Higher Technological Institute

Tenth of Ramadan
Mechanical Engineering Department

Types of tests for engineering material

Submitted by:
20210640 ‫مروان وسام فتحى‬
20210633 ‫عبدهللا صالح الدين فتحي‬
20210634 ‫أحمد أشرف حمدي‬
20210643 ‫عمرو نادر محمد‬
20210654 ‫مصطفى فايز سيد‬
20210655 ‫محمد أحمد محمد أحمد‬
20220357 ‫عبدالرحمن أيمن محمد‬
20200580 ‫عبدالرحمن إيهاب عيسى‬

Submitted to:
Dr: Mohamed El-Sayed

Date of submission:00/00/2024
 Abstract

In chapter 2, we will talk about the types of materials, their properties,

shape and behavior in tests of corrosion, tensile strength, pressure, etc.,
and then talked about the polymer, what are its components and what are
its properties, and another topic about ceramics, its uses, types and
properties. we explained the characteristics of the materials we
mentioned in detail from all sides

Types of engineering materials:

Solids are classified into four main classes: minerals, polymers, ceramics,
and composites. This scheme is mainly based on chemical composition,
atomic internal structure and properties.

Minerals: In general, Engineering metals are formed from alloys, which

are formed by mixing two or more elements together

Polymers: that’s structure permit considerable extensions that are

reversible, ex, rubber bands, Polyurethanes

Ceramics: it's originally based on clay materials

Mechanical properties of engineering materials:

Elasticity: Elasticity is the property of a material. That’s can be returned

to its original shape after removal of the externally applied load

Plasticity: It is the property of a material that enables it to undergo some

degree of permanent deformation without taking

i
Ductility: It is the ability of the material to stand large plastic
deformation in tension without breaking

Malleability: It is the ability of a material to stand large plastic

compressive deformation.

Brittleness: It is the property of a material that’s will fracture when

applied any stress or force on it where it has a little tend to deform before
fracture.

Toughness: It's material that able to absorb much energy and deform
greatly without fracture.

Hardness: It's the property of a material to resist the scratch of any sharp
object or resist compression and abrasion.

Durability: It is the ability of the material which makes it not to

deteriorate during the period of use

Endurance: It is the property of the material to resist and stand the

repeated application of the load.

Strength: It is ability of a material to resist maximum load that can

applied on materials

Stiffness: It is the property of the material to resist any applied type of

deformation and is measured quantitatively by the modulus of elasticity

Resilience: is the ability of a material to absorb energy when the elastic

stage is deformed.

ii
In chapter 3, we explained the tests that will be used on these materials
to explain their behavior so that I know how to employ them in the
appropriate use for them, such as tensile testing, and we talked about it in
detail for some. As well as the pressure test, torsion test, and others, and
these tests are considered among the tests that occur to deform the
material. Then we talked about the tests that do not cause any distortion
of the material, such as the effect of magnetic waves on materials and the
effect of ultrasound on them.

Types of Destructive Tests

Testing is the type of software testing that’s use to find points of failure
in the product

Tension test: The tensile test is happened by attaching a specimen in a

test frame and loading a specimen under specific condition load-
measuring device and measuring the load and corresponding
displacement of deformation

Compression test: Compression strength is the maximum compressive

that can have applied on material that’s capable to stand to this load
without fracture.

Shear Testing: Shear stress that carried by the material at failure under a
pure shear condition or the maximum load that applied on the material in
a direction parallel to the face of material and opposite to perpendicular
to its surface

iii
Torsion testing: Torsion test twist a material by specified force, test
component to a specified degree

Bending test: Most structures and machines whose primary function is

to resist loads that cause bending.

Creep Test: Creep testing is using a tensile specimen where the simple
method that the material is suspend by weight from it at constant
temperature and constant stress that applied to material testing.

Hardness test: Hardness is known as the resistance of a material to any

permanent deformation ex. indentation, wear, scratch, or abrasion.

Fatigue test: the fatigue test is defined as a permanent process in a

physical structure that is subject to the condition that causes stress and
tension at some point that will cause a break or crack in the material.

Charpy Impact test: These tests depend on hitting a standard specimen

with a controlled weight pendulum travelling at a set speed.

In chapter 4, we explained on what basis the materials needed to

manufacture the car engine are chosen by the car manufacturers and what
companies are using the characteristics, tests and results in choosing the
most appropriate materials to manufacture the part to be manufactured,
whatever it is, such as the car engine, car body, dashboard, etc.

iv
Material testing in the automotive industry

 What Are Cars Made of?

Steel: The manufacture of steel has improved a great deal. Different parts
and areas of a car need different types of steel.

Plastic: Plastics used in car manufacturing are petroleum by-products

(gas and oil).

Aluminum: Among other metals, the light-weight and durability of

Aluminum make it perfect for specific car parts.

Rubber: produces engine mounts, hoses seals wiper blades

Glass: Currently, glass is used in navigation screens, back-up camera

lenses, and mirrors in your car.

The windshields are made of laminated glass. Glass lamination assures

users of the highest safety levels

Lamination involves putting a thin layer of vinyl between two glasses.

Fiberglass: Most people think that glass and fiberglass are the same
material. However, this is not true.

Lead: It is an excellent metal because it is heavy and helps to balance the

automobile.

Copper: It is mostly used in wiring the car and any other electronic
parts. The copper wires run throughout the car in different systems like
the radio

v
Titanium: It is an expensive metal. This is why most companies refrain
from using it in their manufacturing process since newer and cheaper
methods of mining need to be developed.

Magnesium: The body, structure, and some engine parts are made of
magnesium. It has been used in these parts since 1930.

Composites and plastics: Composite materials may someday have big

advantages over steel in automobile manufacturing.

vi
 Acknowledgment

First and foremost, praises and thanks to ALLAH, the Almighty, for His
showers of blessings throughout my research work to complete the
research successfully.

Thanks to the Higher Technological Institute of 10thRamdan for

preparing me to be a successful Engineer and lifting me up to achieve
this training in an environment that’s full of encouragement and
motivation.

I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my research

supervisor, Dr. Mohamed El-Sayed, for giving me the opportunity to do
research and providing invaluable guidance throughout this research. His
dynamism, vision, sincerity and motivation have deeply inspired me. He
has taught me the methodology to carry out the research and to present
the research works as clearly as possible. It was a great privilege and
honor to work and study under his guidance. I am extremely grateful for
what he has offered me. I would also like to thank him for his friendship,
empathy, and great sense of humor.

I am grateful to all of those with whom I have had the pleasure to work
during this and other related projects.

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1Introduction:...............................................................................1

Chapter 2Type and Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials:......7

2.1 Types of Engineering Materials:................................................7

2.1.1 Metals:.....................................................................................7

2.1.2 Polymers:................................................................................8

2.1.3 Ceramics:................................................................................9

2.1.4 Composite material:................................................................9

2.2 Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials:.................11

2.2.1 Elasticity:..............................................................................11

2.2.2 Plasticity................................................................................12

2.2.3 Ductility................................................................................12

2.2.4 Malleability...........................................................................13

2.2.5 Brittleness..............................................................................13

2.2.6 Toughness.............................................................................14

2.2.7 Hardness................................................................................14

2.2.8 Durability..............................................................................14

2.2.9 Endurance..............................................................................14

2.2.10 Strength.................................................................................15

2.2.11 Stiffness.................................................................................15

viii
 2.2.12 Resilience..............................................................................15

Chapter 3Material Testing.......................................................................16

3.1 Types of Destructive Tests........................................................16

3.1.1 Tension test...........................................................................16

3.1.2 Compression test...................................................................22

3.1.3 Shear Testing.........................................................................25

3.1.4 Torsion testing.......................................................................27

3.1.5 Bending test...........................................................................29

3.1.6 Creep Test.............................................................................30

3.1.7 Hardness test.........................................................................31

3.1.8 Fatigue test............................................................................32

3.1.9 charpy Impact test.................................................................35

3.2 Types of Non-Destructive Tests...............................................35

Chapter 4Materials Testing in the Automotive Industry:........................38

4.1 What Are Cars Made of............................................................38

4.1.1 Steel.......................................................................................39

4.1.2 Plastic....................................................................................39

4.1.3 Aluminum.............................................................................39

4.1.4 Rubber...................................................................................40

4.1.5 Glass......................................................................................40

ix
 4.1.6 Fiberglass..............................................................................41

