CiscoDeployingLicense-FreeWirelessWideAreaNetworks Ch2

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ii
Deploying License-Free Wireless Wide-Area Networks

Copyright© 2003 Cisco Systems, Inc.
Published by:
Cisco Press
201 West 103rd Street
Indianapolis, IN 46290 USA
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without written permission from the publisher, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review.
Printed in the United States of America 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Second Printing June 2003
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Number: 2001098196
ISBN: 1-58705-069-2
Warning and Disclaimer

This book is designed to provide information about license-free wireless wide-area networks. Every effort has
been made to make this book as complete and as accurate as possible, but no warranty or fitness is implied.
The information is provided on an “as is” basis. The author, Cisco Press, and Cisco Systems, Inc. shall have
neither liability nor responsibility to any person or entity with respect to any loss or damages arising from the
information contained in this book or from the use of the discs or programs that may accompany it.
The opinions expressed in this book belong to the author and are not necessarily those of Cisco Systems, Inc.
Trademark Acknowledgments
All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been appropriately
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Receiver
Threshold
Gain or Loss +30 dBm -6 dB +12 dBi -110 dB +24 dBi -7 dB -80 dBm
Path
Trans. Coax Ant. Ant. Coax Rcvr.
Loss
Resulting +30 dBm +24 dBm +36 dBm -74 dBm -50 dBm -57 dBm +23 dB
Signal Level Fade Margin
Fade Margin = (Signal Arriving at Receiver) - (Receiver Threshold)
= -57 dBm - (-80 dBm)
= -57 dBm + 80 dBm
Fade Margin = +23 dB
Correction for Figure 2-25 on Page 52
1-58705-069-2
LF300225.eps
12/19/02
Tim Barnard
Chapter 2. Understanding Wireless
Fundamentals
This chapter Table
• describes the wireless fundamentals that underlie the successful design,
of Contents
deployment, Index
• operation, support, and expansion of wireless wide-area networks (WANs). This
book focuses
Deploying on the Wireless
License-Free application of these
Wide-Area fundamentals in license-free wireless networks;
Networks
however, these
ByJack Unger same wireless principles apply to licensed wireless networks and to all wireless
signals.
Wireless Propagation
Wireless propagation is the total of everything that happens to a wireless signal as the signal
travels from Point A to Point B. Although invisible to your eyes, the wireless signal interacts with
everything that it comes near or passes through, including trees, hills, buildings, bodies of
• Table of
water, the earth's Contents
atmosphere, people, vehicles, and so on. The better you understand these
•
interactions, Index
the more easily and more successfully you will be able to deploy wireless WANs.
First, it isLicense-Free
Deploying important Wireless
for you Wide-Area
to understand how wireless signals are created.
Networks
ByJack Unger
Wireless communication is possible because changes in the electron flow within a wire cause
changes in the magnetic fields and in the electric fields that surround the wire. Magnetic fields
Publisher: Cisco Press
and electric fields are invisible, but you can see the results of their presence. If you have ever
Pub Date: February 26, 2003
used a magnet to attract a piece of iron or steel, you have seen the result of a magnetic field. If
you haveISBN: 1-58705-069-2
ever seen a bolt of lightning, you have seen the effect of an electric (or electrostatic)
field.
When electron streams change direction rapidly within a wire or antenna, the electrostatic and
magnetic fields around the wire or antenna change at the same rapid rate. These rapidly
changing fields are called electromagnetic waves. The electromagnetic waves do not simply stay
near the antenna;
Best practices they travel
for planning andaway at nearlyofthe
deployment speed of WWANs.
broadband light—186,000 miles per second
(300,000,000 meters per second). The changing electron flow within the antenna has been
transformed into electromagnetic (wireless) waves traveling away from the antenna.
TIP
Lear
Keep
Selecta the
mental
mostpicture
effective
of aequipment
moving wave
and in
antenna
your mind;
systems
it isfor
notyour
a spot
area
or a line; it is a
wave. If you drop a rock into a pond, the waves spread out from the point where the
Avoidhitcommon
rock pitfalls
the water. encountered
If you by new in
place an antenna wireless network
free space, operatorswaves spread out
the wireless
from the antenna. Wireless waves pass through air, space, people, and objects. If you
Minimize
can the electro-magnetic
visualize effects of noise and interference
waves travelingon yourfrom
away network
an antenna and radiating
outward, you will be off to an excellent start toward successfully deploying wireless
Wireless Frequency
As an ocean wave travels, its height changes; as the front of the wave approaches you, the
height increases. When the crest passes you, the height of the wave decreases. The height
decreases further as the trough passes you. Finally, the height of the sea is back to the level
•
where it wasTable of Contents
before the wave appeared. You have just experienced one complete up-down-up
• Index
wave cycle. Without changes in the wave height, there would be no wave cycle or wave.
Changes
ByJack Ungerin the electron flow in an antenna cause the same changes in the electromagnetic fields
around the antenna. Another word for electron flow in a wire is current. Without changes in the
antenna current, there would be no change in the electromagnetic fields around the antenna;
therefore, there would be no useable wireless signal moving outward, away from the antenna.
ThePub Date: February 26, 2003
number of times each second that the current in the antenna goes through one complete
ISBN: 1-58705-069-2
positive-negative-positive change-cycle is the same as the frequency of the wireless waves that
radiate outward
Pages: 352 from the antenna. If you drew a graph of the current flow in the antenna, the
resulting graph would be a sine wave. The positive distance (above the centerline) and the
negative distance (below the centerline) represent the amplitude, or strength, of the current. The
greater the amplitude of the current, the stronger the radiated electromagnetic waves.
Figure 2-1 shows

Best practices for two complete
planning cycles of positive-negative-positive
and deployment of broadband WWANs. current flow in an antenna. If
there are 100 complete cycles in one second, the frequency of the current flow (and the
frequency of the resulting wireless wave) is 100 cycles per second. Around 1960, the term cycles
per second
Learn was replaced
insider withanthe
tips from term Hertzwireless
experienced (abbreviated Hz).
industry The frequency of this wireless
leader
wave is 100 Hz.
Figure 2-1. Antenna Current Alternating Between Positive and Negative
or outdoor environment
Wireless signals cycle back and forth so quickly—millions of times each second—that the
following abbreviations
Choose are used
the right network to specify their
architecture frequency:
for your wireless network
Conduct physical site surveys and radio-frequency (RF) site surveys

Kilohertz (kHz): Thousands of cycles per second
Megahertz
high-speed(MHz): Millions
"last-mile" of cycles
wireless per second
Internet access
Gigahertz (GHz): Billions of cycles per second
cable companies. WWANs enable Internet service providers (ISPs) and corporate IT managers to
Wireless Wavelength
It is important to be able to visualize the physical size of a wireless signal because the physical
size of each signal determines how that signal interacts with its environment and how well it is
propagated from antenna to antenna within the wireless network. The signal's physical size also
• Tablelarge
determines how of Contents
or how small the antennas that transmit and receive the signal must be;
• Index
the smaller the signal size, the smaller the antenna.
Figure 2-2 shows two wireless signals on two different frequencies—2.45 GHz and 5.775 GHz. All
ByJack Unger
wireless signals travel through the air at the same speed. That speed is the speed of light, which
is 186,000 miles per second (300,000,000 meters per second). The distance that a radio signal
travels during a single cycle is called the wavelength of that signal. Higher-frequency waves have
higher-frequency waves is shorter than for lower-frequency waves.
less time to travel during a single cycle than lower-frequency waves, so the wave-length for
Figure 2-2. Physical Size (Wavelength) of Wireless Waves
Best practices for planning and deployment of broadband WWANs.

