DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS – I

Subject Code :18ME54 IA Marks : 20

Hours/Week :05 Exam Hours : 03
Total Hours :50 Exam Marks : 80

Module-1
Fundamentals of Mechanical Engineering Design Mechanical engineering design, Phases of design process,
Design considerations, Engineering Materials and their Mechanical properties, Standards and Codes, Factor
of safety, Material selection.
Static Stresses: Static loads .Normal, Bending, Shear and Combined stresses. Stress concentration
and determination of stress concentration factor. 10 Hours
Module -2
Design for Impact and Fatigue Loads Impact stress due to Axial, Bending and Torsional loads. Fatigue
failure: Endurance limit, S-N Diagram, Low cycle fatigue, High cycle fatigue, modifying factors: size effect,
surface effect. Stress concentration effects, Notch sensitivity, fluctuating stresses, Goodman and Soderberg
relationship, stresses due to combined loading, cumulative fatigue damage. 10 Hours
Module -3
Design of Shafts, Joints, Couplings and Keys Torsion of shafts, design for strength and rigidity with steady
loading, ASME codes for power transmission shafting, shafts under combined loads.
Design of Cotter and Knuckle joints, Rigid and flexible couplings, Flange coupling, Bush and Pin type
coupling and Oldham‟s coupling. Design of keys-square, saddle, flat and father. 10 Hours
Module - 4
Riveted Joints and Weld Joints Rivet types, rivet materials, failures of riveted joints, Joint Efficiency, Boiler
Joints, Lozanze Joints, Riveted Brackets, eccentrically loaded joints.
Types of welded joints, Strength of butt and fillet welds, welded brackets with transverse and
parallel fillet welds, eccentrically loaded welded joints. 10 Hours
Module - 5
Threaded Fasteners and Power Screws Stresses in threaded fasteners, Effect of initial tension, Design of
threaded fasteners under static loads, Design of eccentrically loaded bolted joints.
Types of power screws, efficiency and self-locking, Design of power screw, Design of screw jack: (Complete
Design). 10 Hours
Text Books:
1. Design of Machine Elements, V.B. Bhandari, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi,
2nd Edition 2007.
2. Mechanical Engineering Design, Joseph E Shigley and Charles R. Mischke. McGraw Hill International
edition, 6th Edition, 2009.
Design Data Handbook:
 1. Design Data Hand Book, K. Lingaiah, McGraw Hill, 2nd Ed.
2. Data Hand Book, K. Mahadevan and Balaveera Reddy, CBS Publication
3. Design Data Hand Book, S C Pilli and H. G. Patil, I. K. International Publisher, 2010.
Reference Books:
1. Machine Design, Robert L. Norton, Pearson Education Asia, 2001.
2. Engineering Design, George E. Dieter, Linda C Schmidt, McGraw Hill Education, Indian Edition, 2013.
3. Design of Machined Elements, S C Pilli and H. G. Patil, I. K. International Publisher, 2017.
4. Machine Design, Hall, Holowenko, Laughlin (Schaum‟s Outline series) adapted by S.K Somani, tata
McGraw Hill Publishing company Ltd., New Delhi, Special Indian Edition, 2008
5. Design of Machine Elewments -1, Dr.M.H.Annaiah, Dr. C.N. Chandrappa, Dr.J.Suresh Kumar, New Age
International Publishers.
 CONTENTS

Sl. No. Particulars

1 Introduction
2 Design for Static & Impact Strength

3 Design for Fatigue Strength

4 Threaded Fasteners

5 Design of Shafts

6 Cotter and Knuckle Joints, Keys and Couplings

7 Riveted and Welded Joints

8 Power Screws
 UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION
Instructional Objectives
 Explain what is design?

 Describe the machine and its designer,

 Illustrate the procedure of design,

 Know materials used in mechanical design, and

 Understand the considerations for manufacturing.

The subject Machine Design is the creation of new and better machines and improving the
existing ones. A new or better machine is one which is more economical in the overall cost
of production and operation. The process of design is a long and time consuming one. From
the study of existing ideas, a new idea has to be conceived. The idea is then studied
keeping in mind its commercial success and given shape and form in the form of drawings.
In the preparation of these drawings, care must be taken of the availability of resources in
money, in men and in materials required for the successful completion of the new idea into
an actual reality. In designing a machine component, it is necessary to have a good
knowledge of many subjects such as Mathematics, Engineering Mechanics, Strength of
Materials, Theory of Machines, Workshop Processes and Engineering Drawing.

If the end product of the engineering design can be termed as mechanical then this may be
termed as Mechanical Engineering Design. Mechanical Engineering Design may be defined
as: “Mechanical Engineering Design is defined as iterative decision making process to
describe a machine or mechanical system to perform specific function with maximum
economy and efficiency by using scientific principles, technical information, and
imagination of the designer.” A designer uses principles of basic engineering sciences, such
as Physics, Mathematics, Statics, Dynamics, Thermal Sciences, Heat Transfer, Vibration etc.