4.1.7 Lead.......................................................................................41

4.1.8 Copper...................................................................................41

4.1.9 Titanium................................................................................42

4.1.10 Magnesium............................................................................42

4.2 Composites and plastics............................................................42

4.2.1 Characteristics of composites................................................43

4.2.2 Why composites in automotive?...........................................43

4.3 Material Selection and Indices of Automotive Materials......45

Material selection.....................................................................................45

Chapter 5Conclusion................................................................................48

References................................................................................................53

Appendix..................................................................................................56

x
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1-1 : types of composite materials.........................................10

Figure 3.1-1 : four vertical links...........................................................18
Figure 3.1-2 : the stress/strain curve....................................................19
Figure 3.1-3 : absolute plasticity...........................................................20
Figure 3.1-4 : Compression test............................................................22
Figure 3.1-5 : load P is applied to the granite block...........................23
Figure 3.1-6 : the force p reaches the wooden specimen....................26
Figure 3.1-7 : torsion test.......................................................................27
Figure 3.1-8 : The torques are exerted on pulleys A and B................28
Figure 3.1-9 : Schematic of flexure tests (3-point and 4-point bending
test)..........................................................................................................29
Figure 3.1-10 : Hardness test................................................................31
Figure 3.1-11 : fatigue test.....................................................................32
Figure 3.1-12 : Carpy Impact test........................................................35
Figure (A.1): Yield Strength - Ultimate Tensile Strength - Table of
Materials……………………………………………………………….56
Figure (A.2): Rotating Bending Testing Machine…………………...57
Figure (A.3): An impact toughness versus temperature graph for a
steel……………………………………………………………………..58
Figure (A.4): Aluminum sample between the compression anvils…59
Figure (A.5): Safety Machine Ec- Attestation Certificate…………..60
Figure (A.6): Material Testing Laboratories Nadcap Certificate….61
Figure (A.7): Conformity Quality Management System Certificate.62

xi
 NOMENCLATURE
Symbol Meaning Units

A The cross-sectional area m2

Af Fracture Cross-Sectional Area m2
A Specific area of the specimen m2
A0 The Original Cross-Sectional Area m2
Ca5 (PO4)3OH The crystalline mineral hydroxyapatite
None
F Function
None
G Geometry
None
Lf Fracture length m
L0 The Original Gauge Length m
M Materials properties
None
P Pressure Pa
𝜎 Compression Stress N/m2
𝜏 Shear stress N/m2
% EL Quantitatively as either percent elongation
None
% RA Reduction within the area
None

xii
 Abbreviations
PC Personal Computer
SI System International
LiF Lithium Fluoride
S–N Stress VS. Number of Cycles to Failure Curve
SUV Sports Utility Vehicle
CFRP Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer / Plastics
ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory
MSE Materials science and engineering
NDT Non-destructive tests
UTS Ultimate tensile strength

xiii
 Chapter 1 Introduction:
The earliest humans had access to only a very limited number of
materials, those that occur naturally: stone, wood, clay, skins, and so on.
With time they discovered techniques for producing materials that had
properties superior to those of the natural ones; these new materials
included pottery and various metals. it was discovered that the properties
of a material could be altered by heat treatments and by the addition of
other substances. Thus, tens of thousands of different materials have
evolved with rather specialized characteristics that meet the needs of our
modern and complex society; these include metals, plastics, glasses, and
fibers.

Engineering material can be defined as: “Engineering material is a

subject which deals with the manufacturing, properties and uses of
material used in applied engineering.” The range of engineering material
varies from light weight to heavy materials. For example Alloys for air
craft, Semi-conductor chips for pc, Photovoltaic for energy storage,
Semi-conductor, Semi-conductor scanners.

Why do we study materials?

Many an applied scientist or engineer, whether mechanical, civil,

chemical, or electrical, will at one time or another be exposed to a design
problem involving materials. Examples might include a transmission
gear, Many times, a materials problem is one of selecting the right
material from the many thousands that are available. There are several

1
criteria on which the final decision is normally based. First of all, the in-
service conditions must be characterized, for these will dictate the
properties required of the material. The overriding consideration is that of
economics: What will the finished product cost? A material may be
found that has the ideal set of properties but is prohibitively expensive.
The cost of a finished piece also includes any expense incurred during
fabrication to produce the desired shape. [1]

The more familiar an engineer or scientist is with the various

characteristics, as well as processing techniques of materials, the more
proficient and confident he or she will be to make judicious materials
choices based on these criteria.

In spite of the tremendous progress that has been made in the discipline
of materials science and engineering within the past few years, there still
remain technological challenges, including the development of even
more sophisticated and specialized materials, as well as consideration of
the environmental impact of materials production. Nuclear energy holds
some promise, but the solutions to the many problems that remain will
necessarily involve materials, from fuels to containment structures to
facilities for the disposal of radioactive waste. Significant quantities of
energy are involved in transportation. Reducing the weight of
transportation vehicles (automobiles, aircraft, trains, etc.), as well as
increasing engine operating temperatures, will enhance fuel efficiency.
New high strength, low-density structural materials remain to be

2
developed, as well as materials that have higher-temperature capabilities,
for use in engine components.[3]

Furthermore, there is a recognized need to find new, economical sources

of energy, and to use the present resources more efficiently. Materials
will undoubtedly play a significant role in these developments. For
example, the direct conversion of solar into electrical energy has been
demonstrated. Solar cells employ some rather complex and expensive
materials. To ensure a viable technology, materials that are highly
efficient in this conversion process yet less costly must be developed.
Furthermore, environmental quality depends on our ability to control air
and water pollution. Pollution control techniques employ various
materials. In addition, materials processing and refinement methods need
to be improved so that they produce less environmental degradation. [3]

Many materials that we use are derived from resources that are
nonrenewable, that is, not capable of being regenerated. These include
polymers, for which the prime raw material is oil, and some metals.
These nonrenewable resources are gradually becoming depleted, which
necessitates: 1) the discovery of additional reserves, 2) the development
of new materials having comparable properties with less adverse
environmental impact, 3) increased recycling efforts and the development
of new recycling technologies. As a consequence of the economics of not
only production but also environmental impact and ecological factors, it
is becoming increasingly important to consider the ‘‘cradle-to-grave’’
life cycle of materials relative to the overall manufacturing process. The

3
roles that materials scientists and engineers play relative to these, as well
as other environmental and societal issues. [3]

In this report, chapter 1 will include Engineering Materials and their

types.

Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic

classifications: metals, ceramics, and polymers. This scheme is based
primarily on chemical makeup and atomic structure. In addition, there are
three other groups of important engineering materials—composites,
semiconductors, and biomaterials. Composites consist of combinations of
two or more different materials. A brief explanation of the material types
and representative characteristics is offered next.

Chapter 2 will include Mechanical properties of Engineering

Materials and why we study it?

Many materials, when in service, are subjected to forces or loads;

examples include the aluminum alloy from which an airplane wing is
constructed and the steel in an automobile axle. In such situations it is
necessary to know the characteristics of the material and to design the
member from which it is made such that any resulting deformation will
not be excessive and fracture will not occur. The mechanical behavior of
a material reflects the relationship between its response or deformation to
an applied load or force. Important mechanical properties are strength,
hardness, ductility, and stiffness. A explanation of mechnical properties
of engineering materials is offered next.

4
Why Study Mechanical Properties?

It is incumbent on engineers to understand how the various mechanical

properties are measured and what these properties represent; they may be
called upon to design structures/components using prede- termined
materials such that unacceptable levels of deformation and/or failure will
not occur.

Chapter 3 will include methods of Material Testing, Destructive

testing and Non- Destructive test.

Materials testing is a respected and established technique that is used to

ascertain both the physical and mechanical properties of raw materials
and components. It can be used to examine almost anything from human
hair to steel, ceramics, or composite materials. The mechanical properties
of materials are ascertained by performing carefully designed laboratory
experiments that replicate as nearly as possible the service conditions.
Material testing is classified into categories: Destructive testing contains
Tension test, Compression test, Shear testing, Torsion testing, Bending
test, Creep test and so on, Non- Destructive test contains Leak testing,
Magnetic Flux Leakage, Electromagnetic Testing and so on. A
explanation of methods of material testing is offered next.

