UNIT-I INTRODUCTION AND STRESSES IN MACHINE MEMBERS

Definition
“Machine design is defined as the use of scientific principles, technical
information and imagination in the description of a machine or a mechanical
system to perform specific functions with maximum economy and efficiency”.
In designing a machine component, it is necessary to have a good
knowledge of many subjects such as Mathematics, Engineering Mechanics,
Strength of Materials, Theory of Machines, Workshop Processes and
Engineering Drawing.

General Procedure in Machine Design***

In designing a machine component, there is no rigid rule. The problem
may be attempted in several ways. However, the general procedure to solve a
design problem is as follows :

1. Recognition of need. First of all, make a complete statement of the problem,

indicating the need, aim or purpose for which the machine is to be designed.
2. Synthesis (Mechanisms). Select the possible mechanism or group of
mechanisms which will give the desired motion.
3. Analysis of forces. Find the forces acting on each member of the machine
and the energy transmitted by each member.
4. Material selection. Select the material best suited for each member of the
machine.
5. Design of elements (Size and Stresses). Find the size, find force acting on the
member and the permissible stresses for the material used. It should be kept in
mind that each member should not deflect or deform than the permissible limit.
6. Modification. Modify the size of the member to agree with the past
experience and judgment to facilitate manufacture. The modification may also
be necessary by consideration of manufacturing to reduce overall cost.
7. Detailed drawing. Draw the detailed drawing of each component and the
assembly of the machine with complete specification for the manufacturing
processes suggested.
8. Production. The component as per the drawing is manufactured, assembled
in the workshop.

CLASSIFICATION OF DESIGN (How do you classify machine design)

a). Adaptive design:- Adaptive design is one in which designer's work is
concerned with the adaptation of the existing design requiring no special skills
and knowledge. Example are bicycles and IC engines.
b). Developed design:- Developed design, a high standard of scientific training
is essential when the proven existing design are to be modified to their method
of manufacture, material, appearance etc. In this case designer starts with an
existing design and the final product outcome is remarkably different from the
original product.
c). New design:- New design requires a lot of research, technical capability and
creativity. A few designers bring out new machines by making use of basic
scientific principles.
FACTORS INFLUENCING MACHINE DESIGN:-
What factors should be considered in machine design? (OR) What are the basic
requirements of Machine design?
During the design of machine elements the following factors should be
considered.
S.No Factors Example
1 Type of loading Static, dynamic, simple, and complicated
loads.
2 Size of object Simple, complicated, small and large.
3 Environment conditions Pure atmosphere.
4 Material properties Hard, soft, rigid, elastic and tough etc.
5 Place of employment Hazardous place, safe place. on road, on
water and in air etc
6 Human safety Foolproof arrangement should be
considered.
 7 Cost The design is in such way that the
product should be manufactured in lower
cost.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

What are the General considerations in the design of machine elements?
1.Selection of materials 2. Type of load and stresses
3. Motion of parts 4. Work facilities
5. safety measures 6. Frictional resistance and lubrication
7. cost of construction 8. Use of standard parts

What are the factors to be considered in the selection of materials for the
machine members?
1). Properties of materials such as
a). Mechanical properties b). Electrical properties
c). Physical properties d). Chemical properties
e). Magnetic properties f). Thermal properties
g). Acoustic properties h). Optical properties
i). Metallurgical properties.
2). Easy availability of materials.
3). Cost,
4). Non-hazardous to human being.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS*** (Explain the desirable

