||Jai Sri Gurudev ||

Sri Adichunchanagiri Shikshana Trust®

SJB INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Accredited by NBA & NAAC with ‘A’ Grade
No. 67, BGS Health & Education City, Dr. Vishnuvardhan Road
Kengeri, Bangalore – 560 060

Department of Electronics & Communication

Engineering
Microwaves and Antennas [21EC62]

MODULE - 1
Notes (as per VTU Syllabus)

VI SEMESTER – B. E

Academic Year: 2023 – 2024 (EVEN)

Course Coordinator : Dr. Anitha P

Designation : Associate Professor

Microwaves and Antennas 21EC62

Syllabus
MICROWAVES AND ANTENNAS
SEMESTER – VI- IPCC
Subject Code: 21EC62 IA Marks: 40
Number of Lecture Hours/Week: 3+2 Exam Marks: 60
Total Number of Lecture Hours: 50 Exam Hours 03
CREDITS – 04
Course objectives: This course will enable students to
 Describe the microwave properties and its transmission media
 Describe microwave devices for several applications
 Understand the basics of antenna theory
 Select antennas for specific applications

Module – 1 Microwave Tubes and Microwave Transmission Lines 10 Hours

Module – 2 Microwave Network theory and Passive Devices 10 Hours

Module – 3 Strip Lines and Antenna Basics 10 Hours

Module – 4 Point Sources and Arrays and Electric Dipoles: 10 Hours

Module – 5 Loop and Horn Antenna and Antenna Types 10 Hours

Course outcomes: The students should be able to:

 Describe the use and advantages of microwave transmission
 Analyze various parameters related to microwave transmission lines and waveguides
 Identify microwave devices for several applications
 Analyze various antenna parameters necessary for building a RF system
 Recommend various antenna configurations according to the applications.

Question paper pattern:

 Examination will be conducted for 100 marks with question paper containing 10 full questions, each of
20 marks.
 Each full question can have a maximum of 4 sub questions.
 There will be 2 full questions from each module covering all the topics of the module
 Students will have to answer 5 full questions, selecting one full question from each module.
 The total marks will be proportionally reduced to 60 marks as SEE marks is 60.

Text Books:
1. Microwave Engineering – Annapurna Das, Sisir K Das, TMH, Publication, 2nd, 2010.
2. Microwave Devices and circuits- Samuel Y Liao, Pearson Education
3. Antennas and Wave Propagation- John D. Krauss, Ronald J Marhefka, Ahmad S Khan, 4 th Edition,
McGraw Hill Education, 2013

Reference Books:
1. Microwave Engineering - David M Pozar, John Wiley India Pvt. Ltd., 3rd Edn, 2008.
2. Microwave Engineering – Sushrut Das, Oxford Higher Education, 2ndEdn, 2015
3. Antennas and Wave Propagation – Harish and Sachidananda: Oxford University Press, 2007
4. Reema Thareja, “Python Programming using problem solving approach”, Oxford university press, 2017

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INDEX SHEET
SL. PAGE
TOPIC
NO. NO.
VTU Syllabus 2

MODULE – 1

1 Microwave Sources: Introduction 4

2 Gunn Diode 6

Microwave Transmission Lines: Microwave Frequencies, Microwave

3 8
devices, Microwave Systems
4 Transmission Line equations and solutions 12

5 Reflection Coefficient and Transmission Coefficient 18

6 Standing Wave and Standing Wave Ratio, 22

7 Smith Chart 26

8 Single Stub matching. 28

9 Question Bank. 31

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MODULE - 1
Contents:
Microwave Sources: Introduction, Gunn Diode
Microwave Transmission Lines: Microwave Frequencies, Microwave devices,
Microwave Systems
Transmission Line equations and solutions
Reflection Coefficient and Transmission Coefficient
Standing Wave and Standing Wave Ratio,
Smith Chart

Single Stub matching.

Text Book:
1.Microwave Engineering – Annapurna Das, Sisir K Das, TMH, Publication, 2nd, 2010.

2. Microwave Devices and circuits- Samuel Y Liao, Pearson Education

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Section 1: Introduction:

The application of two-terminal semiconductor devices at microwave frequencies has been

increased usage during the past decades. The CW, average, and peak power outputs of these
devices at higher microwave frequencies are much larger than those obtainable with the best
power transistor. The common characteristic of all active two-terminal solid-state devices is
their negative resistance. The real part of their impedance is negative over a range of
frequencies. In a positive resistance the current through the resistance and the voltage across
it are in phase. The voltage drop across a positive resistance is positive and a power of (/2 R)
is dissipated in the resistance. In a negative resistance, however, the current and voltage are
out of phase by 180°. The voltage drop across a negative resistance is negative, and a power
of (-/2 R) is generated by the power supply associated with the negative resistance. In other
words, positive resistances absorb power (passive devices), whereas negative resistances
generate power (active devices). In this chapter the transferred electron devices (TEDs) are
analyzed.