Chapter 4 will include Material Testing in the Automotive Industry.

Materials testing machines are ideal for use in production, quality

control,

5
education, research or laboratory settings. These devices can be used in a
diverse range of applications within markets such as: Electronics,
Automotive, Paper and Board, Medical.

Where The automotive industry is under increasing pressure to meet

higher fuel efficiency, environmental and performance demands at
competitive costs. So, All material industries plastics and polymer
composites, as well as steel, aluminum, and magnesium, are operating to
respond to the automotive industry changing needs. For decades,
advanced plastics and polymer composites have helped the improvement
of appearance, functionality, and safety of automobiles while reducing
vehicle weight and delivering superior value to customers at the same
time [2]. New regulations, shifts in consumer preferences, and recent
technological innovations are encouraging automotive industry to
continue increasing their use of advanced plastics and polymer
composites to meet tomorrow’s challenges and opportunities . Composite
materials offer an opportunity to significantly reduce the weight of a
vehicle while still meeting strength requirements. [2]

A explanation of material testing in the automotive industry is offered

next.

6
 Chapter 2 Type and Mechanical Properties of Engineering
Materials:
2.1 Types of Engineering Materials:
Solid materials have been classified into four major categories: metals,
polymers, ceramic, and composite. This scheme is mainly based on
chemical composition and atomic internal structure and their properties.

2.1.1 Metals:
These depend on metallic chemical elements. In general, Engineering
metals are formed from alloys, which are formed by mixing two or more
elements together. For example, mild steel is an alloy of two-element:
iron and carbon, stainless steel is an alloy of many numbers of alloy:
iron, chromium, carbon, manganese, and other elements. The reason for
that additions is to improve the properties of elements where the addition
of carbon used for improves the strength of the iron, and the addition of
chromium in the stainless steel improves that corrosion resistance. Metals
have some importance properties such as high electrical and high thermal
conductivities, and also have relatively high stiffness and strength, metal
can be ductile by permit products to make different shapes and this
happens by bent it into the required shape.

 Ferrous alloys: that is iron-based alloys, ex. steels and cast

irons.

7
  Non-ferrous alloys: that is not iron-based alloys, ex.
Aluminum and copper alloys.

2.1.2 Polymers:
these depend on a long chain of molecules, generally with carbon (hence
their use for electrical and thermal insulation) that refers to plastic
material and most familiar is fiber and natural, and when compared with
metals that have lower densities from it, and when it exposed to a high
temperature that expands more than metal, polymers have high
corrosion-resistant and have lower stiffness. In general, polymers have
low electrical conductivity and have low thermal conductivity. When it
loaded that tend to creep property (is defined with the extension
gradually changes with time). Properties of polymer depend on the
temperature very much. Where, polymer at room temperature may be
tough and flexible, and at 0°C may be brittle and show large creep at
100°C. The polymer can be classified as[4]:

Thermoplastics:

these soften once heated and become hard once more when the heat is
removed. So they will be heated and bent to form required shapes,
thermosets cannot. Thermoplastic materials are usually flexible and
relatively soft. Ex; Polyethylene is an item used for such things as bags,
bottles, and wire and cable insulation[4].

Thermosets:

8
these don't soften when heated, however, char and decompose. They're
rigid and hard. Phenol methanol, called Bakelite is widely used for
electrical plug casings, doorknobs, and handles[4].

Elastomers:
these are polymers that’s structure permit considerable extensions that
are reversible, ex, rubber bands, Polyurethanes, Silicone, Neoprene[4].
2.1.3 Ceramics:
These are inorganic materials; it's originally based on clay materials.
They tend to be brittle and relatively stiff, it's stronger than tension in
compression, hard, and it's a bad conductor of electricity and heat.
Ceramics is included completely different component:

 The non-glasses: That tends to possess good wear resistance and

high-temperature strength.
 Glasses: soda-lime glasses, borosilicate glasses, and pyro
ceramics[4].
 Domestic ceramics:
porcelain (is a ceramic material made by heating materials), vitreous
china, earthenware, stoneware, cement. Samples of domestic ceramics
and glasses pullulate with the house within the form of cups, plates, and
glasses[4].
 Engineering ceramics: aluminum oxide, carbides, nitrides. Due to
their hardness and abrasion resistance, such ceramics are widely
used as the cutting edges of tools[4].
 Natural ceramics: rocks[4].

9
2.1.4 Composite material:
Composite material is made by composed of two or more materials that
are mutually insoluble by mixing or bonding them in a certain way. Ex.
plastics modified by adding rubber particles or glass fibers, ceramic
particles in metals is known as cemented carbides, and steel rods in
concrete. These and many other composite materials consist of a matrix
of one material that surrounds particles or fibers of a second material, as

shown in the fig (2.1), where (a) that's a particle, (b)that's chopped fibers,
and (c)that’s continuous fibers [5].

Figure 2.1-1 : types of composite materials [5]

Some composites involve layers of different materials, and the individual

layers may be composites. Materials that are melted or alloyed together

are not considered composites, even if a two-phase structure results, nor
are solid solutions or precipitate structures arising from solid solutions.
Materials of biological origin are usually composites. Wood contains
cellulose fibers surrounded by hemicellulose and lignin, and all are
polymers. Bone is composed of the fibrous protein collagen in a ceramic-
like matrix of the crystalline mineral hydroxyapatite, Ca5 (PO4)3OH [5].

10
2.2 Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials:
Mechanical properties are the behavior of the material under loading
forces such as the aluminum alloy from which an aircraft wing is made,
and the steel in a vehicle axle. In these cases, it is important to know the
material’s characteristics and to plan the component from which it is
produced so that any resultant deformation is not extreme and no fracture
occurs[4].
A material's mechanical behavior represents the relation between its
reaction and deformation to an applied charge or force. Stiffness,
resilience, endurance, ductility, and toughness are main mechanical
design properties[4].

2.2.1 Elasticity:

Elasticity is the property of a material. That’s can be returned to its

original shape after removal of the externally applied load. Elastic is
known as substances that display a high degree of elasticity. The Pascal
(Pa) is the SI unit of applied elasticity, which is used to measure the
modulus of deformation and elastic limit[6].

The causes of elasticity vary depending on the sort of material. Where

polymers such as rubber, may be stretched and then subsequently return
to its original shape after the force is removed. Metals may display
elasticity as atomic lattices change size and shape, returning to its
original form after energy is removed[6].

11
Examples:

Rubber bands and other elastic materials that’s when stretched, it display
elasticity[6].

2.2.2 Plasticity

It is the property of a material that enables it to undergo some degree of

permanent deformation without taking failure[4]. When a material is
stretched, and it stays stretched, the material is said to be plastic. When
energy goes into changing the shape of some material and it stays
changed, that changed called plastic deformation[7].

2.2.3 Ductility
It could be a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been
sustained at fracture. Another definition: It is the ability of the material to
stand large plastic deformation in tension without breaking. But if metal
have no plastic deformation or little when it fracture is called brittle
metal[4].
 "Ductility is also expressed quantitatively as either percent
elongation"

% EL=
( )
l f −l 0
l0
× 100

(2.1)
Or percent reduction within the area:

12
 % RA=
( A0 )
A 0− A f
×100

(2.2)
Where l0 is that the original gauge length, l f is that the fracture length12, A is
that the cross-sectional area and A0 is that the original cross-sectional
area[4].
Examples:
some metals are good examples of ductile properties such as including
gold, silver, copper, samarium, terbium, and erbium. Examples of metals
that don't seem to be very ductile include tungsten and high-carbon steel.
Nonmetals aren’t had ductile properties[8].
2.2.4 Malleability
It is the ability of a material to stand large plastic compressive
deformation. When a huge amount of stress acts on a malleable metal,
the atoms of metal will move to stay permanently in their new
position[9].
Examples of malleable metals are silver, aluminum, lithium, tin, copper,
gold, and iron. There was a product made from these metals can
demonstrate malleability as well, Ex. gold leaf, indium shot, and lithium
foil[9].
2.2.5 Brittleness
Brittleness is the property of a material that’s will fracture when applied
any stress or force on it where it has a little tend to deform before
fracture. Brittle materials properties, that’s have a little deformation, high
compressive strength, poor capacity to resist impact and vibration of

13
load, and low tensile strength. Most of the inorganic non-metallic
materials are have brittle properties. Brittleness can be considered as the
inverse of ductility, and Cast iron and glass are brittle materials[10].