Classifications of Machine Design:

The machine design may be classified as follows:
1. Adaptive design. In most cases, the designer‟s work is concerned with adaptation
of existing designs. This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and
can be attempted by designers of ordinary technical training. The designer only
makes m i nor alternation or modification in the existing designs of the product.
2. Development design. This type of design needs considerable scientific training and
design ability in order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by adopting a new
material or different method of manufacture. In this case, though the designer starts from the
existing design, but the final product may differ quite markedly from the original product.

3. New design. This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and
creative thinking. Only those designers who have personal qualities of a sufficiently high
order can take up the work of a new design. The designs, depending upon the methods
used, may be classified as follows:
(a) Rational design. This type of design depends upon mathematical formulae of principle of
mechanics.
(b) Empirical design. This type of design depends upon empirical formulae based on the
practice and past experience.
(c) Industrial design. This type of design depends upon the production aspects to
manufacture any machine component in the industry.
(d) Optimum design. It is the best design for the given objective function under the
specified constraints. It may be achieved by minimizing the undesirable effects.
(e) System design. It is the design of any complex mechanical system like a motor car.
(f) Element design. It is the design of any element of the mechanical system like piston,
crankshaft, connecting rod, etc.
(g) Computer aided design. This type of design depends upon the use of computer systems
to assist in the creation, modification, analysis and optimization of a design.

General Considerations in Machine Design

Following are the general considerations in designing a machine component:
1. Type of load and stresses caused by the load. The load, on a machine component,
may act in several ways due to which the internal stresses are set up. The various
types of load and stresses are discussed later.
2. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine. The successful operation of
any machine depends largely upon the simplest arrangement of the parts which will
give the motion required.
The motion of the parts may be : (a) Rectilinear motion which includes unidirectional and
reciprocating motions. (b) Curvilinear motion which includes rotary, oscillatory and simple
harmonic. (c) Constant velocity. (d) Constant or variable acceleration.

3. Selection of materials. It is essential that a designer should have a thorough

knowledge of the properties of the materials and their behaviour under working
conditions. Some of the important characteristics of materials are: strength, durability,
flexibility, weight, resistance to heat and corrosion, ability to cast, welded or hardened,
machinability, electrical conductivity, etc. The various types of engineering materials
and their properties are discussed later.

4. Form and size of the parts. The form and size are based on judgment. The smallest
practicable cross-section may be used, but it may be checked that the stresses induced in
the designed cross-section are reasonably safe. In order to design any machine part for
form and size, it is necessary to know the forces which the part must sustain. It is also
important to anticipate any suddenly applied or impact load which may cause failure.

5. Frictional resistance and lubrication. There is always a loss of power due to frictional
resistance and it should be noted that the friction of starting is higher than that of running
friction. It is, therefore, essential that a careful attention must be given to the matter of
lubrication of all surfaces which move in contact with others, whether in rotating, sliding,
or rolling bearings.

6. Convenient and economical features. In designing, the operating features of the

machine should be carefully studied. The starting, controlling and stopping levers should be
located on the basis of convenient handling. The adjustment for wear must be provided
employing the various take up devices and arranging them so that the alignment of parts
is preserved. If parts are to be changed for different products or replaced on account of
wear or breakage, easy access should be provided and the necessity of removing other
parts to accomplish this should be avoided if possible. The economical operation of a
machine which is to be used for production or for the processing of material should be
studied, in order to learn whether it has the maximum capacity consistent with the
production of good work.

7. Use of standard parts. The use of standard parts is closely related to cost, because the
cost of standard or stock parts is only a fraction of the cost of similar parts made to
order. The standard or stock parts should be used whenever possible; parts for which
patterns are already in existence such as gears, pulleys and bearings and parts which may be
selected from regular shop stock such as screws, nuts and pins. Bolts and studs should be
as few as possible to avoid the delay caused by changing drills, reamers and taps and also
to decrease the number of wrenches required.

8. Safety of operation. Some machines are dangerous to operate, especially those which
are speeded up to insure production at a maximum rate. Therefore, any moving part of a
machine which is within the zone of a worker is considered an accident hazard and may be
the cause of an injury. It is, therefore, necessary that a designer should always provide
safety devices for the safety of the operator. The safety appliances should in no way
interfere with operation of the machine.

9. Workshop facilities. A design engineer should be familiar with the limitations of this
employer‟s workshop, in order to avoid the necessity of having work done in some other
workshop. It is sometimes necessary to plan and supervise the workshop operations and
to draft methods for casting, handling and machining special parts.