The differences between microwave transistors and transferred electron devices (TEDs) are
fundamental. Transistors operate with either junctions or gates, but TEDs are bulk devices
having no junctions or gates. The majority of transistors are fabricated from elemental
semiconductors, such as silicon or germanium, whereas TEDs are fabricated from compound
semiconductors, such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium phosphide (InP), or cadmium
telluride (CdTe). Transistors operate with "warm" electrons whose energy is not much greater
than the thermal energy (0.026 eV at room temperature) of electrons in the semiconductor,
whereas TEDs operate with "hot" electrons whose energy is very much greater than the
thermal energy. Because of these fundamental differences, the theory and technology of
transistors cannot be applied to TEDs.

1.2 GUNN-EFFECT DIODES-GaAs DIODE

Gunn-effect diodes are named after J. B. Gunn, who in 1963 discovered a periodic
fluctuations of current passing through then-type gallium arsenide (GaAs) specimen when the
applied voltage exceeded a certain critical value. Two years later, in 1965, B. C. DeLoach, R.
C. Johnston, and B. G. Cohen discovered the impact ionization avalanche transit-time
(IMPATT) mechanism in silicon, which employs the avalanching and transit-time properties
of the diode to generate microwave frequencies. In later years the limited space-charge-
accumulation diode (LSA diode) and the indium phosphide diode (InP diode) were also
successfully developed. These are bulk devices in the sense that microwave amplification and
oscillation are derived from the bulk negative-resistance property of uniform semiconductors
rather than from the junction negative-resistance property between two different
semiconductors, as in the tunnel diode.

1.2.1 Background:

After inventing the transistor, Shockley suggested in 1954 that two-terminal negative-
resistance devices using semiconductors may have advantages over transistors at high
frequencies [ 1]. In 1961 Ridley and Watkins described a new method for obtaining negative
differential mobility in semiconductors [2]. The principle involved is to heat carriers in a
light-mass, high-mobility sub-band with an electric field so that the carriers can transfer to a
heavy-mass, low-mobility, higher-energy sub-band when they have a high enough
temperature. Ridley and Watkins also mentioned that Ge-Si alloys and some Ill-Y

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compounds may have suitable sub-band structures in the conduction bands. Their theory for
achieving negative differential mobility in bulk semiconductors by transferring electrons
from high-mobility energy bands to low-mobility energy bands was taken a step further by
Hilsum in 1962 [3]. Hilsum carefully calculated the transferred electron effect in several III -
V compounds and was the first to use the terms transferred electron amplifiers (TEAs) and
oscillators (TEOs). He predicted accurately that a TEA bar of semi-insulating GaAs would be
operated at 373°K at a field of 3200 V/cm. Hilsum's attempts to verify his theory
experimentally failed because the GaAs diode available to him at that time was not of
sufficiently high quality.

It was not until 1963 that J. B. Gunn of IBM discovered the so-called Gunn effect from thin
disks of n-type GaAs and n-type InP specimens while studying the noise properties of
semiconductors [ 4]. Gunn did not connect-and even immediately rejected-his discoveries
with the theories of Ridley, Watkins, and Hilsum. In 1963 Ridley predicted [5] that the field
domain is continually moving down through the crystal, disappearing at the anode and then
reappearing at a favored nucleating center, and starting the whole cycle once more. Finally,
Kroemer stated [6] that the origin of the negative differential mobility is Ridley-Watkins-
Hilsum's mechanism of electron transfer into the satellite valleys that occur in the conduction
bands of both the n-type GaAs and the n-type InP and that the properties of the Gunn effect
are the current oscillations caused by the periodic nucleation and disappearance of traveling
space-charge instability domains. Thus the correlation of theoretical predictions and
experimental discoveries completed the theory of transferred electron devices (TEDs).

Section 2: Gunn Effect

A schematic diagram of a uniform n-type GaAs diode with ohmic contacts at the end surfaces
is shown in Fig. 7-1-1. J. B. Gunn observed the Gunn effect in the n-type GaAs bulk diode in
1963, an effect best explained by Gunn himself, who published several papers about his
observations [7 to 9]. He stated in his first paper [7] that Above some critical voltage,
corresponding to an electric field of 2000-4000 volts/em the current in every specimen
became a fluctuating function of time. In the GaAs specimens, this fluctuation took the form
of a periodic oscillation superimposed upon the pulse current. ... The frequency of oscillation
was determined mainly by the specimen, and not by the external circuit. ... The period of
oscillation was usually inversely proportional to the specimen length and closely equal to the
transit time of electrons between the electrodes, calculated from their estimated velocity of
slightly over 107 cm/s .... The peak pulse microwave power delivered by the GaAs specimens
to a matched load was measured. Value as high as 0.5 W at 1 Gels, and 0.15 W at 3 Gels,
were found, corresponding to 1-2% of the pulse input power.*

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From Gunn's observation the carrier drift velocity is linearly increased from zero to a
maximum when the electric field is varied from zero to a threshold value. When the electric
field is beyond the threshold value of 3000 Vlcm for the n-type GaAs, the drift velocity is
decreased and the diode exhibits negative resistance. This situation is shown in Fig. 7-1-2.