properties of engineering materials used in mechanical engineering design.)
Mechanical Properties:-"The properties of machine elements which undergo any
changes in shape and structure during the application of force on those elements are
called as mechanical properties".
1. Strength. It is the ability of a material to resist externally applied loads
without breaking or yielding.
2. Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under loads. The
modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
3. Elasticity. It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after
deformation when the external forces are removed. steel is more elastic than
rubber.
4. Plasticity. It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced
under load permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forgings,
in stamping images on coins and in ornamental work.
5. Ductility. It is the property of a material ability to be drawn into a wire by a
tensile force. The ductility is usually measured by the terms, percentage
elongation and percentage reduction in area.
6. Malleability. It is the property of a material ability to be drawn into a thin
sheets by a compressive force.( rolled or hammered into thin sheets)
7. Brittleness sudden breaking with minimum distortion . Cast iron is a brittle
material.
8. Toughness. It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high
impact loads like hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when
it is heated.
9. Resilience is defined as the ability of the material to absorb energy when
deformed elastically and to release this energy when unloaded. This property is
essential for spring materials.
10. Creep. The slow and progressive deformation with time. IC engines,
boilers,turbines blades, rocket engines, and nuclear reactor components etc
are subjected to creep.
11. Fatigue. When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at
stresses below the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is
known as *fatigue. OR
Ability to withstand cyclic stresses.
This property is considered in designing shafts, connecting rods, springs,
gears, etc.
12. Hardness– resistance to wear, scratching, deformation, machinability etc
The hardness of a metal may be determined by the following tests :
(a) Brinell hardness test,
(b) Rockwell hardness test,
(c) Vickers hardness (also called Diamond Pyramid) test, and

Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes

The selection of a proper material, for engineering purposes, is one of the most
difficult problem for the designer. The best material is one which serve the
desired objective at the minimum cost. The following factors should be
considered while selecting the material :
1. Availability of the materials,
2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service, and
3. The cost of the materials.
The important properties, which determine the utility of the material are
physical, chemical and mechanical properties.
Classification Of Engineering Materials (Enumerate commonly used
engineering materials and explain them)
The engineering materials are mainly classified as :
1. Metals and their alloys:- Ex:- iron, steel, copper, aluminum, etc.
The metals may be further classified as :
(a) Ferrous metals, and (b) Non-ferrous metals.
Ferrous metals containing iron as major constituent, such as cast iron, wrought
iron and steel.
Non-ferrous metals containing other than iron such as copper, aluminum, brass,
tin, zinc, etc.
2. Non-metals, such as glass, rubber, plastic, fibre,leather and asbestos etc.

1. METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS:-

Cast Iron :-
1. Cast iron is an alloy of iron & carbon, containing more than 2% of carbon
Typical composition of ordinary cast iron is:
Carbon = 3-4% Silicon = 1-3%
Manganese = 0.5-1% Sulphur = up to 0.1%
Phosphorous = up to 0.1% Iron = Remain.
The different types of cast irons are White cast iron, Malleable cast iron, Grey
cast iron, Spheroidal cast iron, chilled cast iron and Alloy cast iron.
Advantages:
 Available in large quantities
 Higher compressive strength,
 Components can be given any complex shape without involving costly
machining operations,
 Excellent ability to damp vibrations,
 More resistance to wear even under the conditions of boundary
lubrication,
 Mechanical properties of parts do not change between room temperature
and 3500 centigrade
Disadvantages:
 It has poor tensile strength compared to steel
 Cast iron does not offer any plastic deformation before failure
 Cast iron is brittle material
 The machinability of cast iron parts is poor compared to steel.

Applications:
 Machine tool Beds, lathe bed and guide ways
 Automotive components, agricultural components, feed pipe fittings
 Piston, piston rings, cam shafts, pulleys and gears
 Agricultural tractors, implement parts in automotive crank shafts, piston
and cylinder heads
Steel:-
It is an alloy of iron and carbon, with carbon content up to a maximum of 1.5%.

Classifications:-
Dead mild steel — up to 0.15% carbon
Low carbon or mild steel — 0.15% to 0.45% carbon (Good ductility, good
formability)
Medium carbon steel — 0.45% to 0.8% carbon (High hardness than low carbon
steel)
High carbon steel — 0.8% to 1.5% carbon (Good wear and operation
resistance)
Applications:-
Carbon 0.1 to 0.2% Tubing, forgings, pressed steel parts, rivits and screws.
Carbon 0.2 to 0.3% Forged and machine parts, structural members, boilers.
Carbon 0.3 to 0.55% Forged and machine parts, automobile bolts, shafts.
Carbon 0.55 to 0.75% Rails, hammers.
Carbon 0.75 to 0.85% Coils and flat springs.
Carbon 0.85 to 0.95% Tools, punches, dies and saws.