10. Number of machines to be manufactured. The number of articles or machines to be

manufactured affects the design in a number of ways. The engineering and shop costs
which are called fixed charges or overhead expenses are distributed over the number of
articles to be manufactured. If only a few articles are to be made, extra expenses are not
justified unless the machine is large or of some special design. An order calling for small
number of the product will not permit any undue expense in the workshop processes, so
that the designer should restrict his specification to standard parts as much as possible.
11. Cost of construction. The cost of construction of an article is the most important
consideration involved in design. In some cases, it is quite possible that the high cost of
an article may immediately bar it from further considerations. If an article has been invented
and tests of handmade samples have shown that it has commercial value, it is then
possible to justify the expenditure of a considerable sum of money in the design and
development of automatic machines to produce the article, especially if it can be sold in
large numbers. The aim of design engineer under all conditions should be to reduce the
manufacturing cost to the minimum.
12. Assembling. Every machine or structure must be assembled as a unit before it
can function. Large units must often be assembled in the shop, tested and then taken to be
transported to their place of service. The final location of any machine is important and
the design engineer must anticipate the exact location and the local facilities for erection.

Manufacturing considerations in Machine design

Manufacturing Processes
The knowledge of manufacturing processes is of great importance for a design engineer.
The following are the various manufacturing processes used in Mechanical Engineering.
1. Primary shaping processes. The processes used for the preliminary shaping of
the machine component are known as primary shaping processes. The common operations
used for this process are casting, forging, extruding, rolling, drawing, bending, shearing,
spinning, powder metal forming, squeezing, etc.

2. Machining processes. The processes used for giving final shape to the
machine component, according to planned dimensions are known as machining
processes. The common operations used for this process are turning, planning, shaping,
drilling, boring, reaming, sawing, broaching, milling, grinding, hobbing, etc.

3. Surface finishing processes. The processes used to provide a good surface finish for
the machine component are known as surface finishing processes. The common operations
used for this process are polishing, buffing, honing, lapping, abrasive belt grinding,
barrel tumbling, electroplating, super finishing, sheradizing, etc.
4. Joining processes. The processes used for joining machine components are known
as joining processes. The common op e r a t i o ns u s ed for this process are welding, riveting,
soldering, brazing, screw fastening, pressing, sintering, etc.

5. Processes effecting change in properties. These processes are used to impart

certain specific properties to the machine components so as to make them suitable for
particular operations or uses. Such processes are heat treatment, hot-working, cold-working
and shot peening.
General Procedure in Machine Design
In designing a machine component, there is no rigid rule. The problem may be
attempted in several ways. However, the general procedure to solve a design problem is
as follows:

Fig.1. General Machine Design Procedure

1. Recognition of need. First of all, make a complete statement of the problem, indicating the need,
aim or purpose for which the machine is to be designed.
2. Synthesis (Mechanisms). Select the possible mechanism or group of mechanisms which will
give the desired motion.

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3. Analysis of forces. Find the forces acting on each member of the machine and the energy
transmitted by each member.
4. Material selection. Select the material best suited for each member of the machine.

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5. Design of elements (Size and Stresses). Find the size of each member of the machine by
considering the force acting on the member and the permissible stresses for the material used. It
should be kept in mind that each member should not deflect or deform than the permissible limit.
6. Modification. Modify the size of the member to agree with the past experience and
judgment to facilitate manufacture. The modification may also be necessary by consideration of
manufacturing to reduce overall cost.

7. Detailed drawing. Draw the detailed drawing of each component and the assembly of the
machine with complete specification for the manufacturing processes suggested.
8. Production. The component, as per the drawing, is manufactured in the workshop. The flow chart
for the general procedure in machine design is shown in Fig.1.

Standards and Standardization

Standards in Design:
Standard is a set of specifications, defined by a certain body or an organization, to which
various characteristics of a component, a system, or a product should conform. The
characteristics may include: dimensions, shapes, tolerances, surface finish etc.
Types of Standards Used In Machine Design:
Based on the defining bodies or organization, the standards used in the machine design
can be divided into following three categories:
(i) Company Standards: These standards are defined or set by a company or a group of
companies for their use.
(ii) National Standards: These standards are defined or set by a national apex body and are
normally followed throughout the country. Like BIS, AWS.
(iii) International Standards: These standards are defined or set by international apex body and
are normally followed throughout the world. Like ISO, IBWM.
Advantages:
 Reducing duplication of effort or overlap and combining resources
 Bridging of technology gaps and transferring technology
 Reducing conflict in regulations

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  Facilitating commerce
 Stabilizing existing markets and allowing development of new markets
 Protecting from litigation

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B.I.S DESIGNATIONS OF THE PLAIN CARBON STEEL:
Plain carbon steel is designated according to BIS as follows:
1. The first one or two digits indicate the 100 times of the average percentage content of
carbon.
2. Followed by letter “C”
3. Followed by digits indicates 10 times the average percentage content of Manganese “Mn”.