The current fluctuations are shown in Fig. 7-1-3. The current waveform was produced by
applying a voltage pulse of 16-V amplitude and 10-ns duration to a specimen of n-type GaAs
2.5 x 10-3 em in length. The oscillation frequency was 4.5 GHz. The lower trace had 2 ns/cm
in the horizontal axis and 0.23 A/em in the vertical axis. The upper trace was the expanded
view of the lower trace. Gunn found that the period of these oscillations was equal to the
transit time of the electrons through the specimen calculated from the threshold current.

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Section 3: Microwave Transmission Lines: Microwave Frequencies, Microwave devices,

Microwave Systems

3.1 Microwave Frequencies:

The term microwave frequencies is generally used for those wavelengths measured in
centimetres, roughly from 30cm to 1mm (1 to 300 GHz). However, microwave really
indicates the wavelengths in the micron ranges. This means microwave frequencies are up to
infrared and visible-light regions. In this revision, microwave frequencies refer to those from
1 GHz up to 106 GHz. The microwave band designation that derived from World War II
radar security considerations has never been officially sanctioned by any industrial,
professional, or government organization. In August 1969 the United States Department of
Défense, Office of Joint Chiefs of Staff, by message to all services, directed the use of a new
frequency band breakdown as shown in Table 1. On May 24, 1970, the Department of
defence adopted another band designation for microwave frequencies as listed in Table 2.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) recommended new microwave
band designations as shown in Table 3 for comparison.

Table 0·1 U.S. Military Microwave Bands Table 0·3 IEEE Microwave Frequency
Bands

Table 0·2 U.S. New Military Microwave Bands

3.2 Microwave Devices:

In the late 1930s it became evident that as the wavelength approached the physical
dimensions of the vacuum tubes, the electron transit angle, interelectrode capacitance, and
lead inductance appeared to limit the operation of vacuum tubes in microwave frequencies. In
1935 A. A. Heil and 0. Heil suggested that microwave voltages be generated by using transit-

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time effects together with lumped tuned circuits. In 1939 W. C. Hahn and G. F. Metcalf
proposed a theory of velocity modulation for microwave tubes. Four months later R. H.
Varian and S. F. Varian described a two-cavity klystron amplifier and oscillator by using
velocity modulation. In 1944 R. Kompfner invented the helix-type traveling-wave tube
(TWT). Ever since then the concept of microwave tubes has deviated from that of
conventional vacuum tubes as a result of the application of new principles in the
amplification and generation of microwave energy. Historically microwave generation and
amplification were accomplished by means of velocity-modulation theory. In the past two
decades, however, microwave solid-state devices-such as tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes,
transferred electron devices (TEDs), and avalanche transit-time devices have been developed
to perform these functions. The conception and subsequent development of TEDs and
avalanche transit-time devices were among the outstanding technical achievements. B. K.
Ridley and T. B. Watkins in 1961 and C. Hilsum in 1962 independently predicted that the
transferred electron effect would occur in GaAs (gallium arsenide). In 1963 J. B. Gunn
reported his "Gunn effect." The common characteristic of all microwave solidstate devices is
the negative resistance that can be used for microwave oscillation and amplification. The
progress of TEDs and avalanche transit-time devices has been so swift that today they are
firmly established as one of the most important classes of microwave solid-state devices.

3·3 Microwave Systems:

A microwave system normally consists of a transmitter subsystem, including a microwave

oscillator, waveguides, and a transmitting antenna, and a receiver subsystem that includes a
receiving antenna, transmission line or waveguide, a microwave amplifier, and a receiver.
Fig.8 shows a typical microwave system. In order to design a microwave system and conduct
a proper test of it, an adequate knowledge of the components involved is essential. Besides
microwave devices, the text therefore describes microwave components, such as resonators,
cavities, microstrip lines, hybrids, and microwave integrated circuits.

Figure 8: Microwave system.