In Figure 2-2, each cycle of Signal 1 (2.45 GHz) has time to travel 4.8 inches (12 cm). Therefore,
Signal 1's wavelength is 4.8 inches (12 cm). Signal 2 is changing more rapidly; each cycle of Signal 2
has time to travel only 2 inches (5 cm). Therefore, the wavelength of Signal 2 is only 2 inches (5
cm). There is a corresponding physical wavelength for every wireless frequency. The lower th e
frequency, the longer the wavelength; the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength.
Attenuation
Attenuation is the loss in amplitude that occurs whenever a signal travels through a wire,
through free space, or through an obstruction. Figure 2-3 shows a 2.45-GHz (2450 MHz) signal
as it encounters a tree. The signal is attenuated; that is, its amplitude is reduced. The amount of
•
signal Table of Contents
that emerges on the other side of the tree is much less than the amount of signal that
•
entered Index Often, after colliding with an object, the signal strength remaining is too small
the tree.
to make a reliable wireless link.
Figure 2-3. Attenuation of a 4.8-inch (5-cm) Signal by a Tree

License-free
In broadband
addition, the wireless
shorter the wide-area
wavelength of anetworks (WWANs)
wireless signal, theprovide
more it fast deployment
is attenuated of low-
when it
cost, high-speed
encounters "last-mile"
an object. wireless
The longer the Internet access.
wavelength of a License-free wireless
wireless signal, technology
the less delivers
it is attenuated
these it
when benefits without
encounters an requiring the use
object. Figure 2-4of products
shows or services
a signal provided
in the AM by local telephone
radio broadcast band at aor
cable companies.
frequency of 1000WWANs enable Internet service providers (ISPs) and corporate IT managers to
kHz (1 MHz).
Figure 2-4. Attenuation of a 984-ft (300-m) Signal by a Tree
WhenMinimize theencounters
this signal effects of noise and
a tree, theinterference
wavelengthon
of your network
the signal (984 ft/300 m) is so much
greater than the size of the tree that the amplitude of the signal remains almost unchanged.
Use 802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g equipment more successfully in your own home, office,
NOTE
A sharp-eyed reader will look at Figure 2-4 and says "Sure, the amplitude is still large
Choose
after thethe right network
collision. architecture
The amplitude of thefor
AMyour wireless
broadcast network
signal was a lot larger than the
amplitude of the 2.4-GHz signal to begin with." Well, sharp-eyed reader, you are
correct. Yes, the AM broadcast signal had higher amplitude (more power) to begin
here's the point.

high-speed Even ifwireless
"last-mile" the AM broadcast signal License-free
Internet access. started out with 4W, technology
wireless a lot more of it
del
would still be left over after encountering the tree, compared to the remaining 2.4-GHz
benefits without requiring the use of products or services provided by local telephone
wavelength
y their own of the 2.4-GHzbroadband
cost-efficient signal, and the tree that
networks is many times
deliver smaller than
high-speed thefor
access physical
buildi
wavelength of the 1000-kHz KWHY-AM signal.
and areas where traditional wired connectivity is either completely unavailable or is cost-
Free-Space Waves
A free-space wave is a signal that propagates from Point A to Point B without encountering or
coming near an obstruction, as in Figure 2-5.
Figure 2-5. Free-Space Wave


ISBN: 1-58705-069-2
Pages: 352
The signal arrivesthe

Understand at its destination
principles that with as much
underlie amplitudeofas
the operation allpossible
wirelessbecause
systemsthe amplitude is
not reduced by attenuation from objects. The only amplitude reduction that occurs is the normal
Learndue
reduction howtoto
theprovide
signal profitable and reliable
being propagated wireless
through free Internet
space. Aaccess
signal path like this, with no
obstructions, is an ideal wireless scenario.
Reflected Waves
When a wireless signal encounters an obstruction while traveling from Point A to Point B, two
things normally happen:
Attenuation—
Index In general, the shorter the wavelength of a signal, relative to the size of the
obstruction, the more the signal is attenuated.
ByJack Unger
Reflection— The shorter the wavelength of the signal relative to the size of the
obstruction, the more likely it is that some of the signal will be reflected off the obstruction.
ThePub
following sections
Date: February describe two types of reflected waves. One of these two types occurs at
26, 2003
microwave
ISBN: frequencies
1-58705-069-2 and is important to your understanding of microwave propagation. You
might Pages:
already
352 be familiar with the first type of reflected waves: sky waves.
Sky Waves
Bestfirst
The practices
type offorreflected
planningwaves
and deployment of Sky
is sky waves. broadband WWANs. occur at short wave
waves generally
frequencies, where wavelengths range from 328 to 33 feet (100 to 10 m). Sky waves often
reflect off the ionosphere—layers of ionized particles that exist from 30 to 300 miles (48 to 482
Learn the
km) above insider tipsas
Earth, from an experienced
shown wireless industry leader
in Figure 2-6.
Learn how to provide profitable and reliable wireless Internet access

Figure 2-6. Sky Wave: Reflected Signal at Non-Microwave Frequencies
from stations located in other countries, thousands of miles away. Sky waves sometimes also
make it possible for you to receive AM broadcast stations at night that are hundreds or
thousands of miles away. Ionospheric reflection, however, seldom occurs at microwave
frequencies.
Microwave Reflections
• Index have frequencies between 1000 MHz (1 GHz) and 30 GHz and a physical
Microwave signals
Deploying
wavelengthLicense-Free Wireless Wide-Area
from approximately 12 in.Networks
(30 cm) down to less than 1 in. (2.5 cm). Microwave
signals reflect
ByJack Unger off of objects that are larger than their wavelength, such as buildings, cars, flat
stretches of ground, and bodies of water. Figure 2-7 illustrates microwave reflection off of a
building.
Figure 2-7. Microwave Signal Reflection
Each Use
time802.11a,
a microwave signaland
802.11b, is reflected, its amplitude
802.11g equipment is reduced.
more Microwave
successfully in your reflection
own home, can be
office,
an advantage or environment
or outdoor a disadvantage. The advantage is that sometimes the reflection (or bounce) off
of a building or water tank allows a microwave link to work even though obstructions, such as
Choose
the trees the right
in Figure 2-7,network architecture
block the direct wave.forThe
yourdisadvantage
wireless network
of microwave reflection is that a
phenomenon called multipath can occur.
Fig 2-8. Microwave signal with Multiple Reflections
Best practices
Reflected for 1
Signals planning and deployment
and 2 follow of broadband
slightly longer paths thanWWANs.
the direct signal; therefore, they
arrive slightly later than the direct signal. These reflected echoes sometimes cause problems at
the receiver by partially canceling the direct signal, effectively reducing its amplitude. The link
Learn insider
throughput tips from
slows down an experienced
because the receiverwireless industry
needs more timeleader
to either separate the real signal
from the reflected echoes or to wait for missed packets to be retransmitted. Multipath is a
Understand the principles that underlie the operation of all wireless systems
significant problem for designers of microwave networks. Methods that you can use to minimize
the effects
Learn of multipath
how areprofitable
to provide discussed and
laterreliable
in the book.
wirel
Diffraction
Diffraction of a wireless signal occurs when the signal is partially blocked or obstructed by a
large object in the signal's path, as shown in Figure 2-9.
Figure 2-9. Signal Diffraction Around an Obstruction
Selectthe
intercepts thehilltop,
most effective equipment
the signal and causing
is diffracted, antennapart
systems
of thefor yourenergy
signal area to bend slightly
around the hilltop.
Avoid common pitfalls encountered by new wireless network operators
The diffracted signal energy is usually attenuated so much that it is too weak to provide a
Minimize
reliable the effects
microwave of noise
connection. In and
a fewinterference on your
cases, however, thenetwork
diffracted signal, although
weakened, might still be strong enough to allow a connection to be made to a nearby location
Enjoy otherwise
that would the satisfaction of providing wireless Internet access to your community
be blocked.
or o
TIP
Choosetry
Always thetoright network
obtain architecturepath
an unobstructed for your wireless
between network antennas that you
the microwave
set up. Do not plan to use a diffracted signal in place of a direct signal because most of
the time, the diffracted signal is too weak to provide a reliable link.
Weather and Other Atmospheric Effects
Microwave signals must pass through the earth's atmosphere (unless you are communicating
from spacecraft to spacecraft, which is a not-too-distant possibility). The earth's atmosphere is a
dynamic environment consisting of regions of constantly changing temperatures, pressures,
•
water vapor,Table
and of Contents These changes affect the passage and the propagation of microwave
weather.
• Index
signals. Understanding these propagation changes helps you design reliable wireless WANs.
Precipitation
Rain,
Pubsnow, hail, fog,
Date: February and sleet are all forms of precipitation—water or water vapor—that is
26, 2003
presentISBN:
in the air. As you evaluate the effect that each form of precipitation has on your wireless
1-58705-069-2
WAN, Pages:
keep 352
in mind that the physical size of a wireless signal plays a big role in determining how
that signal interacts with the precipitation that it encounters.
Rain, Snow, and Hail
One cycle of a wireless signal at 2.45 GHz has a wavelength of 4.8 in. (12 cm); one cycle at 5.7
GHz has a wavelength of 2 in. (5 cm). Compared to the size of a raindrop—even a big raindrop
Learn downpour—these
in a heavy insider tips from an experienced
wireless signalswireless industry
are quite leader
a bit larger than the raindrops. As a
result, the raindrops do not significantly attenuate these signals. At higher wireless frequencies
(at or above 10 GHz), where the signal wavelength decreases to less than 1 inch (3 cm), rain,
partially melted snow, and partially melted hail do start to cause significant attenuation.
Rain can, however, have other effects on the operation of a wireless system. Wherever a tiny
Select the most effective equipment and antenna systems for your area
hole exists anywhere in an antenna system, rain usually finds it and gets inside the system. After
the rain is inside,
Avoid common thepitfalls
water encountered
degrades theby performance of network
new wireless the system. Eventually, the system
operators
fails completely and the antenna cabling must be replaced. Rain can also make surfaces (such as
buildings and leaves)
Minimize more
the effects of reflective,
noise and increasing multipath
interference on your fading.
network
Practice the business principles used by successful wireless ISPs (WISPs)