Effects of various elemnts in steel

 Carbon:- Increasing in carbion content upto 0.83% increase the ultimate
strength. If the carbon content is going to be more than 0.83% reduces the
strength, hardeness, ductility and weldability.
• Silicon:- Silicon is added in spring steel to increase its toughness.
• Manganese:- Manganese increases, hardness and ultimate strength increases.
• Nickel:- Nickel increases strength, hardness and toughness increases.
• Chromium:-Chromium increases hardness & wear resistance, steel containing
more than 4% chromium have excellent corrosion resistance
Applications:-
 Stampings, rivets, cams, gears, levers,
 Screws, nets, diet and screw drivers, washers
 Handsaw, springs, chisels and ball bearings

High Speed Tool Steels

These steels are used for cutting metals at a much higher cutting speed than
ordinary carbon tool steels. The carbon steel cutting tools do not retain their
sharp cutting edges under heavier loads and higher speeds.
Most of the high speed steels contain tungsten as the chief alloying
element, but other elements like cobalt, chromium, vanadium, etc. may be
present in some proportion. Following are the different types of high speed
steels:
1. 18-4-1 High speed steel. This steel, on an average, contains 18% of tungsten,
4% of chromium and 1% vanadium. It is considered to be one of the best of all
purpose tool steels. It is widely used for drills, lathe, planer and shaper tools,
milling cutters, reamers, broaches, threading dies, punches, etc.
2. Molybdenum high speed steel. This steel, on an average, contains 6% of
tungsten, 6% of molybdenum, 4% of chromium and 2% of vanadium. It has
excellent toughness and cutting ability. The molybdenum high speed steels are
better and cheaper than other types of steels. It is particularly used for drilling
and tapping operations.
3. Super high speed steel. This steel is also called cobalt high speed steel
because cobalt is added from 2 to 15%, in order to increase the cutting
efficiency especially at high temperatures.
This steel, on an average, contains 20% tungsten, 4% chromium, 2%
vanadium and 12% cobalt. Since the cost of this steel is more, therefore, it is
principally used for heavy cutting operations which impose high pressure and
temperatures on the tool.

What is the duralumin?

Duralumin is an Al-Cu-Mg-Mn alloy (94% Al – 4% Cu – 1% Mg – 1%Mn) and it
has good corresion resistance and strength. It is strong, hard and light weight
alloy of aluminium. It is widely used in aircraft construction.

Important Terms used in Limit System

The following terms used in limit system (or interchangeable system) are
important from the subject point of view:
1. Nominal size. It is the size of a part specified in the drawing as a matter of
convenience.
2. Basic size. It is the size of a part to which all limits of variation (i.e. tolerances)
are applied to arrive at final dimensioning of the mating parts. The nominal or
basic size of a part is often the same.
3. Actual size. It is the actual measured dimension of the part. The difference
between the basic size and the actual size should not exceed a certain limit,
otherwise it will interfere with the interchangeability of the mating parts.
4. Limits of sizes. There are two extreme permissible sizes for a dimension of
the part as shown in Fig. The largest permissible size for a dimension of the part
is called upper or high or maximum limit, whereas the smallest size of the part
is known as lower or minimum limit.
5. Allowance. It is the difference between the basic dimensions of the mating
parts. The allowance may be positive or negative. When the shaft size is less
than the hole size, then the allowance is positive and when the shaft size is
greater than the hole size, then the allowance is negative.
6. Tolerance. It is the difference between the upper limit and lower limit of a
dimension. In other words, it is the maximum permissible variation in a
dimension. The tolerance may be unilateral or bilateral. When all the tolerance
0.000
is allowed on one side of the nominal size, e.g. 20 0.004 , then it is said to be
unilateral system of tolerance. The unilateral system is mostly used in
industries as it permits changing the tolerance value while still retaining the
same allowance or type of fit. When the tolerance is allowed on both sides of the
0.002
nominal size, e.g. 20 0.002 , then it is said to be bilateral system of tolerance. In
this case + 0.002 is the upper limit and – 0.002 is the lower limit. The method of
assigning unilateral and bilateral tolerance is shown in Fig.(a) and (b)
respectively.