Section 4: Transmission Line equations and solutions:

Introduction

Conventional two-conductor transmission lines are commonly used for transmitting

microwave energy. If a line is properly matched to its characteristic impedance at each

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terminal, its efficiency can reach a maximum. In ordinary circuit theory it is assumed that all
impedance elements are lumped constants. This is not true for a long transmission line over a
wide range of frequencies. Frequencies of operation are so high that inductances of short
lengths of conductors and capacitances between short conductors and their surroundings
cannot be neglected. These inductances and capacitances are distributed along the length of a
conductor, and their effects combine at each point of the conductor. Since the wavelength is
short in comparison to the physical length of the line, distributed parameters cannot be
represented accurately by means of a lumped-parameter equivalent circuit. Thus microwave
transmission lines can be analysed in terms of voltage, current, and impedance only by the
distributed-circuit theory. If the spacing between the lines is smaller than the wavelength of
the transmitted signal, the transmission line must be analysed as a waveguide.

4·1 Transmission-Line Equations:

A transmission line can be analysed either by the solution of Maxwell's field equations or by
the methods of distributed-circuit theory. The solution of Maxwell's equations involves three
space variables in addition to the time variable. The distributed-circuit method, however,
involves only one space variable in addition to the time variable. In this section the latter
method is used to analyse a transmission line in terms of the voltage, current, impedance, and
power along the line. Based on uniformly distributed-circuit theory, the schematic circuit of a
conventional two-conductor transmission line with constant parameters R, L, G, and C is
shown in Fig. 9. The parameters are expressed in their respective names per unit length, and
the wave propagation is assumed in the positive z direction.

Figure 9: Elementary section of a transmission line.

By Kirchhoff's voltage law, the summation of the voltage drops around the central loop is
given by

……1

Rearranging this equation, dividing it by ∆z, and then omitting the argument (z, t),

……………2

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Using Kirchhoff's current law, the summation of the currents at point B in Fig. 9 can be
expressed as

…3

By rearranging the preceding equation, dividing it by ∆z, omitting (z, t), and assuming ∆z
equal to zero, we have

……4

Then by differentiating Eq. (2) with respect to z and Eq. (4) with respect to t and combining
the results, the final transmission-line equation in voltage form is found to be

…..5

Also, by differentiating Eq. (2) with respect to t and Eq. (4) with respect to z and combining
the results, the final transmission-line equation in current form is

……6

All these transmission-line equations are applicable to the general transient solution. The
voltage and current on the line are the functions of both position z and time t. The
instantaneous line voltage and current can be expressed as

……7

where Re stands for "real part of." The factors V(z) and I(z) are complex quantities of the
sinusoidal functions of position z on the line and are known as phasors. The phasors give the
magnitudes and phases of the sinusoidal function at each position of z, and they can be
expressed as

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….8

where V+ and I+ indicate complex amplitudes in the positive z direction, V- and I- signify
complex amplitudes in the negative z direction, α is the attenuation constant in nepers per
unit length, and β is the phase constant in radians per unit length.

If we substitute jw for ꝺ/ꝺt in Eqs. (2), (4), (5), and (6) and divide each equation by ejwt, the
transmission-line equations in phasor form of the frequency domain become

….9

in which the following substitutions have been made:

……10

For a lossless line, R = G = 0, and the transmission-line equations are expressed as

…..11
It is interesting to note that Eq. (9) for a transmission line are similar to equations of the
electric and magnetic waves, respectively. The only difference is that the transmission-
line equations are one-dimensional.

4.2 Solutions of Transmission-Line Equations:

The one possible solution for Eq. (9a) is

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….12

The factors V+ and V_ represent complex quantities. The term involving e-Jβz shows a wave
traveling in the positive z direction, and the term with the factor ejβz is a wave going in the
negative z direction. The quantity βz is called the electrical length of the line and is measured
in radians. Similarly, the one possible solution for Eq. (9b) is

…..13

In Eq.13 the characteristic impedance of the line is defined as

….14

The magnitude of both voltage and current waves on the line is shown in Fig. 10

Fig. 10 Magnitude of voltage and current traveling waves.

At microwave frequencies it can be seen that

…..15

By using the binomial expansion, the propagation constant can be expressed as

…..16

Therefore the attenuation and phase constants are, respectively, given by

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….17

Similarly, the characteristic impedance is found to be

……..18

From Eq. (17) the phase velocity is

….19

The product of LC is independent of the size and separation of the conductors and depends
only on the permeability p. and permittivity of E of the insulating medium. If a lossless
transmission line used for microwave frequencies has an air dielectric and contains no
ferromagnetic materials, free-space parameters can be assumed.

Thus the numerical value of 1/ LC for air-insulated conductors is approximately equal to the
velocity of light in vacuum. That is,

…..20

When the dielectric of a lossy microwave transmission line is not air, the phase velocity is
smaller than the velocity of light in vacuum and is given by

…..21

In general, the relative phase velocity factory can be defined as

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…..22

A low-loss transmission line filled only with dielectric medium, such as a coaxial line with
solid dielectric between conductors, has a velocity factor on the order of about 0.65.