TIP
This is another
or outdoor reason to use nonobstructed paths between your antennas. If you try to
environment
"blast through" trees, you are just setting yourself up to have problems.
Ice
Ice buildup
these on without
benefits antennarequiring
systems the
impacts the
use of operation
products or of wireless
services WANs in
provided bytwo different
local ways:
telephone or
Reducing
and areas wheresystem performance
traditional wired connectivity is either completely unavailable or is cost-
prohibitive.Deploying License-Free Wireless Wide-Area Networks is the first book that provides
Physically damaging the antenna system
complete, real-world "start-to-finish" design, installation, operation, and support information for
wireless ISPs and other organizations deploying outdoor wireless WANs-including coverage of
A thick buildup of ice on a microwave antenna changes the performance of the antenna and the
802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and proprietary-protocol networks. This vendor-neutral book covers
performance of the wireless link degrades.
Ice buildup also adds substantial extra weight, which increases the chance of antenna system
failure, especially under windy conditions. A heavier than normal antenna might bend under the
extra weight or might even fall from the antenna tower. Ice can also fall from a higher antenna
onto a lower one, damaging the lower antenna or antenna cable.
Table of Contents
NOTE Index
nimize problems in snow and ice-prone areas, many commercial microwave
antennas are protected with radomes that are designed to cover the antenna. Some
radomes also have heaters to melt ice buildups. If you are located in an area that has
heavy winter icing conditions, you might want to consult with a local two-way radio
shop to see what methods it uses to reduce icing problems on its antenna systems.
Wind
Wind can havefor
Best practices a significant impact
planning and on the reliable
deployment operation
of broadband of wireless WAN systems. The force
WWANs.
from a moderate or heavy wind pushes against both the antenna and the tower or mast that
holds the antenna in position. Under this force, several things could happen:
The antennathe
Understand could turn onthat
principles the underlie
mast or tower, causingofsignal
the operation levels to
all wireless decrease as the aim
systems
of the antenna changes.
The tower or mast could sway or twist, changing the aim of the antenna and causing signal
levels
Select to
thedecrease or to vary.
most effective equipment and antenna systems for your area
An antenna
Avoid common or tower that
pitfalls has not been
encountered properly
by new designed,
wireless installed,
network operatorsguyed, or maintained
could fail in a strong wind—potentially causing physical injury or property damage.
Minimize the effects of noise and interference on your network
NOTE
Practic
Use 802.11a,
Safety 802.11b,
is priority and design,
one in the 802.11g equipmentand
installation, more successfully
operation of a in your own
wireless WANhome, office,
or outdoor
systems. environment
Please pay special attention to the safety sections and notes throughout this
book. Give them special attention as you design and install your wireless systems.
Refraction
these benefitsinwithout
The changes requiring
temperature, the useand
pressure, of products
water vaporor services
contentprovided by local telephone
in the atmosphere play a or
cable
significant role in the propagation of microwave signals—refracting (or bending) the managers
companies. WWANs enable Internet service providers (ISPs) and corporate IT to
signals. The
deploy their own cost-efficient broadband networks that deliver high-speed access
refractivity of the atmosphere changes depending on the height above ground. The refractivity isfor buildings
and areas
usually where
largest at traditional wiredclosest
low elevations, connectivity
to the is either of
surface completely
the earth.unavailable or is is
The refractivity cost-
usually
prohibitive. Deploying License-Free Wireless Wide-Area Networks is the first book
smallest the higher you go above the earth. This refractivity change (called the refractivitythat provides
complete,orreal-world
gradient "start-to-finish"
k-factor) usually design, installation,
causes microwave operation,
signals to curve and support
downward slightlyinformation
toward thefor
wireless ISPs and other organizations
earth, as shown in Figure 2-10. deploying outdoor wireless WANs-including coverage of
Figure 2-10. Signal Refraction in the Atmosphere
The k-factor can change frequently, such as from hour to hour, from day to night, from weather
Understand
pattern to weatherthe principles
pattern, that underlie
or from season tothe operation
season. of all regions
Different wirelessofsystems
the earth have slightly
different average k-factors. A k-factor of 1 indicates no bending; a signal radiated under this
condition travels in a straight line.
A k-factor higher than 1 means that microwave signals bend slightly downward, toward the
earth.Avoid
In most regions,
common the median
pitfalls k-factor
encountered by is
new4/3. A k-factor
wireless of 4/3
network has the effect of making the
operators
radio horizon farther away than the visual horizon. In other words, the length of the microwave
path is increased
Minimize theby approximately
effects of noise and15 interference
percent. At times, weather
on your networkconditions can temporarily
cause the k-factor to become infinite. When this occurs, the amount of signal bending equals the
curvature
Enjoyofthe
thesatisfaction
earth. Thisof effect is called
providing super-refraction,
wireless or ducting.
Internet access to yourDucting causes a
community
microwave signal to be propagated for hundreds of miles or until the atmospheric conditions
Practice
change the
enough business
for principles
the ducting used by successful wireless ISPs (WISPs)
to stop.
Use in
Changes 802.11a, 802.11b,
the k-factor are aand 802.11g
common equipment
cause of fadingmore successfully
on microwave in your
paths. own home,
Sometimes, office,
due to
or outdoor
atmospheric environment
conditions, the k-factor is less than 1; for example, the k-factor could be 2/3. This
condition, called subrefraction, has the effect of bending the microwave signal path upward,
awayChoose
from thethe rightSubrefraction
earth. network architecture
reducesfor yourlevels,
signal wireless network
causing fading at the distant receiver.
Over longer microwave paths, the k-factor might be different at different points along the path.
Working with Wireless Power
Working with wireless WANs requires knowing how to work with wireless power. Following
are facts about wireless power:
Table of Contents
Power can be either increased (a power gain) or decreased (a power loss).
Index
Power can be relative, for example, twice as much power or 1/2 as much power or Power
Unger
can be absolute, for example, 1 watt or 4 watts.
Both absolute and relative power are always referenced to initial power level, either to a
relative power level or to an absolute power level.
Wireless
Pages: 352
WAN power levels become very small, very quickly after leaving a transmitting
antenna.
Wireless WAN power does not decrease linearly with distance; it decreases inversely as the
square of the distance increases. Here are some examples:
- If we double the distance of a wireless link, we don't have 1/2 of the original power
reaching the end of the new link; we receive only 1/4 of the original power.
Learn insider tips from an experienced wireless industry leader
- If we triple the distance of a link, we receive only 1/9th of the original power.
- If a new link is 5 times longer than an existing link, we receive only 1/25th of the
how tothat
power provide profitable
arrived and reliable
at the receiver wireless
of the Intern
original link.
Select thepower
Wireless most calculations
effective equipment
are doneand antenna
in dB, systems
for the forreasons:
following your area
- dB values are logs—that is, they increase and decrease not linearly but
Minimize the effects ofjust
logarithmically, noise and
like theinterference on yourpower
way that wireless network
increases or decreases.
Enjoy -the
dBsatisfaction
values can of
beproviding wireless Internet
used to conveniently access
represent to small
very your community
power levels, like the
levels of wireless power that arrive at a receiver.
- Although they are logarithmic, dB values can be added and subtracted together
Use 802.11a, 802.11b,
(with each other) and 802.11g
using equipment
just regular more
(linear) successfully
math. in your
For example: own
3 dB home,
plus 3 dB office,
equals 6 dB.
Choose the
The following right network
sections help you architecture for your wireless
become comfortable using dBnetwork
to calculate relative power levels
and dBm to calculate absolute power levels. Later, you will also use dBi to calculate and compare
Conduct
antenna gainsphysical
relative site surveys
to the and level
reference radio-frequency (RF)
of an isotropic site surveys
antenna.
License-free broadband wireless wide-area networks (WWANs) provide fast deployment of low-
cost, igh-speed "last-mile" wireless Internet access. Licese-free wireless technology delivers
Ratios
these benefits without requiring the use of products or sevies provided by local telephone or
able companies. WWANs enable Internet service provides (ISPs) and corporate IT managers to
deploydb
Every their own
value is cost-efficient broadband
a ratio. This section networks
explains ratios.that deliver
A ratio is ahigh-speed
comparisonaccess for buildings
between two
and areas where
quantities. Ratiostraditional
use a colonwired connectivity
(:) to is either
divide the two completely
quantities. Figureunavailable
2-11 uses or is cost-
pennies to show
prohibitive.
two examples Deploying License-Free Wireless Wide-Area Networks is the first book that provides
of ratios.
Figure 2-11. Penny Ratios
or outdoor
The first exampleenvironment
is a ratio of two-to-one (2:1), and the second example is a ratio of 100:1. The
first example shows a pile with two pennies next to a pile with one penny—a ratio between the
Choose
piles of the right
two pennies tonetwork architecture
one penny, for second
or 2:1. The your wireless
examplenetwork
shows a pile with 100 pennies
next to a pile with one penny—a ratio of 100:1.
Power Ratios
cable
Figurecompanies. WWANs
2-12 uses two enabletoInternet
flashlights show anservice providers
example (ISPs)
of a power and corporate IT managers to
ratio.
Figure 2-12. Flashlight Power Ratios
The flashlight on the

