣-& 𝑣-" = 0 Uncorrelated!

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 24
 Superposition of Powers
§ Superposition of two currents
𝑖 = 𝑖& + 𝑖"
§ The power becomes
𝑝 = 𝑖 " 𝑅 = 𝑅 𝑖&" + 𝑖"" + 2𝑖& 𝑖"
1 $ 2𝑅 $
𝑃 = 1 𝑝 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑃& + 𝑃" + 1 𝑖 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 # 𝑇 # &"
§ Power superpositon is valid only when
$
1 𝑖& 𝑖" 𝑑𝑡 = 0
#
§ If both currents are sinusoids, this is valid when they have different frequency
1
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑦 + cos 𝑥 − 𝑦
2

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 25
 Maximum Power Transfer – DC & Resistance

Condition for maximum power delivered to RL?

𝑅! 1
𝑉! = 𝑉, 𝐼! = 𝑉
RG 𝑅" + 𝑅! " 𝑅" + 𝑅! "
RL 𝑅! #
𝑉"#
VG 𝑃! = 𝑉! 𝐼! = 𝑉 =
𝑅" + 𝑅! # " 𝑅"#
𝑅! + 2𝑅" + 𝑅!
𝑑 𝑅"#
Source Load + 2𝑅" + 𝑅! = 0
𝑑𝑅! 𝑅!
𝑅"#
− # + 1 = 0 → 𝑹𝑳 = ±𝑹𝑮
𝑅!
𝑉"#
𝑃&,()* =
4𝑅+

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 26
 Maximum Power Transfer – AC & Impedance

Condition for maximum power delivered to Rl?

Zg
𝑍& 1
Zl 𝑉& = 𝑉+ , 𝐼& = 𝑉
Vg 𝑍+ + 𝑍& 𝑍+ + 𝑍& +
#
1 ∗ 1 # 1
𝑃& = 𝑅𝑒(𝑉& 𝐼& ) = 𝑉+ 𝑅𝑒 𝑍&
Source Load 2 2 𝑍+ + 𝑍&
1 # 𝑅&
= 𝑉+ # #
2 𝑅+ + 𝑅& + 𝑋+ + 𝑋&
𝜕𝑃& 𝜕𝑃&
= 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =0
Xg 𝜕𝑅& 𝜕𝑋&
Xl 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑠
Rg 𝑹𝒍 = ±𝑹𝒈, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑿𝒍 = −𝑿𝒈
Rl → 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒋𝒖𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈!
Vg
1 # 1
𝑃&,()* = 𝑉+ = 𝑃)/0
2 4𝑅+
Source Load

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 27
 Summary
F#1# F#1#
§ Instantaneous power 𝑝 𝑡 = +
cos(𝜃" − 𝜃# ) + +
cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃" + 𝜃# )

F#1#
§ Average power 𝑃= cos(𝜃" − 𝜃# ) [𝑊]
+
$ %
• Reactive power 𝑄 = 1& 1 sin(𝜃' − 𝜃( ) [𝑉𝐴𝑅]
• Power factor 𝑝𝑓 = cos 𝜃' − 𝜃(
• Power factor correction make the impedance pure real
∗
§ Maximum power transfer 𝑍6 = 𝑍&> ; 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔!
F# 1#
§ Root mean square 𝑉/!0 = , 𝐼/!0 = 𝑃 = 𝑉/!0 𝐼/!0 pf
+ +

;
§ Complex power 𝑆 = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼 ∗ 𝑉𝐴
+
• Apparent power 𝑆 = 𝑃& + 𝑄&
) ) )
• Impedance 𝑆= 𝑉𝐼 ∗ = 𝐼𝑍𝐼 ∗ = 𝐼 &𝑍 = 𝐼+,- &𝑍
& & &

Spring 2024 Intro. Circ. Theory and Lab., Lect 11a - AC power 28