Pb: A transmission line has the following parameters: R = 2 Ω/m, L = 8 nH/m, G = 0.5
mmho/m, C=0.23pF,f=1GHz Calculate:(a)The characteristic impedance; (b)The
propagation constant.

Solution:
The line characteristic impedance is

The propagation constant is

Section 5: Reflection Coefficient and Transmission Coefficient

5.1 Reflection Coefficient:

In the analysis of the solutions of transmission-line equations, the traveling wave along the
line contains two components: one traveling in the positive z direction and the other traveling
the negative z direction. If the load impedance is equal to the line characteristic impedance,
however, the reflected traveling wave does not exist.

Fig 11 shows a transmission line terminated in an impedance Zl. It is usually more convenient
to start solving the transmission-line problem from the receiving rather than the sending end,
since the voltage-to-current relationship at the load point is fixed by the load impedance. The
incident voltage and current waves traveling along the transmission line are given by

…..1

in which the current wave can be expressed in terms of the voltage by

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…..2

If the line has a length of l, the voltage and current at the receiving end become

…..3

The ratio of the voltage to the current at the receiving end is the load impedance. That is,

……..4

Fig. 11 Transmission line terminated in a load impedance.

The reflection coefficient, which is designated by ᴦ(gamma), is defined as

….5

If Eq. (4) is solved for the ratio of the reflected voltage at the receiving end, which is V- e-ᴦl, to
the incident voltage at the receiving end, which is V+e-ᴦl, the result is the reflection coefficient
at the receiving end:

….6

If the load impedance and/or the characteristic impedance are complex quantities, as is
usually the case, the reflection coefficient is generally a complex quantity that can be
expressed as

….7

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where I ᴦl I is the magnitude and never greater than unity-that is, . Note that (θl )is
the phase angle between the incident and reflected voltages at the receiving end. It is usually
called the phase angle of the reflection coefficient.

The general solution of the reflection coefficient at any point on the line, then, corresponds to
the incident and reflected waves at that point, each attenuated in the direction of its own
progress along the line. The generalized reflection coefficient is defined as

…..8

From Fig. 11 let z = l - d. Then the reflection coefficient at some point located a distance d
from the receiving end is

……9

Next, the reflection coefficient at that point can be expressed m terms of the reflection
coefficient at the receiving end as

…..10

This is a very useful equation for determining the reflection coefficient at any point along the
line. For a lossy line, both the magnitude and phase of the reflection coefficient are changing
in an inward-spiral way as shown in Fig. 12. For a lossless line, α = 0, the magnitude of the
reflection coefficient remains constant, and only the phase of ᴦ is changing circularly toward
the generator with an angle of -2βd as shown in Fig. 13. It is evident that ᴦl will be zero and
there will be no reflection from the receiving end when the terminating impedance is equal to
the characteristic impedance of the line. Thus, a terminating impedance that differs from the
characteristic impedance will create a reflected wave traveling toward the source from the
termination. The reflection, upon reaching the sending end, will itself be reflected if the
source impedance is different from the line characteristic impedance at the sending end.

5·2 Transmission Coefficient:

A transmission line terminated in its characteristic impedance Zo is called a properly

terminated line. Otherwise it is called an improperly terminated line. As described earlier,
there is a reflection coefficient r at any point along an improperly terminated line. According
to the principle of conservation of energy, the incident power minus the reflected power must
be equal to the power transmitted to the load. This can be expressed as

….11

The letter T represents the transmission coefficient, which is defined as

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……..12

Fig.14 shows the transmission of power along a transmission line where Pinc is the incident
power, Pref the reflected power, and Ptr, the transmitted power.

Fig. 14 Power transmission on a line

Fig.12 Reflection coefficient for lossy line. Fig.13 Reflection coefficient for lossless
line.

Let the traveling waves at the receiving end be

…….13

Multiplication of Eq. (13) by Ze and substitution of the results in

……….14

which, in turn, on substitution back into Eq. (14), results in

…..15

The power carried by the two waves in the side of the incident and reflected waves is

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…….16

The power carried to the load by the transmitted waves is

…….17
By setting Pinr = Ptr and using Eqs. (14) and (15), we have

……18

This relation verifies the previous statement that the transmitted power is equal to the
difference of the incident power and reflected power.

Pb:A certain transmission line has a characteristic impedance of 75 + j0.01Ω and is

terminated in a load impedance of 70 + j50Ω. Compute (a) the reflection coefficient; (b)
the transmission coefficient. Verify: (c) the relationship shown in Eq. (18); (d) the
transmission coefficient equals the algebraic sum of 1 plus the reflection coefficient.