Practice the left has
business a powerused
principles of 40by
candlepower (as bright
successful wireless as (WISPs)
ISPs 40 candles). The flashlight
on the right is 10 candlepower. The power ratio, 40 candlepower to 10 candlepower, is 4:1.
Choose the right network architecture for your wireless network

NOTE
If you look closely, you'll also notice that the 40 candlepower flashlight beam travels
Lien only twice
se-free as far aswireless
broadband the 10 candlepower beam. Hmmm…
wide-area networks (WWANs) four timesfast
provide the deployment
power travels o
f low-
cost, high-speed "last-mile" wireless Internet access. License-free wireless technology more
only twice the distance? Yes, that is correct. The reason for this will be discussed delivers
theseatbenefits
the endwithout
of this chapter.
requiringYou
thewill
usealso see howor
of products toservices
quickly provided
and easilyby determine if you or
local telephone
can double the distance of a wireless link. (HINT: Do you have four times the
cable companies. WWANs enable Internet service providers (ISPs) and corporate IT managers to power?)
All power ratios

complete, use some
real-world quantity as design,
"start-to-finish" their initial reference
installation, point. Theand
operation, flashlight
supportexample in for
information
Figure 2-12 uses the 10-candlepower level (the smaller flashlight) as the reference
wireless ISPs and other organizations deploying outdoor wireless WANs-including coverage point. This
of
10-candlepower level is abbreviated "FL". + 6 dBFL now means 6 dB (or 4 times) larger
802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and proprietary-protocol networks. This vendor-neutral book covers than the
10 candlepower reference level, or 40 candlepower (the larger flashlight). As long as the
abbreviation (FL) and the power level (10 candlepower) are defined and communicated, then FL
can be used indefinitely as a reference level.
Wireless Power Ratios

• Table ofexamples
Figure 2-13 shows Contents of three wireless power ratios; each uses 1 Watt (1 W) of power as
• Index
their reference point. The 1-Watt reference point is abbreviated by the "W," the third letter in
Deploying
"dBW." If,License-Free Wireless
for example, you Wide-Area
were toldNetworks
that a transmitter had an output of +3 dBW, you would
know that
ByJack Ungerthe output power was twice (3 dB means two times) greater than (the + sign
indicates a power gain) 1 Watt (indicated by the "W") or a total of 2 Watts output.
Figure 2-13. Power Ratios in dBW (Relative to 1W)
dBm
The most common
Practice dB power
the business reference
principles level
used bywhen working
successful with wireless
wireless WANs is dBm. The "m"
ISPs (WISPs)
in dBm stands for 1 milliwatt. A milliwatt is 1/1000 of a watt. There are 1000 mW in 1Watt. 1
Use is
milliwatt 802.11a,
0 dBm. 802.11b, and values
Positive dBm 802.11g equipment
(such as +30 more
dBm)successfully in your
indicate power own
levels home,than
greater office,
1
mW. or outdoor
Negative environment
dBm values (such as –20 dBm) indicate power levels less than 1 mW.
Choose
This is a goodthe right
place to network
reaffirm architecture for your wireless
that all absolute-power network
decibel values contain three things:
A sign (+ or –) to indicate whether the value is above or below the absolute reference level
cost, The logarithmic
high-speed value that
"last-mile" represents
wireless theaccess.
Internet ratio ofLicense-free
the two powers, in decibels
wireless technology delivers
cableThe reference-power
companies. level, such
WWANs enable as the
Internet "m" meaning
service 1 (ISPs)
providers mW and corporate IT managers to
Table 2-1 shows

and areas where some of thewired
traditional most connectivity
common wireless power
is either levels (above
completely and below
unavailable 1 mW).
or is cost-
Table 2-1. Power Ratios in dBm (Relative to 1 mW)
Level
Power Level Relative to 1 mW (0 (+ or – Power Power

dBm) dBm) (Watts) Abbreviation
•4000 times Table

moreofthan 0 dBm
Contents +36 dBm 4Watts 4W (4000 mW)
•
1000 times Index
more than 0 dBm +30 dBm 1Watt 1W (1000 mW)
Two
ByJack times
Unger more than 0 dBm +3 dBm 2 milliwatts 2 mW
0 dBm Reference Level 0 dBm 1 milliwatt 1 mW

1/2 of 0 dBm –3 dBm 1/2 milliwatt 0.5 mW
1/1000 of 0
ISBN: dBm
1-58705-069-2 –30 dBm 1/1000 0.001 mW
Pages: 352 milliwatt
1/4000 of 0 dBm –36 dBm 1/4000 0.00025 mW

milliwatt
dBm Calculations and Reference Chart

It is possible to calculate a power gain or a power loss in decibels by using the following
formula:
dB = 10log(P2/P1)
This says that

Select thethe power
most ratio equipment
effective (in decibels) between
and antennaany two power
systems levels
for your is equal to 10 times
area
the log of the ratio of the two power levels. For example, if you have a transmitter with a power
outputAvoid common
of 100 mW and pitfalls encountered
you add by new
an amplifier with wireless
a power network
output ofoperators
400 mW, the increase in
power level (in decibels) is calculated as follows:
The initial power level (P1) is 100 mW.
Enjoy the satisfaction of providing wireless Internet access to your community
The new power level (P2) is 400 mW.
The ratio P2/P1 is 400/100, or 4.
or outdoor
The log of 4environment
(use a calculator here) is .602.
Choose
Ten the.602
times rightisnetwork
6.02 or, architecture foroff,
rounding this your wireless network
6 dB.
Conduct
The physical
power site surveys
has increased and greater
(P2 was radio-frequency
than P1),(RF) sitefinal
so the surveys
decibel value has a + sign
(+6 dB) to indicate that there is a four-times relative power gain.
cost, high-speed
Going "last-mile"
the other way, here iswireless Internet
an example of a access. License-free wireless technology delivers
power loss:
The power output

companies. WWANs of the same
enable 100-mW
Internet transmitter
service suddenly
providers (ISPs) drops down to 25
and corporate mW. P1 is
IT managers
100 mW and P2 is 25 mW.
y their own cost-efficient b
The ratio
bitive. P2/P1 is
Deploying 25/100 (1/4,
License-Free or .25).W
Wireless
TheISPs
ess log of
and.25other
is –0.602.
organ
Ten times (–0.602) is –6.02, or, rounding off, –6 dB.
The power has decreased (P2 was less than P1), so the final dB value has a – sign (–6 dB)
to indicate a power reduction down to 1/4 of the original value.
When you need to convert a power in watts to an absolute power in dBm, use the following
formula:
dBm = Table
10logof(Power
Contentsin watts) + 30
This saysLicense-Free
Deploying that the power ratio
Wireless in dBmNetworks
Wide-Area equals 10times the log of the power in watts plus 30. For
example, if
Jack Unger you have a transmitter with 1W of output power, the output power in dBm is as
follows:
The log of 1 is 0. (Check it on your calculator.)
Ten times
ISBN: 0 is also 0.
1-58705-069-2
Pages: 352
Add 30 and the answer is +30 dBm.
1W of power is equal to +30 dBm.
It is usually easier and quicker to use the following reference table (Table 2-2) to find dBm
Best practices
levels; however,forfrom
planning
time and deployment
to time, of broadband
you should WWANs.
practice using the formulas to keep sharp on how
dBm ratios work.
Table 2-2. Decibel (dB) Reference Chart

Select
Power the(dBm)
Level most effective
Powerequipment
Loss and antenna
Power systems
Gain for your area
(Relative to 0 dBm or (Relative to 0 dBm (Relative to 0 dBm
Avoid common pitfalls
1 mW) orencountered
1 mW) by new wireless
or 1 mW) network operators
Comments
–104Minimize the effects of