7. Tolerance zone. It is the zone between the maximum and minimum limit size,
as shown in Fig.
8. Zero line. It is a straight line corresponding to the basic size. The deviations
are measured from this line. The positive and negative deviations are shown
above and below the zero line respectively.
9. Upper deviation. It is the algebraic difference between the maximum size
and the basic size. The upper deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol ES
(Ecart Superior) and of a shaft, it is represented by es.
10. Lower deviation. It is the algebraic difference between the minimum size
and the basic size. The lower deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol EI
(Ecart Inferior) and of a shaft, it is represented by ei.
11. Actual deviation. It is the algebraic difference between an actual size and
the corresponding basic size.
12. Mean deviation. It is the arithmetical mean between the upper and lower
deviations.
13. Fundamental deviation. It is one of the two deviations which is
conventionally chosen to define the position of the tolerance zone in relation to
zero line, as shown in Fig.

Fits
The degree of tightness or looseness between the two mating parts is known as
a fit of the parts.

Types of Fits
According to Indian standards, the fits are classified into the following three
groups :
1. Clearance fit. In this type of fit, the size limits for mating parts are so selected
that clearance between them always occur, as shown in Fig (a). It may be noted
that in a clearance fit, the tolerance zone of the hole is entirely above the
tolerance zone of the shaft. In a clearance fit, the difference between the
minimum size of the hole and the maximum size of the shaft is known as
minimum clearance whereas the difference between the maximum size of the
hole and minimum size of the shaft is called maximum clearance as shown in
Fig.(a). The clearance fits may be slide fit, easy sliding fit, running fit, slack
running fit and loose running fit.
2. Interference fit. In this type of fit, the size limits for the mating parts are so
selected that interference between them always occur, as shown in Fig. 3.5 (b).
It may be noted that in an interference fit, the tolerance zone of the hole is
entirely below the tolerance zone of the shaft. In an interference fit, the
difference between the maximum size of the hole and the minimum size of the
shaft is known as minimum interference, whereas the difference between the
minimum size of the hole and the maximum size of the shaft is called maximum
interference, as shown in Fig.(b). The interference fits may be shrink fit, heavy
drive fit and light drive fit.
3. Transition fit. In this type of fit, the size limits for the mating parts are so
selected that either a clearance or interference may occur depending upon the
actual size of the mating parts, as shown in Fig.(c). It may be noted that in a
transition fit, the tolerance zones of hole and shaft overlap. The transition fits
may be force fit, tight fit and push fit.
Basis of Limit System
The following are two bases of limit system:
1. Hole basis system. When the hole is kept as a constant member (i.e. when
the lower deviation of the hole is zero) and different fits are obtained by varying
the shaft size, as shown in Fig.(a), then the limit system is said to be on a hole
basis.
2. Shaft basis system. When the shaft is kept as a constant member (i.e. when
the upper deviation of the shaft is zero) and different fits are obtained by
varying the hole size, as shown in Fig. (b), then the limit system is said to be on
a shaft basis.

Problem(1):- A mild steel rod of 12 mm diameter was tested for tensile strength
with the gauge length of 60 mm. Following obserVations were recorded :
Final length = 80 mm; Final diameter = 7 mm; Yield load = 3.4 kN and Ultimate
load = 6.1 kN. Calculate : 1. yield stress, 2. ultimate tensile stress, 3. percentage
reduction in area, and 4. percentage elongation.
Solution. Given : D = 12 mm ; l = 60 mm ; L = 80 mm ; d = 7 mm ; Wy = 3.4 kN
= 3400 N; Wu = 6.1 kN = 6100 N
We know that original area of the rod,

1. Yield stress
We know that yield stress
2. Ultimate tensile stress
We know the ultimate tensile stress

3. Percentage reduction in area

We know that percentage reduction in area

4. Percentage elongation
We know that percentage elongation

Working Stress
When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress lower than the
maximum or ultimate stress at which failure of the material takes place. This
stress is known as the working stress or design stress. It is also known as safe
or allowable stress.
Note : By failure it is not meant actual breaking of the material. Some machine
parts are said to fail when they have plastic deformation set in them, and they no
more perform their function satisfactory.
Factor of Safety
It is defined, in general, as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working
stress. Mathematically,

In case of ductile materials e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is clearly
defined, the factor of safety is based upon the yield point stress. In such cases,
In case of brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as for
ductile materials. Therefore, the factor of safety for brittle materials is based on
ultimate stress.