Solution:The reflection coefficient is

The transmission coefficient is

D.

Section 6: Standing Wave and Standing Wave Ratio

6.1 Standing Wave:

The general solutions of the transmission-line equation consist of two waves traveling in
opposite directions with unequal amplitude can be written

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…..1

With no loss in generality it can be assumed that V+e-ᴦz and V-eᴦz are real. Then the voltage-
wave equation can be expressed as

……2

This is called the equation of the voltage standing wave, where

…….3

which is called the standing-wave pattern of the voltage wave or the amplitude of the
standing wave, and

……….4

which is called the phase pattern of the standing wave. The maximum and minimum values
of Eq. (3) can be found as usual by differentiating the equation with respect to βz and
equating the result to zero. By doing so and substituting the proper values of βz in the
equation, we find that

1. The maximum amplitude is

……..5

2. The minimum amplitude is

………6
3. The distance between any two successive maxima or minima is one-half wavelength,
since

…….7

It is evident that there are no zeros in the minimum. Similarly,

………8
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The standing-wave patterns of two oppositely traveling waves with unequal amplitude in
lossy or lossless line are shown in Figs. 15 and 16. A further study of Eq. (3) reveals that

….9

……..10

Fig.15 Standing-wave pattern in a lossy line. Fig.16 Voltage SW pattern in a lossless line.

…….11

which is called a pure standing wave. Similarly, the equation of a pure standing wave for the
current is

…….12

Equations (11) and (12) show that the voltage and current standing waves are 90° out of
phase along the line. The points of zero current are called the current nodes. The voltage
nodes and current nodes are interlaced a quarter wavelength apart. The voltage and current
may be expressed as real functions of time and space:

…….13

The amplitudes of Eq. 13 vary sinusoidally with time; the voltage is a maximum at the instant
when the current is zero and vice versa. Fig.17 shows the pure-standing-wave patterns of the
phasor of Eqs. (11) and (12) for an open-terminal line.

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Fig. 17 Pure standing waves of voltage and current.

6.2 Standing-Wave Ratio: Standing waves result from the simultaneous presence of waves
traveling in opposite directions on a transmission line. The ratio of the maximum of the
standing-wave pattern to the minimum is defined as the standing-wave ratio, designated by ρ.
That is,

………14

The standing-wave ratio results from the fact that the two traveling-wave components of Eq.
(l) add in phase at some points and subtract at other points. The distance between two
successive maxima or minima is λ/2. The standing-wave ratio of a pure traveling wave is
unity and that of a pure standing wave is infinite. It should be noted that since the standing-
wave ratios of voltage and current are identical, no distinctions are made between VSWR and
ISWR.

When the standing-wave ratio is unity, there is no reflected wave and the line is called a fiat
line. The standing-wave ratio cannot be defined on a lossy line because the standing-wave
pattern changes markedly from one position to another. On a lowloss line the ratio remains
fairly constant, and it may be defined for some region. For a lossless line, the ratio stays the
same throughout the line.

Since the reflected wave is defined as the product of an incident wave and its reflection
coefficient, the standing-wave ratio p is related to the reflection coefficient r by

….15 and vice versa ……16

This relation is very useful for determining the reflection coefficient from the standing-wave
ratio, which is usually found from the Smith chart. The curve in Fig. 18 shows the
relationship between reflection coefficient I r I and standing-wave ratio ρ.

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Fig. 18 SWR versus reflection coefficient.

As a result of Eq. (15), since , the standing-wave ratio is a positive real number and
never less than unity, . From Eq. (16) the magnitude of the reflection coefficient is
never greater than unity.

Pb: A transmission line has a characteristic impedance of 50 + j0.01 Ω and is terminated

in a load impedance of 73 - j42.5 Ω Calculate: (a) the reflection coefficient; (b) the
standing-wave ratio.

Solution:

The reflection coefficient is

The standing-wave ratio is

Section 7: Smith Chart

Many of the computations required to solve transmission-line problems involve the use of
rather complicated equations. The solution of such problems is tedious and difficult because
the accurate manipulation of numerous equations is necessary. To simplify their solution, we
need a graphic method of arriving at a quick answer. A number of impedance charts have
been designed to facilitate the graphic solution of transmission-line problems. Basically all
the charts are derived from the fundamental relationships expressed in the transmission
equations. The most popular chart is that developed by Phillip H. Smith [1]. The purpose of
this section is to present the graphic solutions of transmission-line problems by using the
Smith chart. The Smith chart consists of a plot of the normalized impedance or admittance
with the angle and magnitude of a generalized complex reflection coefficient in a unity circle.

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The chart is applicable to the analysis of a lossless line as well as a lossy line. By simple
rotation of the chart, the effect of the position on the line can be determined.