40noise andof
percent interference
1 ten- on your network
billionth of 1 mW
–100 1 ten-billionth of 1
Practice the business mW
principles used by successful wireless ISPs (WISPs)
–85 3 billionths
b, of 1 equi
and 802.11g mW Threshold
your own where
home, most
office
receivers start
working
Choose the right network architecture for your wireless network
–40 1/10,000 of 1 mW
–30 surveysofand
1/1000 rad
1 mW
License-free
–20 broadband wireless
1/100 wide-area
of 1 mW networks (WWANs) provide fast deployment of low-
–13 benefits without requiring

these 1/20 of 1 mW
the use of products or services provided by local telephone or
–10 their own cost-efficient

deploy 1/10broadband
of 1 mW networks that deliver high-speed access for buildings
nd l wired conn
–9 1/8 of 1 mW
complete,
–6 real-world "start-to-finish"
1/4 of 1 mW design, installation, operation, and support information for
–3
802.11a, 1/2and
802.11b, 802.11g, of 1proprietary-protocol
mW networks. This vendor-neutral book covers
0 dBm Reference
0 dBm No Power Loss No Power Gain Level (1 mW)
+3 2 times 1 mW
+6 4 times 1 mW
+9 8 times 1 mW 8 mW
+ 10 10 times 1 mW 10 mW
+ 13 20 times 1 mW 20 mW
ByJack Unger
+ 16 40 times 1 mW 40 mW
+ 20 100 times 1 mW 100 mW
+ 30 1000 times 1 mW 1W
+ 40 10,000 times 1 mW 10W
+ 85 316,000,000 times 1 316 kW (316

mW kilowatts)
+ 100 10 billion times 1 mW 10 MW (10

megawatts)
Antenna Characteristics
Antennas are the most important part of every wireless WAN. Every WAN covers a wide area.
Without an antenna, wireless power travels only a short distance, perhaps a few dozen feet. To
successfully deploy license-free wireless WANs, you need to understand the key concepts of
• Table ofand
antenna directivity Contents
antenna gain.
Antenna Directivity
Antennas radiate wireless power—that is, antennas accept wireless signal energy from the
transmission line connected
Pub Date: February 26, 2003 to a transmitter and launch that wireless energy into free space.
Antennas focus
ISBN: the wireless energy like a flashlight reflector focuses the light from the flashlight
1-58705-069-2
bulb.Figure 2-14 compares the energy radiated from a bare, unfocused flashlight bulb to the
Pages: 352
focused energy radiated from a flashlight bulb with a reflector behind it.
these benefits without requiring the use of products or services provided by local telephone or
Notice that in Figure 2-14, the flashlight bulb on the left radiates light energy in all directions.
cable companies. WWANs enable Internet service providers (ISPs) and corporate IT managers t
There is no focusing element, and no direction receives more light than any other direction. The
deploy their own cost-efficient broadband networks that deliver high-speed access for buildings
light energy radiated from the unfocused flashlight bulb is similar to the wireless energy radiated
from a theoretical isotropic antenna. An isotropic antenna radiates wireless energy equally in all
directions and does not focus the energy in any single direction.
complete, real-world "start-to-finish" design, installation, opera
wireless
In ISPs
contrast to and otherflashlight
the bare organizations
bulb, deploying outdoor
the flashlight wireless
on the WANs-including
right has coverage
a reflector behind of
the bulb.
802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and proprietary-protocol networks. This vendor-neutral
The reflector focuses the light into a beam that comes out the front of the flashlight. The boo
flashlight does not amplify the power or the total amount of light from the flashlight bulb. The
flashlight simply focuses the light so that all of it travels in the same direction. By focusing the
light, the flashlight provides more directivity (beam-focusing power) for the light energy.
Similarly, an antenna provides directivity for the wireless energy that it focuses. Depending on
their design, construction, and orientation, antennas focus and radiate their energy more
strongly in one favored direction. When they are receiving, antennas focus and gather energy
from their favored direction and ignore most of the energy arriving from all other directions.
Antenna Radiation Patterns

ByJack Unger
Antennas exhibit directivity by radiating most of their power in one direction—the direction of
their major Cisco
Publisher: (or main)
Press lobe. They radiate only a small amount of power in other directions—the
directions of their minor (or side) lobes. Figure 2-15 shows a top view of a directional antenna.
Figure 2-15. Horizontal Radiation Pattern of a Directional Antenna
Figure 2-15 illustrates the horizontal radiation pattern of the antenna. It shows both the main
802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and proprietary-protocol networks. This vendor-neutral book covers
and the side lobes. A main lobe exists toward the front of the antenna and several side lobes
exist toward the back of the antenna. Nulls—areas where no power is radiated—exist to the sides
of the antenna.
All antennas provide the same directivity on both transmit and receive. An antenna radiates
transmitter power in the favored direction(s) when transmitting. The antenna gathers signals
coming in from the favored direction(s) when receiving.
NOTE
When receiving, antenna directivity not only gathers incoming signals from the favored
direction, but it also reduces noise, interference, and unwanted signals coming in from
other directions. Keep this important point in mind as you select antennas for your
ISBN: 1-58705-069-2
networks; use antenna directivity to reduce noise coming from unwanted directions.
Figure 2-16 shows another view of antenna directivity: the vertical radiation pattern, when you
look at an antenna from the side.
Figure
Learn2-16.
insider Vertical Radiation
tips from an experiencedPattern of an leader
wireless industry Omnidirectional Antenna
Conduct
This view physical
shows site surveys and
an omnidirectional radio-frequency
antenna (RF)side
with main and sitelobes
surveys
in the vertical direction.
An omnidirectional antenna radiates equally well in all horizontal directions around the antenna
but has a main lobe in the vertical direction. This main lobe surrounds the antenna like a
cost, high-speed "last-mile" wireless Internet access. License-free wireless technology delivers
doughnut.
Antenna Gain
complete, real-world
Measuring the power "start-to-finish"
in the main lobedesign, installation,
of an antenna operation, that
and comparing and support
power toinformation for
the power in
wireless
the mainISPs
lobe and
of a other organizations
reference deploying outdoor
antenna determines the gainwireless WANs-including
of an antenna. Antenna coverage
gain is of
802.11a, 802.11b,
measured 802.11g,
in decibels, and
either in proprietary-protocol
dBi or in dBd. networks. This vendor-neutral book covers
If the reference antenna is a dipole, the measured antenna gain is in dBd. The "d" in dBd means
that the gain is measured relative to the gain of a dipole reference antenna.
If the reference antenna is an isotropic antenna, the antenna gain is measured in dBi. The "i" in
dBi means that the gain is measured relative to an isotropic reference antenna.
NOTE
Chapter 5, "Selecting Antenna Systems," defines and discusses isotropic antennas and
dipole antennas in more detail. For now, the important point to remember is that your
wireless WAN uses antennas that have more directivity (and therefore more gain) than
either a simple dipole or an isotropic antenna.
Antenna Spillover
Now that you are familiar with the horizontal and vertical directivity of antennas, there is one
Best
morepractices for planning
point to keep in mind.and deployment
Wireless power of broadband
never WWANs.
stops exactly on a sharp line like the main and
the side lobe drawings show. Wireless power tapers off—it declines gradually rather than
suddenly. In other words, some transmitter power and some receive capability exist outside of
the main and side lobes of each antenna.
Antenna Beamw idth
Beamwidth—the width of the main beam (main lobe) of an antenna—measures the directivity of
the antenna. The smaller the beamwidth in degrees, the more the antenna focuses power into its
main lobe. The more power in the main lobe, the further the antenna can communicate.
•
Beamwidth isTable of Contents
specified in two dimensions:
Horizontal
Unger
beamwidth around the antenna
Vertical beamwidth above and below the antenna

Figure 2-17February
Pub Date: shows 26,
an 2003
example of the horizontal pattern of a directional antenna. This antenna
has one main
ISBN: lobe that extends outward from the front of the antenna.
1-58705-069-2
Figure 2-17. Horizontal Beamwidth Showing Half-Power Points

Figure 2-18 shows an example of the vertical pattern of an omnidirectional antenna. This
antenna has one main lobe extending outward in all directions (like a doughnut) from the
antenna. The antenna sticks up like a pencil through the center of the doughnut.
Figure 2-18. Vertical Beamwidth Showing Half-Power Points
Remember from
Minimize the
the discussion
effects of wireless
of noise spillover on
and interference that wireless
your network power does not stop and start
exactly along a straight line but declines gradually with distance; therefore, a consistent method
is needed
Enjoytothe
define the width
satisfaction of of the main
providing lobe. This
wireless method
Internet is visible
access in Figures
to your community2-17 and 2-18.
The smooth outlines of the main lobes show the approximate intensity of the wireless power at
various distances
Practice away from
the business the antenna,
principles butsuccessful
used by the dottedwireless
lines inside
ISPsthe smooth lines enclose
(WISPs)
most of the power of the main lobe. These dotted lines pass through the half-power points—the
pointsUseon 802.11a,
each side802.11b,
of the center
and of
802.11g
the main
equipment
lobe wheremorethesuccessfully
wireless power
in your
is one-half
own home,
as strong
office,
orat
as it is outdoor environment
the center of the lobe. The angle between the two dotted lines defines the horizontal or
vertical beamwidth of the antenna.
Obtaining Wireless Line-of-Sight Paths
When a wireless signal encounters an obstruction, the signal is always attenuated and often
reflected or diffracted. With outdoor wireless WANs, the attenuation from these encounters is
usually so great that not enough signal remains to be detected at the other end of the link. When
•
you design aTable of Contents
wireless WAN link, it is important to work to achieve a wireless line-of-sight (LOS)
•
path. This is Index
a path that has no obstructions to significantly block, diffract, absorb, or attenuate
the wireless
Deploying signal. AWireless
License-Free wireless LOS path
Wide-Area typically requires a visual LOS path plus additional path
Networks
clearance to
ByJack Unger account for the spreading of the wireless signal. The following paragraphs describe
visual and wireless LOS paths and help you understand how a wireless LOS path is different from
a visual LOS path.
Visual LOS Path