This relation may also be used for ductile materials.

Poisson's Ratio
It has been found experimentally that when a body is stressed within elastic
limit, the lateral strain bears a constant ratio to the linear strain, Mathematically,

This constant is known as Poisson's ratio and is denoted by 1/m or  .

Problem(2):- A shaft is transmitting 97.5 kW at 180 r.p.m. If the allowable shear

stress in the material is 60 MPa, find the suitable diameter for the shaft. The shaft
is not to twist more that 1° in a length of 3 metres. Take C = 80 GPa.
Solution. Given : P = 97.5 kW = 97.5 × 103 W ; N = 180 r.p.m. ; = 60 MPa = 60
N/mm2 ; = 1° = π / 180 = 0.0174 rad ; l = 3 m = 3000 mm ; C = 80 GPa = 80 ×
109 N/m2 = 80 × 103 N/mm2
Let T = Torque transmitted by the shaft in N-m, and
d = Diameter of the shaft in mm.
The power transmitted by the shaft (P),

Now let us find the diameter of the shaft based on the strength and
stiffness.
1. Considering strength of the shaft
We know that the torque transmitted (T),
2. Considering stiffness of the shaft
Polar moment of inertia of the shaft,

Taking larger of the two values, we shall provide d = 103 say 105 mm.

THEORIES OF FAILURE
Describe various types of theories of failure (OR) state and explain various
theories of failure under static loading (OR) Explain briefly the various
theories of failure
A machine member is subjected to combined loading, i.e bending and
torsion. It is not possible to decide which combination of normal stress
(bending stress due to bending or shear stress due to torsion) causes the
failure of the member.
In order to predict the failure under combined loads, failure of the
member.
1. Maximum principal (or normal) stress theory (also known as Rankine’s
theory).
2. Maximum shear stress theory (also known as Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).
3. Maximum principal (or normal) strain theory (also known as Saint Venant
theory).
4. Maximum strain energy theory (also known as Haigh’s theory).
5. Maximum distortion energy theory (also known as Hencky and Von Mises
theory).
1. Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory)
According to this theory, the failure occurs whenever the maximum principal
stress induced in the machine component becomes equal to the strength.
The maximum principal or normal stress (  t1) in a bi-axial stress system is
given by
This theory is best suited for brittle materials.

2. Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s Theory)

According to this theory, the failure occurs whenever the maximum shear stress
induced in the component becomes equal to the maximum shear stress in a
tension of test specimen. When the specimen begins to yield.

Since the shear stress at yield point in a simple tension test is equal to one-half
the yield stress in tension, therefore the equation (i) may be written as

This theory is best suited for ductile materials.

3. Maximum Principal Strain Theory (Saint Venant’s Theory)

According to this theory, the failure occurs whenever the maximum strain in the
component becomes equal to the strain in the tension test specimen when
yielding begins.
The maximum principal (or normal) strain in a bi-axial stress system is given by
This theory is not used, in general, because it only gives reliable results in
particular cases.

4. Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Haigh’s Theory)

According to this theory, the failure occurs when strain energy stored per unit
volume of the stressed element becomes equal to the strain energy stored per
unit volume in the tension test specimen at the yield point.

and limiting strain energy per unit volume for yielding as determined from
simple tension test,
5. Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky and Von Mises
Theory)
According to this theory, the failure occurs when the strain energy of distortion
per unit volume of the component becomes equal to the strain energy of
distortion per unit volume of the tension test specimen.
Mathematically, the maximum distortion energy theory for yielding is
expressed as

This theory is mostly used for ductile materials in place of maximum strain
energy theory.
Note: The maximum distortion energy is the difference between the total strain
energy and the strain energy due to uniform stress.