B.I.S DESIGNATIONS OF ALLOY STEEL:

Alloy carbon steel is designated according to BIS as follows:
1. The first one or two digits indicate the 100 times of the average percentage content of
carbon.
2. Followed by the chemical symbol of chief alloying element.
3. Followed by the rounded off the average percentage content of alloying element as per
international standards.
4. Followed by the chemical symbol of alloying elements followed by their average
percentage content rounded off as per international standards in the descending order.
5. If the average percentage content of any alloying element is less than 1%, it should be
written with the digits up to two decimal places and underlined.

Engineering materials and their properties:

The knowledge of materials and their properties is of great significance for a design
engineer. The machine elements should be made of such a material which has properties
suitable for the conditions of operation. In addition to this, a design engineer must be
familiar with the effects which the manufacturing processes and heat treatment have on the
properties of the materials. Now, we shall discuss the commonly used engineering
materials and their properties in Machine Design.

Classification of Engineering Materials

The engineering materials are mainly classified as:
1. Metals and their alloys, such as iron, steel, copper, aluminum, etc.

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2. Non-metals, such as glass, rubber, plastic, etc.
The metals may be further classified as:

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 (a) Ferrous metals and (b) Non-ferrous metals.
The *ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such as cast
iron, wrought iron and steel.
The non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their
main constituent, such as copper, aluminum, brass, tin, zinc, etc.

Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes

The selection of a proper material, for engineering purposes, is one of the most
difficult problems for the designer. The best material is one which serves the desired
objective at the minimum cost. The following factors should be considered while selecting
the material:
1. Availability of the materials,
2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service, and
3. The cost of the materials.
The important properties, which determine the utility of the material, are physical,
chemical and mechanical properties. We shall now discuss the physical and mechanical
properties of the material in the following articles.

Physical Properties of Metals

The physical properties of the metals include luster, colour, size and shape, density,
electric and thermal conductivity, and melting point. The following table shows the
important physical properties of some pure metals.
Mechanical Properties of Metals
The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with the
ability of the material to resist mechanical forces and load. These mechanical properties of
the metal include strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, brittleness, malleability,
toughness, resilience, creep and hardness. We shall now discuss these properties as follows:
1. Strength. It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces

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without breaking or yielding. The internal resistance offered by a part to an externally
applied force is called stress.
2. Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus

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of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
3. Elasticity. It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after
deformation when the external forces are removed. This property is desirable for materials
used in tools and machines. It may be noted that steel is more elastic than rubber.
4. Plasticity. It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under
load permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forgings, in stamping
images on coins and in ornamental work.
5. Ductility. It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with
the application of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic. The
ductility is usually measured by the terms, percentage elongation and percentage
reduction in area. The ductile material commonly used in engineering practice (in
order of diminishing ductility) are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead.
6. Brittleness. It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of
breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. Brittle materials when subjected
to tensile loads snap off without giving any sensible elongation. Cast iron is a brittle
material.
7. Malleability. It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled
or hammered into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential
to be so strong. The malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice (in order of
diminishing malleability) are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium.
8. Toughness. It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads
like hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated. It is
measured by the amount of energy that a unit volume of the material has absorbed after
being stressed upto the point of fracture. This property is desirable in parts subjected to
shock and impact loads.
9. Machinability. It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case with which
a material can be cut. The machinability of a material can be measured in a number of
ways such as comparing the tool life for cutting different materials or thrust required to
remove the material at some given rate or the energy required to remove a unit volume of

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the material. It may be noted that brass can be easily machined than steel.
10. Resilience. It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and
impact loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within

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elastic limit. This property is essential for spring materials.
11. Creep. When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long
period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This property
is considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and turbines.
12. Fatigue. When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below
the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as *fatigue. The
failure is caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are usually fine and of
microscopic size. This property is considered in designing shafts, connecting rods, springs,
gears, etc.
13. Hardness. It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety
of meanings. It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching,
deformation and machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to cut another
metal. The hardness is usually expressed in numbers which are dependent on the method of
making the test. The hardness of a metal may be determined by the following tests:
(a) Brinell hardness test,
(b) Rockwell hardness test,
(c) Vickers hardness (also called Diamond Pyramid) test, and
(d) Shore scleroscope.
Stress
When some external system of forces or loads acts on a body, the internal forces
(equal and opposite) are set up at various sections of the body, which resist the external
forces. This internal force per unit area at any section of the body is known as unit
stress or simply a stress. It is denoted by a Greek letter sigma (ζ). Mathematically,
Stress, ζ = P/A
Where P = Force or load acting on a body, and
A = Cross-sectional area of the body.
In S.I. units, the stress is usually expressed in Pascal (Pa) such that 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. In
actual practice, we use bigger units of stress i.e. megapascal (MPa) and gigapascal (GPa),
such that

Strain

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 1 a = 1 × 109 N/m2 = 1 kN/mm2

WM
hen a system of forces or loads act on a body, it undergoes some

P
a

1
0
6

N
/
m
2

N
/
m
m
2
1

G
P

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 deformation. This deformation per unit length is known as unit strain or simply a
strain. It is denoted by a Greek letter epsilon (ε). Mathematically,
Strain, ε= δl / l or δl = ε.l
Where δl = Change in length of the body,
l= Original length of the body.