2.2.6 Toughness
It's material that able to absorb much energy and deform greatly without
fracture. Toughness materials are characterized by high tensile strength,
high compressive strength, and huge deformation such as construction
steel, wood, and rubber. Tough materials must be use in the structures
that’s bearing impact and vibration, such as bridges, cranes, roads, and
beams[10].

2.2.7 Hardness
It's the property of a material to resist the scratch of any sharp object or
resist compression and abrasion. The various sorts of hardness materials
might need various testing methods. The hardness of wood, steel, and
concrete material is tested by the compression method, but the hardness
of natural materials is tested by scratch hardness[10].

2.2.8 Durability
It is the ability of the material which makes it not to deteriorate during
the period of use, and resist the corrosion from various media around and
keep their original properties[10].
2.2.9 Endurance
It is the property of the material to resist and stand the repeated
application of the load. The endurance limit is the highest repeated stress

14
that can be applied on material with infinite number of times without
causing failure or breaking to the material[11].
2.2.10 Strength
It is ability of a material to resist maximum load that can applied on
materials and its support that load without breaking when being
stretched, Tensile strengths is calculated by force per unit area and in the
English system of measurement is commonly expressed in units of
pounds per inch square. When it stresses less than the tensile strength and
immediately removes stress, a material will return to its original shape
and size. When the stress reaches the value of the tensile strength,
however, if the material has ductile property, that has will be begun to
flow plastically region and that’s known as a neck region, where it then
fractures[12].
2.2.11 Stiffness
It is the property of the material to resist any applied type of deformation
and is measured quantitatively by the modulus of elasticity[11].
2.2.12 Resilience
Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when the elastic
stage is deformed. The modulus of resilience is defined as strain energy
per unit volume which is required to stress a material from an unloaded
state up to the yielding point state.so, the SI unit of resilience is joules
per meter cubic (j/m^3) [4].

15
 Chapter 3 Material Testing:
Material testing that’s the only way that uses for measurement and knows
the characteristic and behavior of the substance such as metals, ceramics
or plastic Under various conditions. The Data that can be obtained from
this tests can be used for specifying the suitability of materials for
various applications such as building, machinery, aircraft construction or
packaging.

Material testing can have classified into two major categories:

mechanical destructive testing where can contain tension test,
compression test, shear test, bending test, creep test, hardness test, fatigue
test and Charpy impact test, and non-destructive test.

3.1 Types of Destructive Tests

Destructive Testing is the type of software testing that’s use to find
points of failure in the product.it is not necessary to have the knowledge
of the original requirements of a software product. However, some
knowledge could help in developing a good testing strategy. Destructive
test is classified into many types that will be shown in detail.

16
3.1.1 Tension test
The tensile test is happened by attaching a specimen in a test frame and
loading a specimen under specific condition load-measuring device and
measuring the load and corresponding displacement of deformation. The
result that gets from this test is a curve relating to simultaneous loads and
displacements, This curve is called the load-displacement record which it
converted to stress/ strain curves by dividing the elongation by the gage
length of the specimen and dividing the load by the cross-sectional[13].
Every operating force in a body can be divided into one component that
usually acts on the chosen area and two components that act tangentially
on that place. For force p which normally acts on a specific area of the
specimen ∆A, the load applied is balanced by the internal opposing stress
[14].For a free Cylindrical Example, we can write:

∆ P dP
σ =lim =
A→0 ∆ A dA
(3.1)

Or:

dP=σdA

(3.2)

Integrate (3.2):

P=∫ σdA=σA

(3.3)

Or

17
 P
σ=
A
(3.4)

That’s equations provide the fundamental relation between normal stress

and tension load. Typically, the stress does not work equally over the
cross-section of a specimen unless it is deformed, uniformly elongated.
That is not the case at all.

Example 3.1.1

Each of the four vertical links has 8∗36 mm uniform rectangular cross
section and each of four pins has a 16 mm . Diameter the maximum value
of the average normal stress in the links connecting points C and E.

Figure 3.1-2 : four vertical links [13]

Sol.

∑ M ( B )=0
−20∗0.25+ F ( CE )∗0.4

18
 F ( CE ) =12.5 kN

F (CE)/2
σ ( CE )=
A (CE)

3
(12.5/2)∗10
σ ( CE )=
36∗8∗10−6

∴ σ ( CE )=21.7 MPa

3.1.1.1 Elastic deformation and the relations between stress and

strain.
The deformation created by continuously applying a tensile load unit-
axially is elastic at low loads. Such behavior characterizes entirely fragile
materials, such as glass, ceramics, etc. in rubber-like materials where the
deformation is reversible but the stress/strain relationship is not
linear[14],as shown in figure 3.

Figure 3.1-3 : the stress/strain curve [14]

3.1.1.2 The elastic and proportional limits

Materials exhibiting reverse deformation in response to an applied load
acting on outside surfaces exhibit elastic behavior. The goal is to evaluate
the transition from elastic to plastic behavior by determining the yield

19
stress also referred to as the yield point [14].Where a test specimen starts
to yield. To do this, a load on a test specimen is applied, usually as a
tensile test.

Not all materials conduct themselves linearly in the early stages of

tension. The elastic structures can be linear or non-linear. Rubber has no
known linear behavior. Despite the non-linearity, the loading in the
elastic region of such rubber-like material takes the same direction as the
packing [14].

3.1.1.3 Plastic deformation

Figure 4 shows typical stress/strain curve. This illustration is an example
of an engineering stress/strain curve which is created by applying a
continuously increasing tensile load uniaxial to create deformation in the
tested specimen. In this tension test a specimen is subjected to a
constantly increasing uniaxial load during which simultaneous extension
measurements are performed [14].

Figure 3.1-4 : absolute plasticity [14]

Note that the transition to the plastic region is much easier to describe in
the metals showing a yield decrease. LiF crystal also displays a sudden

20
decrease in stress value during deformation [11].At this point it should be
noted that the absolute plasticity of a material exhibition should imply a
stress/strain relationship according to fig.4.

Experiments 3.1.1
Normal hardened concrete can withstand a great deal of pressure
resistance and is therefore carried out Basically, the concrete is designed
with consideration to resist pressure stresses as for Due to its resistance
to tensile forces (either direct or indirect), it is considered weak.

Tensile strength when compared to its resistance to pressure, and this is

due to it being a shell material Nevertheless, researchers were interested
in the tensile strength of concrete because most Cracks and cracks due to
small tensile strength. It is noted that the higher the concrete's
compressive strength, the smaller the relative increase to resist tensile
strength until compressive strength is reached.[16]

The purpose of the experiment:

1. (Modulus of Elasticity) calculation.

2. Find the Yield Point.
3. Determine the maximum stress value for the Stress Ultimate
model.
4. Determine the value of the stress fracture.
5. Find the Elongation percentage.
6. Finding the area in reduction percentage.

Method of testing the tensile strength of concrete:

21
  Strength Tensile Direct test
 Samples are prepared for testing by performing mixing, pouring
and compaction and treatment in the same way as previously
mentioned in the pressure test.[16]
 The test is performed by holding the sample at its ends with the
test and impact machine Load the tension gradually and slowly and
assign the load causing the sample to break where Most of them
break in the middle and calculate the tensile strength in this case
by dividing the maximum load by the sample cross-sectional area.
[16]

3.1.2 Compression test

Compression strength is the maximum compressive that can have applied
on material that’s capable to stand to this load without fracture. The
compressive strength of ductile material is determined by the distortion
degree during the test. [15]
A compression test is conducted in a manner similar to tensile test,
except the force in compressive test that is applied on specimen along the
direction of stress and load is applied in the opposite face of specimen
surface area [4].as shown in

22

Figure 3.1-5 : Compression test [4]

Example 3.1.2

A 1060 kN load P is applied to the granite block

shown. Determine the resulting maximum of
the normal stress. Specify the orintation of the
plane on which each of these maximum values
occurs.