Figure 19 shows a Smith chart. The characteristics of the Smith chart are summarized as
follows:

1. The constant r and constant x loci form two families of orthogonal circles in the chart.

2. The constant r and constant x circles all pass through the point (ᴦr = 1, ᴦi = 0).

3. The upper half of the diagram represents + jx.

4. The lower half of the diagram represents - jx.

5. For admittance the constant r circles become constant g circles, and the constant x circles
become constant susceptance b circles.

6. The distance around the Smith chart once is one-half wavelength (λ/2).

7. At a point of Zmin = 1/ ρ, there is a Vmin on the line.

8. At a point of Zmax = ρ' there is a Vmax on the line.

9. The horizontal radius to the right of the chart centre corresponds to Vmax, Imin, Zmax, and ρ
(SWR).

10. The horizontal radius to the left of the chart center corresponds to Vmin, lmax, Zmin, and 1/ρ.

11. Since the normalized admittance y is a reciprocal of the normalized impedance z, the
corresponding quantities in the admittance chart are 180° out of phase with those in the
impedance chart.

12. The normalized impedance or admittance is repeated for every half wavelength of
distance. 13. The distances are given in wavelengths toward the generator and also toward the
load.

A Smith chart or slotted line can be used to measure a standing-wave pattern directly and
then the magnitudes of the reflection coefficient, reflected power, transmitted power, and the
load impedance can be calculated from it. The use of the Smith chart is illustrated in the
following examples.

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Figure 19 Smith chart.

Pb: Given the normalized load impedance Zl = 1 + j 1 and the operating wavelength λ=
5 cm, determine the first Vmax, first Vmin from the load, and the VSWR ρ as shown in
Fig. 20.

Figure 20 Smith chart.

Solution :

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1. Enter Zl = 1 + j 1 on the chart as shown in Fig. 21.

2. Read 0.162λ on the distance scale by drawing a dashed-straight line from the center of the
chart through the load point and intersecting the distance scale.

3. Move a distance from the point at 0.162λ toward the generator and first stop at the voltage
maximum on the right-hand real axis at 0.25λ. Then

d1(Vmax) = (0.25 - 0.162)λ = (0.088)(5) = 0.44 cm

4.Similarly, move a distance from the point of 0.162λ toward the generator and first stop at
the voltage minimum on the left-hand real axis at 0.5λ. Then

d2(Vmin) = (0.5 - 0.162)λ = (0.338)(5) = 1.69 cm

5. Make a standing-wave circle with the center at (1, 0) and pass the circle through the point
of 1 + j 1. The location intersected by the circle at the right portion of the real axis indicates
the SWR. This is ρ = 2.6.

Fig.21 Graphic solution.

Pb: The location of a minimum instead of a maximum is usually specified because it can
be determined more accurately. Suppose that the characteristic impedance of the line
Ro is 50 Ω, and the SWR ρ = 2 when the line is loaded. When the load is shorted, the
minima shift 0.15λ toward the load. Determine the load impedance. Figure 22 shows the
diagram for the example.

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Figure 21 Diagram for the above Example .

Solution:

1. When the line is shorted, the first voltage minimum occurs at the place of the load as
shown in Fig. 22.

2. When the line is loaded, the first voltage minimum shifts 0.15λ from the load. The distance
between two successive minima is one-half wavelength.

3. Plot a SWR circle for ρ = 2.

4. Move a distance of 0.15λ from the minimum point along the distance scale toward the load
and stop at 0.15λ.

5. Draw a line from this point to the center of the chart.

6. The intersection between the line and the SWR circle is Zl = 1 - }0.65 7.

7. The load impedance is Zl = (1 - j0.65)(50) = 50 - j32.5Ω

Figure 22 Graphic solution

Section 8: Impedance Matching

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Impedance matching is very desirable with radio frequency (RF) transmission lines. Standing
waves lead to increased losses and frequently cause the transmitter to malfunction. A line
terminated in its characteristic impedance has a standing-wave ratio of unity and transmits a
given power without reflection. Also, transmission efficiency is optimum where there is no
reflected power. A "flat" line is non-resonant; that is, its input impedance always remains at
the same value Zo when the frequency changes. Matching a transmission line has a special
meaning, one differing from that used in circuit theory to indicate equal impedance seen
looking both directions from a given terminal pair for maximum power transfer. In circuit
theory, maximum power transfer requires the load impedance to be equal to the complex
conjugate of the generator. This condition is sometimes referred to as a conjugate match. In
transmission-line problems matching means simply terminating the line in its characteristic
impedance. A common application of RF transmission lines is the one in which there is a
feeder connection between a transmitter and an antenna. Usually the input impedance to the
antenna itself is not equal to the characteristic impedance of the line. Furthermore, the output
impedance of the transmitter may not be equal to the Zo of the line. Matching devices are
necessary to flatten the line. A complete matched transmission-line system is shown in Fig.
23.