Tensile Stress and Strain

Fig. Tensile stress and strain

When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pulls P (also called tensile
load) as shown in Fig. (a), then the stress induced at any section of the body is known as
tensile stress as shown in Fig. (b). A little consideration will show that due to the tensile
load, there will be a decrease in cross-sectional area and an increase in length of the
body. The ratio of the increase in length to the original length is known as tensile strain.
Let P = Axial tensile force acting on the body,
A = Cross-sectional area of the body,
l = Original length, and δl= Increase in length.
Then, Tensile stress, ζt = P/A and tensile strain, εt = δl / l
Young's Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity
Hooke's law* states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is directly
proportional to strain, i.e .

where E is a constant of proportionality known as Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity. In

S.I. units, it is usually expressed in GPa i.e. GN/m2 or kN/mm2. It may be noted that Hooke's
law holds good for tension as well as compression.
The following table shows the values of modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus (E) for the
materials commonly used in engineering practice.

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Values of „E‟ for the commonly used engineering materials.

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 Modulus of elasticity (E)
Material
GPa
Steel and Nickel 200 to 220
Wrought iron 190 to 200
Cast iron 100 to 160
Copper 90 to 110
Brass 80 to 90
Aluminium 60 to 80
Timber 10

Stress-Strain Curves
Properties are quantitative measure of materials behavior and mechanical properties pertain
to material behaviors under load. The load itself can be static or dynamic. A gradually
applied load is regarded as static. Load applied by a universal testing machine upon a
specimen is closet example of gradually applied load and the results of tension test from such
machines are the basis of defining mechanical properties. The dynamic load is not a
gradually applied load – then how is it applied. Let us consider a load P acting at the center
of a beam, which is simply supported at its ends. The reader will feel happy to find the stress
(its maximum value) or deflection or both by using a formula from Strength of Materials. But
remember that when the formula was derived certain assumptions were made. One of them
was that the load P is gradually applied. Such load means that whole of P does not act on the
beam at a time but applied in instalments. The instalment may be, say P/100 and thus after
the 100th instalment is applied the load P will be said to be acting on the beam. If the whole
of P is placed upon the beam, then it comes under the category of the dynamic load, often
referred to as Suddenly Applied Load. If the load P falls from a height then it is a shock
load. A fatigue load is one which changes with time. Static and dynamic loads can remain
unchanged with time after first application or may alter with time (increase or reduce) in
which case, they are fatigue load. A load which remains constantly applied over a long time
is called creep load.

All Strength of Material formulae are derived for static loads. Fortunately the stress caused

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by a suddenly applied load or shock load can be correlated with the stress caused by
gradually applied load. We will invoke such relationships as and when needed. Like stress

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formulae, the mechanical properties are also defined and determined under gradually applied
loads because such determination is easy to control and hence economic. The properties so
determined are influenced by sample geometry and size, shape and surface condition, testing
machines and even operator. So the properties are likely to vary from one machine to another
and from one laboratory to another. However, the static properties carry much less influence
as compared to dynamic (particularly fatigue) properties. The designer must be fully aware of
such influences because most machines are under dynamic loading and static loading may
only be a dream.

It is imperative at this stage to distinguish between elastic constants and mechanical

properties. The elastic constants are dependent upon type of material and not upon the sample.
However, strain rate (or rate of loading) and temperature may affect elastic constants. The
materials used in machines are basically isotropic (or so assumed) for which two independent
elastic constants exist whereas three constants are often used in correlating stress and strains.
The three constants are Modules of Elasticity (E), Modulus of Rigidity (G) and Poisson‟s
Ratio (v). Any one constant can be expressed in terms of other two.

An isotropic material will have same value of E and G in all direction but a natural material
like wood may have different values of E and G along fibres and transverse to fibre. Wood is
non-isotropic. Most commonly used materials like iron, steel, copper and its alloys,
aluminum and its alloys are very closely isotropic while wood and plastic are non-isotropic.
The strength of material formulae are derived for isotropic materials only.

The leading mechanical properties used in design are ultimate tensile strength, yield
strength, percent elongation, hardness, impact strength and fatigue strength. Before we
begin to define them, we will find that considering tension test is the most appropriate
beginning.

Tension Test
The tension test is commonest of all tests. It is used to determine many mechanical properties. A
cylindrical machined specimen is rigidly held in two jaws of universal testing machine. One jaw is

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part of a fixed cross-head, while other joins to the part of moving cross-head. The moving cross-heads
moves slowly, applying a gradually applied load upon the specimen.