Figure 3.1-6 : load P is applied to

Solution the granite block [4]

−3 −3
Ao=140∗10 ∗140∗10
2
Ao=0.0196 m
2
P cos θ
σ=
A
3 2
−1060∗10 ∗cos θ
σ=
0.0196
6 2
σ =−54.081∗10 ∗cos θ

At maximum tensile stress = 0

∵ θ=0

23
 ∴ σ=−54.0481∗106∗cos 0

∴ σ=−54.0481 MPa (Maximum compression stress)

Experiment 3.1.2

A test for determining the compressive strength of the hardened concrete

is usually performed after 28 years. Days after pouring samples and
sometimes after 7 days or after another period as needed.

The compression test can be considered the opposite of the tensile test in
terms of the direction of impact of the pregnancy, but there are some
limitations to this test.[16]

the purpose of the experiment:

Determining the ability of the metal to withstand deformation under the

influence of stress strains, i.e. studying the behavior of metals. Ductile
under the influence of compression and obtain the Elasticity of Modulus,
by drawing the Curve Strain-Stress.[16]

How to do the test:

1- The components of concrete are mixed either mechanically, and its

color is homogeneous.
2- Once mixing is completed, tests for strength (for example drop)
and any tests are performed Other tests are required

24
 3- After fresh concrete tests, the mold is filled directly with concrete
on
4- The molds are covered immediately after pouring and placed in a
place of 15 ° C To 20 degrees Celsius for a period of 24 hours, and
it is noted that you are not exposed to it Vibrations.
5- For each test, three samples are tested, and the average value of the
results is taken.
6- The sample is subjected to an axial pressure load at a rate of
approx. 140 kg / cm2 / min until fracture and the results are
recorded.

3.1.3 Shear Testing

Shear stress that carried by the material at failure under a pure shear
condition or the maximum load that applied on the material in a direction
parallel to the face of material and opposite to perpendicular to its
surface, this shear forces a cause one surface of a material to move in one
direction and the other surface to move in the opposite direction so that
the atom of material moves in a sliding motion. The shear test is shown
shear property knowledge for material data quality, specifications,
structural design, and analysis. Could also be calculated using different
test sorts including tension, compression but Shear tests differ from
tension and compression tests in that the forces applied are parallel to the
two-contact surface. additionally, There are different test set-ups just like
the lap shear, v-notched rail technology, and short beam technology[17].

25
Example 3.1.3

When the force p reaches 8 kN the wooden specimen shown failed in

shear along the surface indecated by the dashed line. Determine the
avrage shear stress along the surface at the time of the failure.

Figure 3.1-7 : the force p reaches the

wooden specimen [17]

Solution

p=8 kN

p
τ (avrage )=
A (shear )

3
8∗10
τ ( avrage ) = −6
90∗15∗10

τ ( avrage ) =5.92 MPa

26
3.1.4 Torsion testing
Torsion test twist a material by specified force, test component to a
specified degree, or until the material fails in torsion. The twisting force
of a torsion is applied do a specimen by fixed one end of it to can’t move
or rotate and applying a moment by a specific force in the other end of
specimen so that the specimen is rotated about its axis that’s shown in fig
6. The rotating moment can be also applied to both ends of the sample
but the ends must be rotated in opposite directions.

Figure 3.1-8 : torsion test [15]

27
Example 3.1.4 The torques shown are exerted on
pulleys A and B. knowing that both shafts are
solid, determine the maximum shearing stress (a)
in shaft AB, (b) in shaft BC.

Solution

(a) Shaft AB: Figure 3.1-9 : The torques are

exerted on pulleys A and B [15]
T ( AB )=300 N . m, d =0.03 m, c=0.015 m

T∗c 2∗T
τ ( Max ) = = , wherec is radius of shaft
J π∗c
2

2∗300
τ ( Max ) = 2
π∗(0.015)

τ ( Max ) =56.588 MPa

(b) Shaft BC:

T ( BC ) =300+400=700 N .m

d=0.046 m, c=0.023

T∗c 2∗T
τ (Max)= =
J π∗c
3

2∗700
τ (Max)= 3
π∗( 0.023 )

τ ( Max ) =36.626 MPa

28
 3.1.5 Bending test
Most structures and machines whose primary function is to resist loads
that cause bending. Examples are beams, hooks, plates, slabs, and
columns under eccentric loads may be based upon various bending
formulas. In many instances, however, bending formulas give results
which may approximate the real conditions. The bending test give as a
direct means of evaluate behavior of material under bending loads. Bend
tests deform the test material at the midpoint causing a concave surface
or a bend to form without happening fracture and this test use to
determine the ductility or resistance to fracture of that material. Bending
test is classified into two major test: -
 Three Point Bending test: It produces its peak stress at the material
mid-point and reduced stress elsewhere.
 Four Point Bending test: It produces it’s peak stresses along an
extended region of the material and therefore exposing a larger
length of the material[18].

Figure 3.1-10 : Schematic of flexure tests (3-point and 4-point bending test) [18]

29
3.1.6 Creep Test
Creep testing is using a tensile specimen where the simple method that
the material is suspend by weight from it at constant temperature and
constant stress that applied to material testing. Using high temperature
produce the possibility of fracture or failure in material testing and is so
known as creep. The material increasing in length in the direction of the
applied stress. There is a furnace has thermostatically controlled
surrounding the specimen, where the temperature-controlled by a
thermocouple attached to the gauge length of the specimen. The
extension of the specimen is measured by a very sensitive extensometer
since the actual amount of deformation before failure maybe only two or
three percent. The test is recorded on a strain-time graph[19].

Experiment 3.1.6

Creep test is the inelastic strain that occurs over time under the influence
of constant stress. That is, crawling is time dependent, and its value may
reach several. Times the value of the instantaneous emotions that occur
as a result of operating loads. [16]

Creep effect:

The phenomenon of creep in concrete harmful effects and other

beneficial effects, which we summarize the following:

disadvantage effect:

 Increases the deflection value in some cases.

30
  It works to expand the cracks that arise from other factors.
 Increased agitation due to creep may lead to cracking of concrete.
[16]

Advantage effect:

 Creeping reduces the stresses caused by a constant tensile strain

over time and thus we generate a net tensile stress, which is the
difference between the original stress
 And creep effect. This phenomenon is known as relaxation. And
what it is
 It is known that cracks only form if the net tensile stress exceeds
resistance Concrete for tensile strength [16]

3.1.7 Hardness test

Hardness is known as the resistance of a material to any permanent
deformation ex. indentation, wear, scratch, or abrasion. The importance
of hardness test is shown the relationship between other mechanical
properties of engineering material and hardness such as tension test. The
hardness test is classified into two categories: micro-hardness test and
macro-hardness test. Macro-hardness refers to loads that applied on

Figure 3.1-11 : Hardness test [20]

31
specimen during testing are more than 1 kg and these test has three
method tests such as Brinell, Rockwall, and Vickers method. Micro-
hardness testing refers to loads that applied on specimen during testing
about 1 kg or below then it and these test has two methods to test such as
knop diamond and Vickers diamond pyramids[20].

3.1.8 Fatigue test

The fatigue test is defined as a permanent process in a physical structure
that is subject to the condition that causes stress and tension at some
point that will cause a break or crack in the material. The stress and
tension to which the material is exposed may be tension and pressure
applied to the material several times in a circular motion. The fatigue
properties of materials are often described using the fatigue limit or the
S-N curve. The S-N curve describes the relationship between the number
of cycles to failure and stress amplitude cycle. Tests are the procedure by
applying periodic stress with a constant amplitude to the specimens until
the specimen fails[21].