Problem(3):- The load on a bolt consists of an axial pull of 10 kN together with a

transVerse shear force of 5 kN. Find the diameter of bolt required according to
1. Maximum principal stress theory; 2. Maximum shear stress theory; 3. Maximum
principal strain theory; 4. Maximum strain energy theory; and 5. Maximum
distortion energy theory. Take permissible tensile stress at elastic limit = 100 MPa
and poisson’s ratio = 0.3
Given data : Pt1 = 10 kN ; Ps = 5 kN ;  t(el) = 100 MPa = 100 N/mm2 ; 1/m = 0.3
Let d = Diameter of the bolt in mm.
∴ Cross-sectional area of the bolt,
1. According to maximum principal stress theory
We know that maximum principal stress,

2. According to maximum shear stress theory

We know that maximum shear stress,
3. According to maximum principal strain theory
We know that maximum principal stress,

4. According to maximum strain energy theory

We know that according to maximum strain energy theory,
5. According to maximum distortion energy theory
According to maximum distortion energy theory,

Problem(4):-A cylindrical shaft made of steel of yield strength 700 MPa is

subjected to static loads consisting of bending moment 10 kN-m and a torsional
moment 30 kN-m. Determine the diameter of the shaft using two different theories
of failure, and assuming a factor of safety of 2. Take E = 210GPa and poisson's ratio
= 0.25.
Given data :  yt = 700 MPa = 700 N/mm2 ; M = 10 kN-m = 10 × 106 N-mm ; T = 30
kN-m = 30 × 106 N-mm ; F.S. = 2 ; E = 210 GPa = 210 × 103 N/mm2 ; 1/m = 0.25
Let d = Diameter of the shaft in mm.
First of all, let us find the maximum and minimum principal stresses.
We know that section modulus of the shaft
and shear stress due to torsional moment,

We know that maximum principal stress,

and minimum principal stress,

Let us now find out the diameter of shaft (d) by considering the maximum shear
stress theory and maximum strain energy theory.
1. According to maximum shear stress theory
We also know that according to maximum shear stress theory,

2. According to maximum strain energy theory

We know that according to maximum strain energy theory,

Problem(5):- A mild steel shaft of 50 mm diameter is subjected to a bending

moment of 2000N-m and a torque T. If the yield point of the steel in tension is 200
MPa, find the maximum Value of this torque without causing yielding of the shaft
according to 1. the maximum principal stress; 2. the maximum shear stress; and 3.
the maximum distortion strain energy theory of yielding.
Given data : d = 50 mm ; M = 2000 N-m = 2 × 106 N-mm ;  yt = 200 MPa = 200
N/mm2
Let T = Maximum torque without causing yielding of the shaft, in N-mm.
1. According to maximum principal stress theory
We know that section modulus of the shaft,

and shear stress due to the torque,

Minimum principal stress,

and maximum shear stress,

We know that according to maximum principal stress theory,
...(Taking F.S. = 1)

2. According to maximum shear stress theory

We know that according to maximum shear stress theory,

3. According to maximum distortion strain energy theory

We know that according to maximum distortion strain energy theory
S. Table Equation
No
1 Stress

2 Strain

3 Young Modulus or
Modulus of Elasticity (E)

4 Shear Stress

5 Shear Modulus or
Modulus of Rigidity

6 Factor of Safety
7 Impact stress

8 Torsional shear Stress

9 For Solid Shaft of

Diameter d

10 For Hollow Shaft of

Diameter d

11 Power transmitted by the

shaft

12 Bending Stress in straight

Beam
13 Bending Stress in straight
Beam

14 Bending stress in Curved

Beams

15 Resultant Bending Stress

16 Axial Direct Stress

17 Maximum Bending stress

at the inside fibre

18 Maximum Bending stress

at the outside fibre

D.SrinivasuluReddy, M.Tech, (Ph.D) Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering Dept.,

K.H.I.T, Guntur.