Figure 23 Matched transmission-line system.

For a low-loss or lossless transmission line at radio frequency, the characteristic impedance
Zo of the line is resistive. At every point the impedances looking in opposite directions are
conjugate. If Zo is real, it is its own conjugate. Matching can be tried first on the load side to
flatten the line; then adjustment may be made on the transmitter side to provide maximum
power transfer. At audio frequencies an iron-cored transformer is almost universally used as
an impedance-matching device. Occasionally an iron-cored transformer is also used at radio
frequencies. In a practical transmission-line system, the transmitter is ordinarily matched to
the coaxial cable for maximum power transfer. Because of the variable loads, however, an
impedance-matching technique is often required at the load side. Since the matching
problems involve parallel connections on the transmission line, it is necessary to work out the
problems with admittances rather than impedances. The Smith chart itself can be used as a
computer to convert the normalized impedance to admittance by a rotation of 180°, as
described earlier.

8.1 Single-Stub Matching

Although single-lumped inductors or capacitors can match the transmission line, it is more
common to use the susceptive properties of short-circuited sections of transmission lines.

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Short-circuited sections are preferable to open-circuited ones because a good short circuit is
easier to obtain than a good open circuit.

For a loss less line with Yg = Yo, maximum power transfer requires Y11 = Yo, where Y11 is
the total admittance of the line and stub looking to the right at point 1-1 (see Fig. 24). The
stub must be located at that point on the line where the real part of the admittance, looking
toward the load, is Yo. In a normalized unit Y11 must be in the form

……..1

if the stub has the same characteristic impedance as that of the line.

…………….2

The stub length is then adjusted so that its susceptance just cancels out the susceptance of the
line at the junction.

Figure 24: Single-stub matching.

Pb: A lossless line of characteristic impedance R0 = 50Ω is to be matched to a load Ze =

50/[2 + j(2 + 3)] Ω by means of a lossless short-circuited stub. The characteristic
impedance of the stub is 100Ω. Find the stub position (closest to the load) and length so
that a match is obtained.

Solution 1. Compute the normalized load admittance and enter it on the Smith chart (see Fig.
25).

2. Draw a SWR circle through the point of Yl so that the circle intersects the unity circle at
the point Yd·

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Note that there are an infinite number of Yd· Take the one that allows the stub to be attached
as closely as possible to the load.

Figure 25 Graphic solution

4. Since the characteristic impedance of the stub is different from that of the line, the
condition for impedance matching at the junction requires

where Ys, is the susceptance that the stub will contribute. It is clear that the stub and
the portion of the line from the load to the junction are in parallel, as seen by the main
line extending to the generator. The admittances must be converted to normalized
values for matching on the Smith chart. Then Eq. (2) becomes

4. The distance between the load and the stub position can be calculated from the
distance scale as d = (0.302 - 0.215)λ= 0.087λ
5. Since the stub contributes a susceptance of+ j5.20, enter + j5.20 on the chart and
determine the required distance l from the short-circuited end (z = 0, y = oo), which
corresponds to the right side of the real axis on the chart, by transversing the chart
toward the generator until the point of+ j5.20 is reached. Then

l = (0.50 - 0.03l)λ = 0.469λ

When a line is matched at the junction, there will be no standing wave in the line
from the stub to the generator.
6. If an inductive stub is required,

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7. The position of the stub from the load is

and the length of the short-circuited stub is l ' = 0.031λ

Section 9: Question Bank.

Module 1: Microwave Tubes and Transmission Lines

1. Discuss different types of transmission lines used in communication and the
frequencies at which they are preferred.
2. Starting from basics obtain the solution of the transmission line equations.
3. What is reflection co-efficient? Obtain an expression for the same? How is it related
to SWR?
4. What is transmission co-efficient? obtain an expression for the same.
5. What are standing waves? How are they formed? Obtain the expression for VSWR.
6. What is line impedance? Derive an expression for line impedance at any point on the
line.

7. Explain the steps involved in single stub matching using smith chart.

8. Explain the working of a Reflex klystron with a neat constructional, applegate

diagram and mode curves…..10m
9. A transmission line has the following parameters R =2Ω/m, G = 0.5mʊ/m, L=
0.8nH/m, C=0.23PF/m. Calculate i) Characteristic impedance ii) Propagation constant
and also calculate the same for lossless line…….4m
10. A transmission line with a characteristic impedance of (50+j0.01)Ω and a load
impedance of (73-j42.5)Ω calculate i) Reflection coefficient ii) SWR iii)
Transmission coefficient ….4m

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