Figure 3.1-12 : fatigue test [21]

Experiment 3.1.9

32
Fatigue test is to determine the lifespan that may be expected from a
material subjected to cyclic loading, however, fatigue strength and crack
resistance are commonly sought values as well. fatigue life of a material
is the total number of cycles that a material can be subjected to under a
single loading scheme.[16]

Fatigue is the sudden breakdown (failure Sudden) of exposed structural

elements. Repeated loads during operation after several cycles.[16]

Establishments subjected to Fatigue loads:

1. Soil drilling equipment

2. Aircraft wings
3. Railroad locomotives

Stages of Fatigue Collapse:

1. Point defect.
2. Small cracks.
3. Stress concentration.
4. Crack propagation.
5. Sudden failure.

The engineering department should be following three conditions:

• Perform its required work Function

• It performs its work at moderate costs
• To have an appropriate life service life

33
The first two conditions are taken into account when designing, while the
third condition, a repeated upload is considered high It is of great
importance in engineering fields as the material may withstand certain
stress if it is[16]

The loading is static:

while the material collapses by the effect of the same load if it is

repetitive. The maximum repetitive stress the material can withstand
without collapse occurring is less than Maximum stress in the case of
one-time static loading. And in the case of loads repetitive The resistance
properties of the material depend on the amount and type of repetitive
stresses and on how often they are repeated. Repetitive stressors lead to
dangerous consequences.[16]

Causes of breakdown in machine parts:

This type of stress causes a breakdown in the body it is less stressful than
the flexibility limit. Also, it does not happen in the material before Its
breakdown is the same as the normal phenomena that occur in the case of
static loadings such as Submission or plastic conformation, and the
fracture shall be of the bombardment type while the material was
originally material Metal is ductile, and therefore the fracture occurs
suddenly without warning.[16]

Disadvantage of using of this test:

1- It needs a large number of samples.

34
 2- Each sample needs a long time to cause collapse, which may cause
this
3- The test takes several months.

3.1.9 charpy Impact test

These tests depend on hitting a standard specimen with a controlled
weight pendulum travelling at a set speed. The amount of energy that's
absorbed in fracturing the test specimen is measured and this gives an
indication of the notch toughness of the test material. These tests show
that metals can be classified into two major categories: ductile material
where it absorbs a large amount of energy or brittle material where it
absorbs a small amount of energy.[22]

Figure 3.1-13 : Carpy Impact test [22]

3.2 Types of Non-Destructive Tests

It is a testing and analysis technology that used by industrial to evaluate
the properties of the material from where it’s structure and component, or
known the defect of welding and discontinuities in the material without
causing damage, failure, or fracture in the original part. The

35
nondestructive test is known as Nondestructive Inspection,
Nondestructive examination, and Non-destructive evaluation.
They're a lot of methods are available for Nondestructive test but the
most common are:
 Acoustic Emission Testing: which based on detecting a short
bursts of ultrasound emitted from active cracks under load. Where
Sensors will be dispersed over the surface the structure that detects
the Acoustic Emission.
 Electromagnetic Testing: This test can be done by using electric
current or a magnetic field. There are three types of
electromagnetic testing first one is the measurement of alerting
current field, remote field testing, or eddy current testing by using
an alerting coil of current to generate Electromagnetic field into
the test piece.
 Leak Testing: These tests can be classified into four different
major methods: bubble leak test, pressure leak test, mass
spectrometer test, and halogen diode test.
1- Bubble leak testing uses a tank of liquid, or a soap solution
for larger parts, to detect gas (usually air) leaking from the test
piece in the form of bubbles.
2- Pressure change testing uses either pressure or a vacuum to
monitor the test piece. A loss of pressure or vacuum will show
that there is a leak in the system through a set time span.

36
 3- Halogen diode testing uses pressure to find leaks, except in
this case the air and tracking gas which based on halogen are
mixed together and a halogen diode detection unit is used to
locate any leaks.
4- Mass spectrometer testing uses helium and air mix inside a
test chamber with a sniffer to detect any changes in the air
sample, which refer to a leak. Instead of that, a vacuum can be
used, in which case the mass spectrometer will sample the
vacuum chamber to detect ionized helium, which will show
that there has been a leak.
 Magnetic Flux Leakage: these test uses a strong magnet to create
magnetic fields which saturate steel structures such as storage
tanks and pipelines. Then the sensor is used to detect changes in
the density of magnetic flux that's show any reduction in the
material due to pitting or corrosion.
 Ultrasonic Testing: this test depends on the transmission of high-
frequency sound into a material to interact with features within the
material that reflect or attenuate it. Ultrasonic testing is broadly
divided into Pulse-Echo through Transmission and Time of Flight
Diffraction.
 Liquid Penetrant Testing: this test includes the application of a
fluid with low viscosity to the material to be tested. It can locate
surface-breaking defects in non-porous materials because this fluid
seeps into any defects such as cracks or porosity before a

37
 developer is applied which allows the penetrant liquid to seep
upwards and create a visible indication of the flaw.

Chapter 4 Materials Testing in the Automotive Industry:

What Are Cars Made of? 10 Of The Top Materials Used in Auto
Manufacturing.

Over the past decades, cars were not economical or efficient. In fact, the
only important aspect was functionality. However, this is not the case
now as people are opting for more efficient and safer automobiles.

Do you know that having a car made from the most efficient materials
will help in fuel consumption while still provide the necessary safety
features? There is a lot of planning, design, and science put into
developing a car. There are different types of materials used to design a
car, and these materials determine the durability, design, and sometimes
the speed of the vehicle.

Using some exotic metals improve the aesthetics and quality of the car
because the metals have a different level of strength, ensuring customers
get the best of both worlds. If you are thinking of selling your car as
scrap, you should know what cars are made of; you might even find that
it is more valuable than you thought.[1]

4.1 What Are Cars Made of

If you have been wondering what are cars made of? This article will tell
you the benefits of each material and the role they play.

38
4.1.1 Steel
The manufacture of steel has improved a great deal. Different parts and
areas of a car need different types of steel. Steel is the main materials in
manufacturing door panels, the chassis of the car, and the support beams.
It is also used in exhaust pipes and mufflers in the car.[10]

However, it is mostly used on the frame of the car because of its strength.
This means that it has a better ability to absorb impact. The average car
contains 2400 pounds of steel while and SUV has 3000 pounds of steel.

Therefore, they help you remain safe on the road since it is a metal that is
responsible for the heavyweight and support of the cars.[5]

4.1.2 Plastic
Plastics used in car manufacturing are petroleum by-products (gas and
oil). Plastics are challengers to steel because of their prominence in car
manufacturing. They are malleable and still strong enough to hold the
structure in shape.

Plastics constitute almost half of the total car parts, being the main
component in manufacturing the dashboard, door handles, pipes, and
air vents. The durability, versatility, and lightweight characteristics of
plastics make them the ideal materials for different parts.[4]

4.1.3 Aluminum
Among other metals, the light-weight and durability of Aluminum make
it perfect for specific car parts. It is also malleable, making it a common

39
material in car production. In 1970, it only accounted for 2% of the total
components of a car; today, it makes up to 15% of the total car parts.

The wheels, which are essential parts, are made of aluminum, replacing
steel. Most engine blocks are also made of steel even. Though it is not
quite as durable as iron, it is lighter, and this boosts performance.[5]

4.1.4 Rubber
Rubber produces engine mounts, hoses seals wiper blades, and belts.
Like plastic, rubber is also cheap, durable, and flexible.

Therefore, it can function in a wide array of parts, and it will also handle
heat well in case the car heats up. What most people do not know is that a
large percentage of the rubber produced makes automobile parts.

4.1.5 Glass
 Currently, glass is used in navigation screens, back-up camera
lenses, and mirrors in your car. It helps the driver have a clearer
view of what they are doing and where they are going.
 The windshields are made of laminated glass. Glass lamination
assures users of the highest safety levels, especially in the event of
a crash.[11]
 Lamination involves putting a thin layer of vinyl between two
glasses. This ensures that there is not shutter when the glass is
crushed.

40
4.1.6 Fiberglass
 Most people think that glass and fiberglass are the same material.
However, this is not true.
 Fiberglass is made of small thin strands of glass. It is mostly air
and not glass. When the glass is woven in these small sheets and
resin painted on it, smaller lighter things can be made.
 Fiberglass offers a lot of benefits in the automotive industry. It
is non-corrosive, so it helps replace steel in areas where steel can
get easily corroded.
 Fiberglass is fireproof. In case of accidents, users can get out of the
car uninjured. It can be used in front bumpers, doors, roofs,
casings, and the wheels.[10]

4.1.7 Lead
Lead is an excellent metal because it is heavy and helps to balance the
automobile. That is why most of the wheels are made of lead, aluminum,
and parts of fiberglass. The battery is also made of lead, which allows it
to maintain safe temperatures even when the car is heating up.