If you can see from one antenna to the other, you have a visual LOS path, as shown in Figure 2-
19. You might or might not have an unobstructed wireless LOS path.
Figure 2-19. Visual LOS Path

Difference Between
Choose the Visual
right network and Wireless
architecture LOS network
for your wireless Paths
How can there be a difference between the visual and the wireless LOS paths? There is a
difference because of the vast difference between the wavelength of a wireless wave and the
wavelength of a visible light wave. Figure 2-20 shows this physical wavelength difference.
Figure 2-20. Difference between Wireless Wavelength and
Visible Wavelength
Best practicessignal
The 2.4-GHz for planning and deployment
has a wavelength of 4.8 of
in.broadband
(12.5 cm).WWANs.
The 5.8-GHz wireless signal has a
wavelength of 2 in. (5.3 cm). The light wave, which is green, has a wavelength of 1/50,000 of an
inch (.53 micrometers), which is much shorter than either of the wireless signals. The
wavelength of the green light wave is only approximately 1/100,000 as long as the wavelength
of theUnderstand
5.8-GHz wireless signal. that underlie the operation of all wireless systems
the principles
NOTE
A lightwave is similar to a wireless wave. Both lightwaves and wireless waves are
forms of electromagnetic
Minimize radiation.
the effects of noise Although there
and interference is anetwork
on your substantial size difference
between the wavelength of light and the wavelength of wireless, they both obey the
Enjoylaws
same the satisfaction of they
of physics as providing wireless
propagate. YouInternet access
might want to to your
think ofcommunity
wireless signals as
lightwaves that the eye cannot see.
or outdoor
The shorter environment
the wavelength of an electromagnetic wave, the less clearance it needs from the
objects that it passes as it travels from Point A to Point B. The less clearance a wave needs, the
closerChoose thecan
the wave right network
pass to an architecture for yourexperiencing
obstruction without wireless network
an additional loss in signal
strength. The next section shows you how to calculate how close a wave can come to an
obstruction without experiencing additional attenuation. This clearance distance is called the
Fresnel zone. For now, look at the waves in Figure 2-21. Both a green lightwave and a 2.4-GHz
wireless wave are traveling the same path and passing by the same building.
Figure 2-21. Visual and Wireless LOS Paths
The short wavelength of the green light wave needs to clear the building only by a fraction of an
inch to avoid being attenuated. All of the green light wave easily clears the building. The longer-
wavelength 2.4-GHz wireless wave has a larger Fresnel zone and needs to clear the building by
quite Learn
a few insider
feet to avoid being
tips from anattenuated.
experiencedThe next section
wireless provides
industry leader more information about
calculating the necessary Fresnel zone clearance.
Fresnel Zone
The concept of the Fresnel zone (pronounced "frA-nel"; the "s" is silent) provides a method of
calculating
Avoid the amount
common of clearance
pitfalls that a
encountered bywireless wave (or
new wireless a lightoperators
network wave) needs from an
obstacle to ensure that the obstacle does not attenuate the signal. Figure 2-22 shows two ways
Minimize
to calculate thethe effects
Fresnel of noise
zone and interference on your network
clearance.
Figure 2-22 - Fresnel Zone Calculations

The amount of Fresnel zone clearance is determined by the wavelength of the signal, the total
path length, and
Enjoy the the distance
satisfaction to the obstacle.
of providing The
wireless Fresnelaccess
Internet zone istoalways widest in the middle of
your community
the path, between the two antennas. At least 60 percent of the calculated Fresnel zone must be
clear Practice
to avoid the
significant signal
business attenuation.
principles used byIn Figure 2-22,
successful the top
wireless ISPsof(WISPs)
the hill extends so far into
the Fresnel zone that 60 percent of the Fresnel zone is not clear; therefore, part of the signal will
be attenuated. Figure
Use 802.11a, 2-23 shows
802.11b, the calculation
and 802.11g of Fresnel
equipment zone clearance
more successfully for aown
in your green lightoffice,
home,
waveor over a two-mile
outdoor path with a hill located at the middle of the path.
environment
Figure 2-23. Fresnel Zone Clearance for a Green Light
Enjoythe satisfaction of providing wireless Internet access to your community
Practice
Figure the business
2-24 shows principles
the calculation used byzone
of Fresnel successful wireless
clearance for aISPs (WISPs)
2.4-GHz signal over the same
two-mile path.
Figure 2-24. Fresnel Zone Clearance for 2.4GHz
Practice
The green the
light business
wave principles
in Figure used have
2-23 must by successful wireless
a clear Fresnel ISPs
zone (WISPs)that is at least 0.48
diameter
in. (1.22 cm), or 60 percent of the calculated Fresnel zone diameter, to avoid being partially
attenuated. The required clearance above the hill (the radius of the calculated 60 percent Fresnel
zone diameter) is one-half of the diameter, so the green light wave must clear the hill by one-
half of 0.48 in.,
Choose theor by 0.24
right in. (0.61
network cm). for your wireless network
architecture
The 2.4-GHz
Conductwireless
physicalwave in Figure
site surveys 2-24
and must have a clear
radio-frequency (RF) Fresnel zone diameter that is at
site surveys
least by 19.7 ft (6 m), or 60 percent of the calculated Fresnel zone diameter, to avoid being
partially attenuated.
License-free broadbandThewireless
requiredwide-area
clearancenetworks
above the hill (the radius
(WWANs) provideoffast
thedeployment
calculated 60
of low-
percent Fresnel zone diameter) is one-half of the diameter, so the wireless wave
cost, high-speed "last-mile" wireless Internet access. License-free wireless technology must delivers
clear the
hill
thesebybenefits
one-halfwithout
of 19.7 requiring
ft, or by 9.85 ft (3
the use ofm).
products or services provided by local telephone or
cable companies. WWANs enable Internet service providers (ISPs) and corporate IT managers to
You cantheir
deploy see from Figures 2-23 broadband
own cost-efficient and 2-24 how a visual
networks LOS
that path can
deliver exist that
high-speed allows
access foryou to see
buildings
from Point A to Point B with no attenuation, whereas a wireless wave traveling
and areas where traditional wired connectivity is either completely unavailable or is cost- the same path
will experience
prohibitive. significant
Deploying additionalWireless
License-Free attenuation. Many Networks
Wide-Area times in your life,
is the you
first have
book heard
that the
provides
expression, "Seeing is believing." Figures 2-23 and 2-24 provide a graphic example
complete, real-world "start-to-finish" design, installation, operation, and support information for that, when
you are working
wireless ISPs andwithotherwireless,
organizations is not believing."
"Seeingdeploying outdoor In other words,
wireless just because
WANs-including you can
coverage of
see
802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and proprietary-protocol networks. This vendor-neutral bookpath.
to the other end of a wireless path, do not believe that you have a clear LOS wireless cove
The clear, visual LOS path does not mean that you have an attenuation-free wireless path. You
must calculate the size of the Fresnel zone and confirm that the clearance above any obstacle(s)
is at least equal to one-half of 60 percent of the Fresnel zone diameter.
Wireless Link Budget
A wireless link budget calculation totals the signal gains, subtracts the signal losses over the
length of a wireless link, and predicts whether the signal level that arrives at the receiver will be
high enough for the link to work reliably. If the link budget predicts that the link will not work
•
reliably, you Table of Contents
can examine the gain of each link budget element to see which elements to change
• Index to get the link to work.
and by how much

NOTE
The following
ISBN: link budget discussion explains the link budget elements as if the signal
1-58705-069-2
path went
Pages: 352 only one way: from Transmitter A to Receiver B. Wireless WAN links in the
real world operate in both directions—with a transmitter and a receiver at each end of
every link. Therefore, your two-way wireless links have two link budgets—one in each
direction. Due to differences in transmitter power or receiver sensitivity, the link
budgets in each direction can be different.
The individual link budget

Learn insider elements
tips from are as follows:
an experienced wireless industry leader
Transmitter power output
Transmitter antenna system coaxial cable (transmission line) loss
Transmitting antenna gain
Free-space path loss
Receiving antenna gain
Receiver antenna system transmission line loss
Receiver sensitivity threshold
Transmitter Output Power

