Chapter – 2

Introduction to object-orientation

 Object-orientation in software engineering, often referred to as Object-Oriented Programming (OOP),

is a programming paradigm that organizes code based on the concept of "objects". These objects
represent real-world entities and encapsulate their properties (attributes) and behaviors (methods).
 Object-orientation provides a structured way to approach software design and development.
 It leads to code that is modular, reusable, and easier to maintain.
 This paradigm is widely used in software engineering and is supported by many programming
languages like Java, Python, C++, and more.

Here are the key aspects of object-orientation in software engineering:

1. Objects and Classes: An object is a self-contained unit that combines data (attributes) and behavior
(methods) that operate on the data. A class is a blueprint or template that defines the structure and
behavior of objects.

2. Encapsulation: Encapsulation is the concept of bundling data and methods that work on the data
within a single unit, i.e., a class. This helps in hiding the internal state and behavior of an object and
exposing only the necessary interfaces.

3. Inheritance: Inheritance allows one class (the subclass) to inherit the properties and behaviors of
another class (the superclass). This promotes code reuse and helps in creating a hierarchy of
classes.

4. Polymorphism: Polymorphism allows objects to take on multiple forms. It allows a method to have
different implementations in different classes, but it can be called in a uniform way.

5. Abstraction: Abstraction involves representing the essential features of an object without showing
the details. This can be achieved by defining interfaces or abstract classes that specify the expected
behavior without providing the implementation.

6. Association: Association defines a relationship between two or more objects. For example, in a
banking system, a Customer object might be associated with multiple Account objects.

7. Aggregation and Composition: These are forms of association where one object contains or is
composed of other objects. Composition implies a stronger relationship, where the contained objects
are part of the whole and cannot exist independently.

8. Design Patterns: These are reusable solutions to common problems in software design. They
provide proven development paradigms that can speed up the development process and improve
code maintainability.

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9. SOLID Principles: These are a set of five design principles (Single Responsibility, Open/Closed,
Liskov Substitution, Interface Segregation, and Dependency Inversion) that guide developers in
writing clean, modular, and maintainable code.

Object- oriented system development function/data methods

 Object-Oriented System Development involves organizing software systems using the principles of
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP).
 In this paradigm, systems are constructed from objects that represent real-world entities or concepts,
and these objects interact with each other to accomplish tasks.
 By organizing systems using objects with attributes and methods, developers can create modular,
reusable, and maintainable code.
 This approach is particularly useful for managing complex systems where different entities interact
and perform various tasks.
 Additionally, it promotes code reusability and scalability, making it easier to extend and modify the
system over time.

In OOP, objects have two main components:

1. Data (Attributes/Properties): These are the characteristics or information associated with an

object. For instance, if we consider a "Car" object, its data might include attributes like "color”,
"make”, "model", and "year”.

2. Methods (Functions/Operations): These are the actions or behaviors that an object can
perform. Using our "Car" object as an example, methods might include "startEngine," "accelerate,"
and "turnOnHeadlights."

Here's how data and methods work in Object-Oriented System Development:

1. Data (Attributes/Properties):
 Data helps in representing the state of an object. For instance, a "Person" object might have
attributes like "name," "age," and "address" to describe an individual.
 These attributes are typically defined within the class blueprint.

2. Methods (Functions/Operations):
 Methods define the behaviors or actions that an object can perform. For example, a
"BankAccount" object might have methods like "deposit”, "withdraw”, and "checkBalance”.
 These methods are also defined within the class.

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 Example of Data/Methods

Explanation:

1. We define a class BankAccount with private data members accountNumber, accountHolderName,

and balance.

2. The constructor public BankAccount(string accountNumber, string accountHolderName, double

initialBalance) initializes the account with provided details.

3. The method Deposit(double amount) allows money to be added to the account.

4. The method Withdraw(double amount) allows money to be withdrawn from the account, provided
there are sufficient funds.

5. The method CheckBalance() returns the current balance.

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 6. In the Main method, we create a BankAccount object named account and perform operations like
depositing and withdrawing money.

This C# example demonstrates how you can use classes and methods to implement the concept of
objects and their behavior in an object-oriented manner.

Object-Oriented Analysis (OOA)

 Object-Oriented Analysis (OOA) is a methodology used in software engineering for analyzing and
designing a system by visualizing it as a group of interacting objects with distinct behaviors and
attributes.
 It's a crucial phase in the software development life cycle, preceding Object-Oriented Design (OOD)
and Object-Oriented Programming (OOP).
 Object-Oriented Analysis provides a structured approach for understanding and visualizing complex
systems.
 It helps in creating a solid foundation for the subsequent phases of software development, including
Object-Oriented Design (OOD) and Object-Oriented Programming (OOP).
 By focusing on objects, their interactions, and behaviors, OOA enables developers to create software
systems that are modular, maintainable, and adaptable to changing requirements.

Here are the key steps and concepts involved in Object-Oriented Analysis:

1. Identifying Objects:
 The first step is to identify and define the objects in the problem domain.
 These objects represent real-world entities or concepts relevant to the system.