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 l

d
Figure 1.1 : Tension Test Specimen
The specimen is shown in Figure 1.1. The diameter of the specimen bears constant ratio with
the gauge length which is shown is Figure 1.1 as distance between two gauge points marked

at the ends of uniform diameter length. In a standard specimen  5 . The diameter, d, and
gauge length, l, are measured before the specimen is placed in the machine. As the axial force
increases upon the specimen, its length increases, almost imperceptibly in the beginning. But
if loading continues the length begins to increase perceptibly and at certain point reduction in
diameter becomes visible, followed by great reduction in diameter in the local region of the
length. In this localized region the two parts of the specimen appear to be separating as the
machine continues to operate but the load upon the specimen begins to reduce. Finally at
some lesser load the specimen breaks, with a sound, into two pieces. However, the increase in
length and reduction of load may not be seen in all the materials. Specimens of some
materials show too much of extension and some show too little. The reader must be
conversant with the elastic deformation, which is recoverable and plastic deformation, which
is irrecoverable. Both type of deformations occur during the test. The appearance of visible
decrease in the diameter in the short portion of length (called necking) occurs when the load
on the specimen is highest. The machines of this type have arrangement (devices) for the
measurement of axial force, P, and increase in length, . The values of force, P and
extensions,  can be plotted on a graph. Many machines have x-y recorder attached and direct
output of graph is obtained. The stress is denoted by  and calculated as P/A where, A is the original
area of cross-section. Although the area of cross-section of specimen begins to change as the
deformations goes plastic, this reduction is seen at and after the maximum load. The
separation or fracture into two pieces can be seen to have occurred on smaller diameter. Yet,
the stress all through the test, from beginning to end, is represented by   P/A. The strain is
defined as the ratio of change in length at any load P and original length l and represented by
, i.e.   l at all loads. Since A and l are constants hence nature of graph between P and 

28
(load-extension) or between  and  (stress-strain) will be same. Figure 1.2 shows a stress-
strain diagram, typically for a material, which has extended much before fracture occurred.

29
 e
bc
 d
or
P f

o  or 
Figure 1.2 : Typical    Diagram

At first we simply observe what this diagram shows. In this diagram o is the starting point and
oa is straight line. Along line oa, stress () is directly proportional to strain (). Point b
indicates the elastic limit, which means that if specimen is unloaded from any point between o
and b (both inclusive) the unloading curve will truly retrace the loading curve. Behaviour of
specimen material from point b to c is not elastic. In many materials all three points of a, b
and c may coincide. At c the specimen shows deformation without any increase in load (or
stress). In some materials (notably mild or low carbon steel) the load (or stress) may reduce
perceptibly at c, followed by considerable deformation at the reduced constant stress. This
will be shown in following section. However, in most materials cd may be a small (or very
small) region and then stress starts increasing as if the material has gained strength. Of course
the curve is more inclined toward  axis. This increase in stress from d to e is due to strain
hardening. Also note again that ob is elastic deformation zone and beyond b the deformation
is elastic and plastic – meaning that it is part recoverable and part irrecoverable. As the
deformation increases plastic deformation increases while elastic deformation remains
constant equal to that at b. If the specimen is unloaded from any point in the plastic
deformation region the unloading curve will be parallel to elastic deformation curve as shown
in Figure 1.3.

20
e

a,b,c g
y

d f

i j k m
o
p
el %
long
100
□
f

Figure 1.3 :    Diagram for a Ductile Material

Percent Elongation
From any point g the unloading will be along gi where gi is parallel to oa. oi is the strain
which remains in the specimen or the specimen is permanently elongated by l p. The total

strain at g when the specimen is loaded is oj  p el where el is recoverable part. Atfracture,

i.e. at point f, if one is able to control and unload the specimen just before fracture, the
unloading will follow f k. The strain ok is an important property because deformation is
defined as percent elongation. Hence, ok = % elongation/100. Percent elongation is important
property and is often measured by placing two broken pieces together and measuring the
distance between the gauge points. You can easily see that after the fracture has occurred, the
specimen is no more under load, hence elastic deformation (which is equal to km) is
completely recovered. However, in a so-called ductile material km << om. If the distance
between gauge points measured on two broken halves placed together is lf, then
l l
% Elongation  f  100
l
The gauge length has pronounced effect on % elongation. Since the major amount of
deformation occurs locally, i.e. over very small length smaller gauge length will result in
higher % elongation. After l/d  5 the % elongation becomes independent of gauge length. %
elongation is an indication of very important property of the material called ductility. The
ductility is defined as the property by virtue of which a material can be drawn into wires

21
which means length can be increased and diameter can be reduced without fracture. However,
a ductile material deforms plastically before it fails. The property opposite to ductility is