The transmitter generates
Conduct physical site power and
surveys delivers
and it to the transmitter
radio-frequency output connector. This power
(RF) site surveys
level is specified in dBm—decibels referenced to 1 mW. Typical transmitter output powers range
from 10 mW broadband
License-free (+10 dBm)wireless
to 1W (+30 dBm).networks
wide-area Transmitter output provide
(WWANs) power adds
fast to the link budget.
deployment of low-
Transmitter Antenna System Transmission Line Loss

The transmitter antenna system coaxial cable or transmission line carries power from the
transmitter output connector to the transmitting antenna. Some power is lost in the cable (and
in the cable connectors and lightning arrestor) during this process. The smaller the diameter of
the cable and the shorter the wireless wavelength (the higher the frequency), the more power
802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and proprietary-protocol networks. This vendor-neutral book cov
that is lost. Typical power losses at 2.4 GHz are 7 dB for each 100-ft length of 3/8-in. diameter
cable. The total transmission line loss is subtracted from the link budget.
TIP
Table of Contents
Always design your wireless links to minimize the length of the antenna cables. Place
Index
the transmitter and the receiver as close as possible to the antenna. By doing this, you
maximize the distance and the reliability of your wireless links.
Transmitting
Pub Date: FebruaryAntenna
26, 2003 Gain
ISBN: 1-58705-069-2
The transmitting
Pages: 352 antenna receives power from the transmission line. The antenna focuses and
concentrates this power and radiates it toward the distant receiver. This focusing ability results
in an effective power gain in the direction of the antenna's main lobe. For 2.4-GHz antennas,
gains typically range from +6 dBi to +24 dBi. The transmitting antenna gain adds to the link
budget.
Free-Space Path Loss

You must pay a price
Understand to use thethat
the principles magic of wireless.
underlie That price
the operation is that
of all mostsystems
wireless of the wireless energy
that leaves your transmitting antenna is lost—gone forever. Only a tiny fraction of the
Learn how
transmitted to provide
energy profitable
ever arrives at theand reliableantenna.
receiving wireless How
Internet
much access
of the energy actually
arrives? If you have a 2.4-GHz signal that travels 1 mile, your receiving antenna catches less
than 1Select the most
ten billionth ofeffective equipment
the energy that youand antenna
radiated systems
from for your area
your transmitting antenna. All the
energy that is lost (remember that there is no wire present) is called the free-space path loss.
Avoid the
The longer common pitfalls
wireless pathencountered by new
and the shorter the wireless
wavelengthnetwork
of theoperators
wireless signal, the higher
the free-space path loss. The free-space path loss can be calculated using the following formula:
PL = 96.6 + 10 log(d2) + 10 log(f2) dB
where f is the frequency in GHz and d is the distance in miles.
If you prefer to use metric units to compute the free-space path loss, here is the formula:
or outdoor
PL = 92.4 +environment
20 log(f) + 20 log(d) dB
whereChoose
f is thethe right network
frequency in GHzarchitecture
and d is thefor your wireles
distance in km.
TableConduct physical
2-3 shows site
several surveys of
examples and radio-frequency
free-space (RF)
path loss for site
the surveys
2.4-GHz and 5.7-GHz
frequency bands.
Table 2-3. Examples of Free-Space Path
Free-Space Path Loss at 1 Mile (1.6 Free-Space Path Loss at 2 Miles (3.2
km) km)
2.4 104 dB 110 dB

GHz
5.7 112 dB 118 dB

GHz
Wireless IsPress
Publisher: Cisco Magic!
If youISBN:
stop1-58705-069-2
and think about wireless signals for a minute, you will probably agree
with Pages:
the statement,
352 "Wireless is magic." You know—invisible energy waves that carry
voices, pictures, and information almost instantly through the air, through you, and
even through interplanetary space at distances of thousands, and sometimes millions
of miles. Only a tiny fraction of the transmitted energy ever arrives at the receiving
end, and yet wireless works! Wireless has seemed like magic to me since I was 10
years old.

Receiving Antenna Gain
The receiving antenna works like the transmitting antenna to concentrate energy, but in reverse.
Learn how
The receiving to provide
antenna profitable
gathers and reliablethe
and concentrates wireless
small Internet
amount of access
power that reaches it at the
far end of a wireless link. Think for a moment about the catcher in a game of baseball. The
Select
receiving the most
antenna effective
works equipment
a lot like and antenna
the catcher's systems
glove. The largerfor your
the areathe easier it is for
glove,
the catcher to grab the ball that the pitcher throws. The larger your receiving antenna, the easier
it is for the antenna to grab the incoming signal—and the more signal that the antenna grabs.
The more signal
Minimize thethe antenna
effects receives,
of noise the more gain
and interference onthat
yourisnetwork
added to the link budget.
Receiver Antenna System Transmission Line Loss

The receiving antenna
Use 802.11a, systemand
802.11b, transmission line carries
802.11g equipment power
more from the receiving
successfully in your ownantenna
home,tooffice,
the
receiver input. Just like with
or outdoor environment the transmitter antenna system transmission line, some power is
lost in the cable during this process. This cable loss subtracts from the link budget.
ConductSensitivity
Receiver physical site surveys and radio-frequency (RF) site surveys
Threshold
Each receiver has"last-mile"
cost, high-speed a thresholdwireless
level—aInternet
minimum level License-free
access. of signal where the receiver
wireless just starts
technology to
delivers
operate. The receiver cannot detect signals below this threshold. The receiver
these benefits without requiring the use of products or services provided by local telephone orantenna system
(receiving
cable antennaWWANs
companies. plus transmission line) service
enable Internet must deliver a signal
providers that
(ISPs) is at
and or aboveITthis
corporate threshold
managers to
for the wireless link to begin to operate. A typical threshold for an 11-Mbps 2.4-GHz
deploy their own cost-efficient broadband networks that deliver high-speed access for buildings wireless link
receiver
and is where
areas aroundtraditional
–85 dBm.wired
The smaller (the more
connectivity negative)
is either this number
completely is, the
unavailable or more sensitive
is cost-
the receiver is. For example, a receiver that has a threshold of –90 dBm is more
prohibitive.Deploying License-Free Wireless Wide-Area Networks is the first book that provides sensitive than a
receiver that has a threshold of –85 dBm.
NOTE
There is a tradeoff between receiver sensitivity and receiver data rate. Generally, the
higher the data rate of the receiver, the less sensitive the receiver is. For example, a
receiver that has a threshold of –85 dBm at a data rate of 2 megabits per second (2
Mbps) might have a threshold of only –80 dBm at a data rate of 11 Mbps. If you
compareTable
the of
sensitivities
Contents of two different receivers, be sure you compare them at the
same data rate
Index
(or bandwidth) setting.
Fade Margin
The reason for calculating a wireless link budget is to design and build a reliable wireless link.
ISBN: 1-58705-069-2
Microwave signals normally interact with many objects in their environment, as discussed
Pages: 352
throughout this chapter. Therefore, fading is a normal condition for all microwave links. To
overcome the effects of this fading and to provide reliable service, every microwave link needs a
certain amount of extra signal, over and above the minimum receiver threshold level. This extra
signal is called the fade margin. Another term sometimes used for this extra signal is system-
operating margin (SOM ). Most wireless equipment manufacturers recommend a minimum fade
Best practices
margin for planning
of at least +10 dB toand deployment
ensure reliableof broadband
link WWANs.
performance. In general, the longer the link,
the more fluctuation in signal levels and the greater the fade margin needs to be. Figure 2-25
shows a sample link budget calculation, including the calculated fade margin.
Figure 2-25.profitable
how to provide Link Budget and
and reliable Fade Internet
wireless Marginaccess
Calculations
Conduct physical
By calculating the fadesite surveys
margin, youand
canradio-frequency (RF) site
predict the reliability of asurveys
wireless link. The 2-mile long
link shown in Figure 2-25 has a fade margin of +23 dB. +23 dB is 13 dB more than the 10 dB
fade margin needed to make this link perform reliably; therefore, you can conclude that this link
is going to deliver excellent reliability.
these benefits without requiring the us
ibitiv
TIP
wireless
It isISPs and other
important that organizations deploying
you measure the outdoor
fade margin of wireless WANs-including
every link coverage
that you install. Even of
802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and proprietary-protocol networks. This vendor-neutral
though the calculated fade margin might be 10 dB or more, it is possible that book covers
installation mistakes or local noise conditions could reduce the performance of your
real-world links. After you measure the fade margin, you can be sure that the link will
operate reliably. Chapter 7, "Installing Outdoor Wireless Systems," covers the fade
margin measurement process in detail.
Doubling
• the ofLink
Table Distance
Contents