4.1.8 Copper
Copper is mostly used in wiring the car and any other electronic parts.
The copper wires run throughout the car in different systems like the
radio, safety systems, and charging points. It is also found in starters.[5]

41
4.1.9 Titanium
 Titanium is an expensive metal. This is why most companies
refrain from using it in their manufacturing process since newer
and cheaper methods of mining need to be developed.[5]
 However, some companies use it in metallic parts where steel and
aluminum would traditionally be used. It mainly makes the cars
look more aesthetically pleasing.

4.1.10 Magnesium
The body, structure, and some engine parts are made of magnesium. It
has been used in these parts since 1930. It is excellent because it is 75%
lighter than steel and 33% lighter than aluminum. However, it is only
used in small areas so as not to throw off the balance of the vehicles.[10]

4.2 Composites and plastics

Composite materials may someday have big advantages over steel in
automobile manufacturing. Composites are being considered to make
lighter, safer and more fuel-efficient vehicles. A composite is composed
of a high-performance fiber (such as carbon or glass) in a matrix material
(epoxy polymer) that when combined provides enhanced properties
compared with the individual materials by themselves. Carbon-fiber
composites weigh about one-fifth as much as steel, but are as good or
better in terms of stiffness and strength. They also do not rust or corrode
like steel or aluminum, and they could significantly increase vehicle fuel
economy by reducing vehicle weight by as much as 60 percent,

42
according to the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). With
composite materials, we get high strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-
weight ratios, as well as excellent energy-absorbing capability per mass
[12].
Strength and stiffness factors are why composites are currently used in
aerospace applications, which also require a material that is extremely
light. And compared to single-layered steel in cars, multiple-layer
composite laminates can be designed to absorb more energy in a crash.
However, the use of these materials in the automotive industry has been
very limited partly because of the costs associated with the materials and
manufacturing, [12]. In modern word composites are used in all fields
like Automotive, aerospace, construction industry, entertainment industry
etc. [13].

4.2.1 Characteristics of composites

 They are rigid with high strength to weight ratio
 Good electrical resistance
 Resistance to chemical and weather is high
 They have good stiffness (related to automobile skin to limit
buckling)
 Good corrosion resistance

4.2.2 Why composites in automotive?

 To improve fuel efficiency by reducing mass of the vehicle
 To improve safety and crashworthiness

43
  To enhance styling and part consolidation
 To provide aerodynamic design[23].

The applications of CFRP (Carbon fiber reinforced polymer/plastics)

includes Passenger cell, Roof compartment cover, trunk lid, Wheel rims,
Cabin, floor, roof, pillars, hood, Front and rear bumpers, Instrument
panel, inner door modules & etc. [14]. Additionally, dashboard, gauges,
dials, switches, air conditioner vents, door handles, floor mats, seat belts,
airbags and many other parts are all made from different types of plastics.
In addition to the dashboard parts, many of the tiny parts inside the
engine, such as the handle on the oil dipstick, are also made of plastic.
Because of their lightweight nature, plastics are being increasingly used
in body structures and in engines during automotive manufacturing. One
of the important materials in plastics is rubber which is used to
manufacturing of tires. The rubber tire protects the rest of the wheel and
its internal parts from wearing down, which can be good for fuel mileage
and road safety. In addition to the all-important tires, parts such as wiper
blades, engine mounts, seals, hoses and belts are also made from rubber.
Rubber is a plastic which is durable, cheap and flexible material that has
a wide array of uses in automobiles [15]. The other material used in
automotive is glass. Obviously, its primary use is to create windshields to
see properly while remaining safe from any airborne objects. It's also
used to create rear and side-view mirrors to boost a view of what's around
while driving. In modern cars glasses can be used to create navigation

44
screens and lenses for back-up cameras to allow drivers to have an even
better view of what's behind them [24].

4.3 Material Selection and Indices of Automotive Materials

Material selection
There are four basic steps to be followed while selecting materials for
specific purposes/ requirements [17].

1- Translation: express design requirements as constraints and

objectives
2- Screening: eliminate materials that cannot do the job
3- Ranking: find materials that best do the job
4- Supporting Info: handbooks, expert systems, web, etc.

Step 1) Translation:

An engineering component has boundary condition for Materials

Selection

I. Function: to carry load, transmit heat, contain a pressure, etc.

(What does the component do?).

II. Objectives: as cheap as possible, light, safe, strong, etc…

(What is to be Maximized or Minimized?).

III. Constraints: subject to constraints such as carry load without failure,

certain dimensions are fixed; cost is within limits etc…

What non-negotiable conditions are to be met? (Rigid).

45
What negotiable but desirable conditions? (Soft).

IV. Free Variables: materials choice, cross-section area, thickness, and

length are free

Which design variables are free? (Variables which can be changed).

Step 2) Screening: Is a method to evaluate large range of materials by

the help of material Bar charts, material Property Charts (density vs.
Young’s Modulus…), screen on constraints, rank on objectives etc.

Step 3) Ranking: What if multiple materials remain after screening?

Rank on Objectives.

Objectives define performance metrics.

Step 4) Selection: select then verify with any supporting materials.

Generally, two concepts are used in the selection procedure:

Materials Performance Index: Combination of material properties that

characterize the performance of a material in a given application
(Ashby).

Performance of a component/structure is specified by:

I. Functional requirements (function) (F) e.g. carry loads, transmit

energy, store energy etc.

ii. Geometry, (G)

iii. Materials properties, (M)

46
Performance:

P = f [(functional requirements, F); (geometry, G); (materials properties,

M)]

P=f (F, G, M)
(4.1)

Optimum design is selection of a material which maximize (strength,

stiffness) or minimize (weight, cost) the performance, P. or material
property.

In many cases, the function, geometry and materials properties are

independent of each other and are said to be separable.

P=f1 (F)×f2 (G) × f3 (M)

(4.2)

This means that the optimum selection of a material is independent of the

details of the design. It is the same for all geometries and values of
functional requirements.

Performance is maximized by maximizing f3 (M) and is

called “Performance Index, M.

Therefore: materials for automotive use can be selected based on the

above mentioned approach assuming the body panel and parts of the
automobile as strong and stiff plate.

47
 Chapter 5 Conclusion
Materials science and engineering (MSE) contributes to our everyday
lives by making possible technologies ranging from the automobiles we
drive to the lasers our physicians use.

Role of Materials in Industry

Materials science and engineering is crucial to the success of industries

that are important to the strength.

There is considerable overlap in the generic materials problems of the

eight industries studied; solutions to many of these problems lie at the
forefront of research in materials science and engineering.

All in all, we can summary this 3chapters in small paragraphs

Chapter 2 talks about:

(types of engineering materials):

There are plenty of manufacturing processes that have been developed to

form a product. Depending on the product design, quantity and
application, choosing a right material and manufacturing process could
be your lifesaver especially during the product development stage.

In this chapter, 4 different types of materials will be discussed and the

most common manufacturing processes for each type of materials will be
summarized for your reference.[5]

48
Metal: There are two types of metal, i.e. ferrous and non-ferrous. In
simple word, ferrous metal contains iron and non-ferrous metals do not.

Polymers: The most well known term for polymer is plastic and rubber.
Plastic can be classified in many different ways, such as chemistry,
structure and behavior.

Ceramic: There are 2 categories of ceramics: crystalline and non-

crystalline ceramics.

For most common crystalline ceramics, they are formed by heating

together the materials, such as clays, silica and chalk. It includes
engineering ceramics, pots, cups, bricks, and refractory materials.

The most common engineering ceramics are silicon carbide, silicon

nitride, tungsten carbide, zirconia, diamond, etc. Engineering ceramics
has a very high hardness, good wear resistance and high mechanical
strength at high temperature but are very brittle. Common applications
are cutting tools, gears, and ceramic turbine blades.

For non-crystalline ceramic, in a simple word, which is known as glass!

Also, ceramic can be mixed with metal to form cermet.[4]

composite material.

Composites are the mixture of different materials to improve the

mechanical properties. One of the materials is acting as a matrix while
the other is acting as a reinforce agent. For an instance, carbon-fiber-
reinforced polymer (Polymer is acting as matrix and carbon fiber as a

49
reinforcer). It has a very high strength-to-weight ratio in comparison to
steel and hence is widely used in car bodies (especially sport cars) and
aerospace.

Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials:

Elasticity, plasticity, ductility, malleability, Brittleness, hardness,

durability, endurance, strength, stiffness and resilience.