22
called brittleness. A brittle material does not show enough plastic deformation. Brittle materials
are weak under tensile stress, though they are stronger than most ductile materials in compression
Ultimate Tensile Strength, Yield Strength and Proof Stress
The maximum stress reached in a tension test is defined as ultimate tensile strength. As
shown in Figure 1.3 the highest stress is at point e and ultimate tensile stress (UTS) is
represented by u. Some authors represent it by Su. The point c marks the beginning while d
marks the end of yielding. c is called upper yield point while d is called the lower yield point.
The stress corresponding to lower yield point is defined as the yield strength. For the
purposes of machines, the part has practically failed if stress reaches yield strength, (Y), for
this marks the beginning of the plastic deformation. Plastic deformation in machine parts is
not permissible. Hence one may be inclined to treat Y as failure criterion. We will further
discuss this later in the unit.
It is unfortunate to note that many practical materials show    diagrams which do not have
such well defined yielding as in Figures 1.2 and 1.3. Instead they show a continuous transition
from elastic to plastic deformation. In such cases yield strength (Y) becomes difficult to
determine. For this reason an alternative, called proof stress, is defined which is a stress
corresponding to certain predefined strain. The proof stress is denoted by p. A    diagram
for a material, which shows no distinct yield is shown in Figure 1.5. The proof stress is
determined corresponding to proof strain p which is often called offset. By laying p on strain
axis to obtain a point q on  axis and drawing a line parallel to elastic line to cut the   
curve at p the proof stress p is defined. Then p is measured on stress axis. The values of
proof strain or offset have been standardized for different materials by American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM). For example, offset for aluminum alloys is 0.2%, same is for
steels while it is 0.05% for cast iron (CI) and 0.35% for brass and bronze

p p



23 q
 
p 
Figure 1.5: Proof Stress (p) Corresponding to Offset p

24
 Toughness and Resilience
Since the force, which pulls the tension test specimen, causes movement of its point of
application, the work is done. This work is stored in the specimen and can be measured as
energy stored in the specimen. It can be measured as area under the curve between load (P)
and elongation (l). In case of    curve area under the curve represents energy per unit
volume.
Toughness is regarded as ability of a material to absorb strain energy during elastic and plastic
deformation. The resilience is same capacity within elastic range. The maximum toughness
will apparently be at fracture, which is the area under entire    diagram. This energy is
called modulus of toughness. Likewise the maximum energy absorbed in the specimen
within elastic limit is called modulus of resilience. This is the energy absorbed in the tension
specimen when the deformation has reached point a in Figure 1.2. But since in most materials
the proportional limit, elastic limit (points a and b in Figures 1.2 and 1.3) seem to coincide
with yield stress as shows in Figure 1.3, the modules of resilience is the area of triangle as
shown in Figure 1.6.

x Medium C Steel

Mild Steel
x

 Modulus
 of Resilience



Figure 1.6 : Resilience and Toughness for Two Materials

It can be seen that modulus of resilience is greater for medium carbon steel than for mild steel,
whereas modulus of toughness of two materials may be closely same. Medium carbon steel
apparently has higher UTS and YS but smaller percent elongation with respect to mild steel.
High modulus of resilience is preferred for such machine parts, which are required to store
energy. Springs are good example. Hence, springs are made in high yield strength materials.

25
 Stress Strain Diagram for Mild Steel

Mild steel as steel classification is no more a popular term. It was in earlier days that group of
steel used for structural purposes was called mild steel. Its carbon content is low and a larger
group of steel, named low carbon steel, is now used for the same purposes. We will read about
steel classification later. Mild steel was perhaps developed first out of all steels and it was
manufactured from Bessemer process by blowing out carbon from iron in a Bessemer
converter. It was made from pig iron. The interesting point to note is that this steel was first
studied through    diagram and most properties were studied with respect to this material.

The term yield strength (YS) is frequently used whereas yield behavior is not detectable in
most steel varieties used today. It is mild steel, which very clearly shows yield behavior and
upper and lower, yield points. Figure 1.7 shows a typical    diagram for mild steel.

a,b,c C

c, d f C yielding d







o  


Figure 1.7 :    Diagram for Mild Steel

The proportional limit, elastic limit and upper yield point almost coincide. d is lower yield
point and deformation from c to d is at almost constant stress level. There is perceptible
drop in stress from c to c. The deformation from c to d is almost 10 times the deformation
upto c. It can be seen effectively if strain is plotted on larger scale, as shown on right hand
side in Figure 1.7, in which the  scale has been doubled.
The mechanism of yielding is well understood and it is attributed to line defects,
dislocations.

26
The UTS normally increases with increasing strain rate and decreases with increasing
temperature. Similar trend is shown by yield strength, particularly in low carbon steel.