Doubling the distance of a wireless link requires four times more signal power, not twice the
power
By like intuition would suggest. Wireless signal power declines as the square of the distance
Jack Unger
covered. Doubling the distance of the wireless link requires 2 2, or four times, the power. Four
times the power
Publisher: is +6 dB (as shown in Figure 2-13).
Cisco Press
After you have measured the fade margin on a link, you can predict how far the link can be
ISBN: 1-58705-069-2
extended. For example, the fade margin on the 2-mile 2.4-GHz link in Figure 2-25 is +23 dB.
Pages: 352
Doubling the distance requires four times (+6 dB) more power. Starting from the 2-mile fade
margin of +23 dB and subtracting 6 dB leaves a remaining fade margin of +17 dB. This is 7 dB
more than the minimum required fade margin of 10 dB; therefore, you can double the distance
of this link to 4 miles and still have a reliable link. Of course, these figures are true only if both
the 2-mile and the 4-mile link have unobstructed wireless LOS paths.
If you calculate or measure a fade margin of less than 10 dB (or whatever value of fade margin
the manufacturer of your equipment recommends), you need to increase the power or reduce
Learn
the loss insider
of one tips from
or more of theansystem
experienced wireless
elements shownindustry leader
in Figure 2-25. You can increase the
transmitter power, reduce the transmission line loss, use a larger antenna, or use a more
Understand
sensitive receiver.the
Anyprinciples
of these that underlie the
improvements operation
will increaseof allfade
the wireless systems
margin and improve the
reliability of your link.
Tips for Planning Long Wireless Links
The longer a wireless link, the more important it is to properly design and plan the link so that it
will provide you with reliable performance. The following sections provide some reminders to
help you plan longer, reliable wireless links. Consider your links that are longer than about 7
•
miles (11 km)Table of Contents
to be long links.
Antenna Height
As you know, the earth is curved. The distance to the radio horizon is 7.75 miles (12.5 km) for
an antenna that is 26,
Pub Date: February mounted
2003 30 ft (9 m) above the ground, assuming a k-factor of 4/3.
Longer link 352

Pages: distances require that you mount your antennas higher above the ground to extend
your radio horizon. You can calculate the distance in miles to the radio horizon by multiplying
1.415 times the square root of the height of your antenna (in feet) above the ground. You can
calculate the distance in kilometers to the radio horizon by multiplying 4.124 times the square
root of the height of your antenna (in meters) above the ground.
Fresnel Zone
You know that a wireless wave needs a clearance (Fresnel) zone from objects that it passes close
to. You also know that the size of this Fresnel zone is largest in the middle of a wireless path and
that the Fresnel
Learn zone
how to size increases
provide profitableboth
and with longer
reliable distances
wireless and access
Internet with higher frequencies.
The longer
Selectyour link, the
the most higher
effective above theand
equipment earth your antennas
antenna need
systems for to be
your mounted so that the
area
part of your wireless wave closest to the earth can maintain an adequate Fresnel zone clearance
aboveAvoid
the earth.
common pitfalls encountered by new wireless network operators
Atmospheric Refraction (k-Factor)

You have learned
Practice that the k-factor
the business varies
principles useddepending on the
by successful temperature,
wireless the water vapor, and
ISPs (WISPs)
the barometric pressure of the atmosphere. The k-factor is usually greater than 1, bending
microwave signals around
Use 802.11a, the
802.11b, earth
and and extending
802.11g equipmentthe radio
more horizon beyond
successfully the
in your visual
own horizon
home, office,
by approximately 15 percent. Sometimes, however, the k-factor can be less than 1, causing
microwave signals to bend away from the Earth and causing the radio horizon to be closer than
Choose
the visual the right network architecture for your wireless network
horizon.
Conduct
The longer physicallink,
a wireless site the
surveys
moreand radio-frequency
regions (RF) site
of the atmosphere surveys
the wireless wave passes through
and the more frequently the k-factor changes. These k-factor changes result in more frequent
License-free
changes broadband
in your wirelesswireless wide-area
path and networks
more frequent (WWANs)
fading. provide
You need fast adeployment
to allow higher fadeof low-
margin.
Link Budget
You remember
complete, that a "start-to-finish"
real-world reliable wirelessdesign,
link requires each receiver
installation, to receive
operation, a signal
and support that fits for
information
both of the following conditions:
Is above the receiver threshold
Is high enough above the threshold to fade (usually at least 10 dB) and still remain above
the threshold
The transmitter power, transmission line loss, antenna gain, and receiver sensitivity might need
to be adjusted to maintain an adequate fade margin. The longer your wireless link, the more
variation in signal strength and the more fade margin you need.
•
• Index
A rule-of-thumb that I like to use is to add 1 decibel of additional fade margin (above the
original 10 dB) for every additional mile beyond 10 miles of link distance.
Long-Link Strategies
ISBN: 1-58705-069-2
To successfully design, plan, install, and test long links, consider doing some (or all) of the
following:
Get help from wireless equipment vendors to select equipment and antenna systems with
appropriate fade margins.
practices for planning
Consult advanced and deployment
wireless engineeringof broadband
textbooks WWANs.
(see the books in Appendix B, "Wireless
Hardware, Software, and Service Provider Organizations").
Consult with people (both paid and unpaid) who have more hands-on wireless experience
than you do.t
Understand
Install the links
Learn how carefully;
to provide pay particular
profitable attention
and reliable to mounting
wireless the antennas firmly and
Internet access
aligning them correctly.
Allow more time to test longer wireless links before placing them into service.
Monitor your long links to be sure that they are providing reliable service.
Enjoy the journey. Although long wireless links require you to spend more time and energy
to do itthe
Enjoy right, the rewards
satisfaction for you in
of providing personal
wireless satisfaction
Internet accessare
to substantial and long lasting.
your community
Have fun with wireless—after all, whether you realize it or not, wireless is having fun with
you.
Review Questions
1: How does the wavelength of a wireless signal change as the frequency of the signal
increases?
Table of Contents
2: When a 2.4-GHz signal encounters an obstruction, what happens?
3: Does ionospheric reflection occur at microwave frequencies?
4: How is wireless power measured?
ISBN:In
5: 1-58705-069-2
the abbreviation dBm, what does the "m" stand for?
Pages: 352
6: If 1Watt equals +30 dBm, then 2W equals how many dBm?
7: The main lobe of a non-isotropic antenna radiates power in which direction?
A. In one horizontal direction

insider tips from an experience
B. In two horizontal directions
tand the principles that underlie the
C. Equally in all horizontal directions
how to provide p
D. Both A and C
8: If you can stand at one antenna and see the antenna at the other end of a wireless
Avoidlink, do you
common have encountered
pitfalls a line-of-sight
bywireless path? network operators
new wireless
9: Tripling
Minimize the the distance
effects on and
of noise an unobstructed
interference wireless link requires increasing the power
on your network
how many times?

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Deploying License-Free Wireless Wide-Area Networks

201 West 103rd Street

Indianapolis, IN 46290 USA

Printed in the United States of America 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

Second Printing June 2003

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Number: 2001098196

Warning and Disclaimer

We greatly appreciate your assistance.

Correction for Figure 2-25 on Page 52

Figure 2-1 shows

Conduct physical site surveys and radio-frequency (RF) site surveys

Figure 2-2. Physical Size (Wavelength) of Wireless Waves

Best practices for planning and deployment of broadband WWANs.

Figure 2-3. Attenuation of a 4.8-inch (5-cm) Signal by a Tree

here's the point.

Figure 2-5. Free-Space Wave

Publisher: Cisco Press

Best practices for planning and deployment of broadband WWANs.

The signal arrivesthe

Learn how to provide profitable and reliable wireless Internet access

Figure 2-7. Microwave Signal Reflection

Figure 2-9. Signal Diffraction Around an Obstruction

Rain, Snow, and Hail

Practice the business principles used by successful wireless ISPs (WISPs)

The flashlight on the

Choose the right network architecture for your wireless network

All power ratios

Wireless Power Ratios

Figure 2-13. Power Ratios in dBW (Relative to 1W)

Table 2-1 shows

Power Level Relative to 1 mW (0 (+ or – Power Power

•4000 times Table

0 dBm Reference Level 0 dBm 1 milliwatt 1 mW

1/4000 of 0 dBm –36 dBm 1/4000 0.00025 mW

dBm Calculations and Reference Chart

This says that

The power output

The log of 1 is 0. (Check it on your calculator.)

1W of power is equal to +30 dBm.

Table 2-2. Decibel (dB) Reference Chart

–104Minimize the effects of

–13 benefits without requiring

–10 their own cost-efficient

+ 20 100 times 1 mW 100 mW

+ 40 10,000 times 1 mW 10W

+ 85 316,000,000 times 1 316 kW (316

+ 100 10 billion times 1 mW 10 MW (10

Antenna Radiation Patterns

Figure 2-15. Horizontal Radiation Pattern of a Directional Antenna

Vertical beamwidth above and below the antenna

Figure 2-17. Horizontal Beamwidth Showing Half-Power Points

Figure 2-18. Vertical Beamwidth Showing Half-Power Points

Visual LOS Path

Figure 2-19. Visual LOS Path

Minimize the effects of noise and interference on your network