2. Defining Object Relationships:

 Identify how objects interact with each other.
 This involves specifying relationships such as associations, aggregations, and compositions.

3. Modeling Behavior:
 Describe the behavior of each object in terms of methods (functions) that it can perform.
 This helps in understanding how objects collaborate to achieve the desired functionality.

4. Modeling Attributes:
 Define the attributes or properties of each object.
 These attributes represent the data associated with the objects.

5. Creating Use Cases:

 Use cases are scenarios or stories that describe how a system interacts with its users.
 They help in understanding the system's functionality from a user's perspective.

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6. Identifying Use Case Scenarios:
 Specify detailed scenarios for each use case, including the interactions between objects.
 This helps in understanding the flow of events.

7. Analyzing System Behavior:

 Analyze how the system behaves in response to different inputs and events.
 This helps in identifying the system's overall behavior.

8. Modeling State Transitions:

 Identify the different states that objects can be in and the events that cause transitions between
states.
 This is particularly important for objects with complex behavior.

9. Refining the Analysis Model:

 Continuously refine and revise the analysis model based on feedback and evolving requirements.
 This helps in achieving a more accurate representation of the system.

10. Documenting the Analysis Model:

 Create comprehensive documentation that captures the analysis model, including class diagrams,
sequence diagrams, use case diagrams, and other relevant diagrams.

11. Verifying and Validating the Analysis Model:

 Ensure that the analysis model accurately represents the requirements of the system.
 This involves validation through reviews, walkthroughs, and testing.

Construction and Testing:

Construction:

 Construction is the phase in which the actual code is developed based on the requirements and
design specifications established in the previous phases (such as requirements analysis and design).

Key Activities:

1. Coding:
 This is the process of writing the actual source code in a programming language that implements
the design. Developers follow coding standards and best practices to ensure code readability and
maintainability.

2. Unit Testing:
 Developers write unit tests to verify that individual units or components of code function correctly.
 These tests focus on testing small, isolated parts of the code.

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3. Integration:
 This involves combining individual units or components to form larger modules or systems.
Integration testing is performed to ensure that these modules work together as expected.

4. Debugging:
 Developers identify and fix defects or errors in the code.
 This includes addressing logical errors, syntax errors, and other issues.

5. Documentation:
 Throughout the construction phase, documentation is created or updated.
 This includes code comments, API documentation, and any other necessary technical
documentation.

6. Code Reviews:
 Code reviews involve other team members reviewing the code to ensure adherence to coding
standards, identify potential issues, and provide feedback.

Testing:

 Testing is the process of evaluating a software application to identify and fix any issues or defects.
 It ensures that the software meets its specified requirements and functions as intended.
 Both construction and testing are iterative processes.
 Throughout these phases, developers may revisit earlier stages (such as requirements analysis and
design) as needed to make adjustments based on feedback and changing requirements.
 This ensures that the final product meets the highest quality standards.

Key Activities:

1. Unit Testing:
 As mentioned earlier, this involves testing individual units or components to ensure they work
correctly in isolation.

2. Integration Testing:
 This tests the interactions between different components or modules. It verifies that they work
together as expected.

3. System Testing:
 System tests evaluate the entire system as a whole. This includes testing the software against all
specified requirements.

4. Acceptance Testing:
 This type of testing is performed by the end-users or stakeholders to determine whether the
software meets their needs and requirements.

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5. Regression Testing:
 After changes or updates are made to the code, regression testing ensures that existing
functionality is not adversely affected.

6. Performance Testing:
 This type of testing evaluates how well the software performs under different conditions, such as
load testing (testing under heavy usage) and stress testing (testing to the limits of system
capacity).

7. Security Testing:
 Security tests assess the software for vulnerabilities and weaknesses that could be exploited by
malicious users or systems.

8. User Acceptance Testing (UAT):

 UAT is performed by end-users to validate that the system meets their business needs and
requirements.

Object - Oriented Programming with Examples:

 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm that focuses on organizing code

based on objects, which represent real-world entities or concepts.
 OOP emphasizes data (attributes) and behavior (methods) associated with those entities. Here are
some key concepts with examples in C++:

1. Classes and Objects:

 A class is a blueprint for creating objects. It defines the structure and behavior of objects.
 An object is an instance of a class. It represents a specific instance of the entity defined by the
class.
 Example:

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 2. Encapsulation in C++:
 Encapsulation is the bundling of data (attributes) and methods (functions) that operate on
the data within a single unit (class). The data is kept private to the class, and can be
accessed and modified through the public methods.
 Example

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3. Inheritance in C++:
 Inheritance is a mechanism by which one class (derived class) can inherit the attributes
and behaviors from another class (base class). The derived class extends or modifies the
functionality of the base class.
 Example


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 4. Polymorphism in C++:
 Polymorphism means "many forms." In C++, this is achieved through virtual functions.
 Virtual functions allow a function to be defined in a base class and be overridden in derived
classes.
 Example

5. Abstraction in C++:
 Abstraction is the process of hiding the implementation details and showing only the
necessary features of an object. In C++, this is achieved using abstract classes, which
have at least one pure virtual function.
 Example:


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