Chapter 3: contain the all tests of material:

Each material should have some of these properties to test it and choose
which the best material to use for.

Why are metals tested? Ensure quality, Test properties, Prevent failure in
use, Make informed choices in using materials Factor of Safety is the
ratio comparing the actual stress on a material and the safe useable stress.

Two forms of testing:

Mechanical tests (destructive test) – the material may be physically

tested to destruction. Will normally specify a value for properties such as
strength, hardness, toughness, etc.

Non-destructive tests (NDT) – samples or finished articles are tested

before being used.

Types of destructive test:

Tension test, Compression test, Shear testing, Torsion testing, Bending

test, Creep test, Hardness test, Fatigue test, Charpy impact test.

50
Types of Non-Destructive test:

Acoustic Emission Testing, Electromagnetic testing, Leak testing,

Magnetic testing, Ultrasonic testing, Liquid penetrant testing.

Chapter 4 (Explicit tests for material) or (uses of material)

In our daily life, when you see or use a product, have you ever wondering
what is the material of that product and how it was made? Or as a product
designer or engineer, have you ever had an issue in choosing the right
material and manufacturing process to fabricate your product?

Automotive industry

The automotive industry comprises a wide range of companies and

organizations involved in the design, development, manufacturing,
marketing, and selling of motor vehicles.

The automotive industry does not include industries dedicated to the

maintenance of automobiles following delivery to the end-user, such as
automobile repair shops and motor fuel filling stations.[1]

What are cars made of?

Materials Testing in the Automotive Industry, for examples:
 Steel
 Aluminum
 Rubber
 Glass
 Fiberglass

51
  Lead
 Copper
 Titanium
 Magnesium
 Composite and plastics

Material Selection and Indices of Automotive Materials

Material selection is a step towards the design process of any wonders. In
identifying products, the main objective in selecting materials is to
achieve goals at the lowest costs. It is reported that the systematic
selection of the best materials.

Material selection

1) Translation: express design requirements as constraints and objectives

2) Screening: eliminate materials that cannot do the job
3) Ranking: find materials that best do the job
4) Supporting Info: handbooks, expert systems, web, etc.

52
 References

[1] A. Hambali, S. M. Sapuan, N. Ismail, Y. Nukman, April 29, 2018,

“Material selection of polymeric composite automotive bumper beam
using analytical hierarchy process”.

[2] William D. Callister, Jr., 2006, “Materials science and engineering –

An introduction", Seventh Edition, John-Wiley.

[3] Mihai-Paul Todor, April 29, 2018, “Systematic approach on materials

selection in the automotive industry for making vehicles lighter”, Imre
Kiss University Politehnica Timisoara, Faculty of Engineering
Hunedoara, Romania.

[4] J. William, D. Callister and D. G. Rethwisch, 2013,”MATERIALS

SCIENCE and ENGINEERING 9E.”

[5] N. E. Dowling, 2013,” Mechanical Behavior of Materials.”, 4th edition,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University.

[6] P. Helmenstine, Anne Marie, 11. Feb 2020, “Elasticity: Definition and
Examples,” ThoughtCo, Available:
https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-elasticity-605060, [1-
January- 2021].
[7] J.M.K.C. Donev et al, 2018, “Elasticity vs plasticity,” Energy Education,
Available:https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Elasticity_vs_plastici
ty, [31- Dec-2020].

53
[8] P. Helmenstine, Anne Marie, Feb. 11, 2020 ,“Ductile Definition and
Examples (Ductility).”, ThoughtCo, Available:
https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-ductile-and-examples-
605051, [1- January- 2021].
[9] T. Bell, Jan. 31, 2020, “What Is Malleability in Metal?,” ThoughtCo,
Available: https://www.thoughtco.com/malleability-2340002, [1-
January- 2021].
[10] H. Zhang, 2011 ,“The Basic Properties of Building Materials,” A Vol.
Woodhead Publ.
[11] D. L. A. Zghair and D. A. Kadhim, 10 Oct 2017, “Mechanical
properties of materials.”, Available:
https://uomustansiriyah.edu.iq/media/lectures/5/5_2017_12_30!
01_52_49_AM.pdf. [ 1- January- 2021].
[12] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020, “Tensile strength,”
Encycloaedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/science/tensile-
strength, [31- Dec-2020].

[13] S. D. ANTOLOVICH, 2012, “Tension testing”.

[14] J. Pelleg, 2013,” Mecahanical properties of materials”.

[15] D. O. F, 2014, “TENSION AND COMPRESSION TESTING”, Technique

and A. Information.

[16] The National Center for Housing and Building Research, 2018, "The
Egyptian Code for the Design and Implementation of Concrete
Structures", ECP 203-2018, First Edition

[17] I. Admet, 1–11- 2020, “A Guide to Shear Testing,” AZoM, Available:

54
https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=18907, [31- Dec-2020].

[18] E. Q. Sotcheadt Sim, 2016, “Mach-1 – 3-point or 4-point Bending

Test.” BIOMOMENTUM, Available:
https://biomomentum.com/wp/content/themes/biomomentum/library
/images/zoho/Publications/MA056-SOP11-D v2, [30- Dec-2020].

[19] Gene Mathers, 2015, “Creep and Creep Testing,” twi-global,

Available: https://www.twi-global.com/technical-knowledge/job-
knowledge/creep-and-creep-testing-081, [31- Dec-2020].

[20] ANKARA YILDIRIM BEYAZIT ÜNİVERSİTESİ, “Hardness test”, pp. 1–8,

Available:
https://aybu.edu.tr/muhendislik/makina/contents/files/HARDNESSTEST(
1).pdf. [31- Dec-2020].

[21] J. Homan, 2018, “Description of a S-N Curve,” fatec engineering,

Available: https://www.fatec-engineering.com/2018/02/20/description-
of-a-s-n-curve/. [31- Dec-2020].

[22] G. Mathers, 2017, “Mechanical Testing - Notched Bar or Impact

Testing,” twi-global, Available: https://www.twi-global.com/technical-
knowledge/job-knowledge/mechanical-testing-notched-bar-or-impact-
testing-071. [ 2- January- 2021].

[23] European technology platform for sustainable chemistry, May 21,

2018, “Polymer composites for automotive sustainability”.

55
[24] P. G. patil, 2009, “Applications of composite materials in the
automobile industry”.

Appendix
A.1. Table of Materials:

 Yield strength or yield stress is the material property defined as the

stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. It ist he
point on a stress-strain curve that indicates the limit of elastic
behavior and the beginning plastic behavior.
 Ultimate tensile strength (UTS). The ultimate tensile strength is the
maximum on the engineering stress-strain curve.
 Figure
(A.1)
shows
Yield
Strength
- Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
- Table of

Materials.

56
A.2. Fatigue Testing
Materials Testing to obtain S-N Curves is common; several ASTM
standards address stress-based fatigue testing. The "Rotating Bending
Testing Machine", as shown in figure (A.2), is similar to the original
railroad axle-type Wohler used where the bending moment is constant
along the beam length. Each point on the Surface of the Rotating Bend
Specimen is subjected to fully-reversed cycling (σ m = 0) and the tests are
generally Constant Amplitude.

57
A.3. Charpy Impact Test

Figure (A.2): Rotating Bending Testing Machine.

Since toughness is greatly affected by temperature, a Charpy test is often

repeated numerous times with each specimen tested at a different
temperature. This produces a graph of impact toughness for the material
as a function of temperature. An impact toughness versus temperature
graph for a steel is shown in the image. It can be seen that at low
temperatures the material is more brittle and impact toughness is low. At
high temperatures the material is more ductile and impact toughness is

58
higher. The transition temperature is the boundary between brittle and
ductile behavior and this temperature is often an extremely important
consideration in the selection of a material.

Figure (A.3): An impact toughness versus

temperature graph for a steel

A.4.

Compression Test
The Hooke's Law states that,“ E = Stress(s)/Strain(e) “,Where E is
Young's modulus. This value represents how much the material will

59
deform under applied compressive loading before plastic deformation
occurs. A material's ability to return to its original shape after
deformation has occurred is referred to as its elasticity. At this point the
linear behavior of graph stops. A specimen will then exhibit one of two
types of behavior, either it will continue to deform until it eventually
breaks or it will distort until flat.

60