27
Compression Strength
Compression test is often performed upon materials. The compression test on ductile material
reveals little as no failure is obtained. Brittle material in compression shows specific fracture
failure, failing along a plane making an angel greater than 45o with horizontal plane on which
compressive load is applied. The load at which fracture occurs divided by area of X-section is
called compressive strength. For brittle material the stress-strain curves are similar in tension
and compression and for such brittle materials as CI and concrete modulus of elasticity in
compression are slightly higher than that in tension.
Torsional Shear Strength
Another important test performed on steel and CI is torsion test. In this test one end of
specimen is rigidly held while twisting moment or torque is applied at the other end. The
result of test is plotted as a curve between torque (T) and angle of twist or angular
displacement . The test terminates at fracture. The T –  curves of a ductile material is very
much similar to load extension or    curve of tensile test except that the torque does not
reduce after attaining a maximum value but fracture occurs at maximum torque. It is because
of the fact that there is no reduction in the sectional area of the specimen during the plastic
deformation. The elastic limit in this case can be found as the point where straight line
terminates and strain hardening begins, marked as point b in Figure 1.8. Mild steel will show a
marked yielding while other ductile materials show a smooth transition from elastic to plastic
deformation. The plastic deformation zone in torsion is much larger than in torsion because
the plastic deformation beginning from outer surface and spreads inside while in tension the
stress being uniform over the X-section the plastic deformation spreads over entire section at
the same time.

T
max

28
 O 
Figure 1.8 : Torque-twist Diagram in Torsion

29
The modulus of rapture or ultimate torsional shear strength is calculated form
  3 Tmax d
u
4 J 2

where Tmax is maximum torque, j is polar moment of inertia of the specimen section of
diameter d. From the T diagram the slope of linear region can be found as proportional to
modulus of rigidity, which is ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain.
Elastic Constants
Within elastic limit the stress is directly proportional to strain. This is the statement of
Hooke‟s law and is true for direct (tensile or compressive) stress and strain as well as for
shearing (including torsional shearing) stress and strain. The ratio of direct stress to direct
strain is defined as modulus of elasticity (E) and the ratio of shearing stress and shearing strain
is defined as modulus of rigidity (G). Both the modulus is called elastic constants. For
isotropic material E and G are related with Poisson‟s ratio

E
G 
2 (1 v)

Poisson‟s ratio which is the ratio of transverse to longitudinal strains (only magnitude) in
tensile test specimen is yet another elastic constant. If stress  acts in three directions at a
point it is called volumetric stress and produces volumetric strain. The ratio of volumetric
stress to volumetric strain according to Hooke‟s law is a constant, called bulk modulus and
denoted by K. It is important to remember that out of four elastic constants, for an isotropic
material only two are independent and other two are dependent. Thus K can also be expressed
as function of any two constants.

K  E
3 (1 □ 2v)

It may be understood that elastic constants E and G are not determined from tension or
torsion test because the machines for these tests undergo adjustment of clearance and also
some deformation, which is reflected in diagram ordinarily. The constants are determined
from such devices, which show large deformation for comparatively smaller load. For
example, E is determined by measuring deflection of a beam under a central load and G is

30
determined by measuring deflection of a close-coiled helical spring an axial load. Poisson‟s
ratio is normally not measured directly but is calculated from above equation.

31
32
33
28
29
Where, η= Shear stress,
= Shear strain, and
C = Constant of proportionality, known as shear modulus or modulus of rigidity. It is also
denoted by N or G.
The following table shows the values of modulus of rigidity (C) for the materials in everyday use:
Values of C for the commonly used materials
Material Modulus of rigidity (C)
GPa
Steel 80 to 100
Wrought iron 80 to 90
Cast iron 40 to 50
Copper Brass 30 to 50
Timber 30 to 50
10
Linear and Lateral Strain
Consider a circular bar of diameter d and length l, subjected to a tensile force P as shown in
Fig. (a).

Fig. Linear and lateral strain.

A little consideration will show that due to tensile force, the length of the bar increases by an
amount δl and the diameter decreases by an amount δd, as shown in Fig. (b). similarly, if the
bar is subjected to a compressive force, the length of bar will decrease which will be followed
by increase in diameter.

It is thus obvious, that every direct stress is accompanied by a strain in its own direction
which is known as linear strain and an opposite kind of strain in every direction, at right
angles to it, is known as lateral strain.
Poisson's Ratio
It has been found experimentally that when a body is stressed within elastic limit, the lateral
strain bears a constant ratio to the linear strain, Mathematically,

29
 LateralStrain
 Constant
LinearStrain

30
This constant is known as Poisson's ratio and is denoted by 1/m or .
Following are the values of Poisson's ratio for some of the materials commonly used in
engineering practice.
Values of Poisson‟s ratio for commonly used materials
Poisson 's ratio
S.No. Material
(1/m or )
1 Steel Cast 0.25 to 0.33
2 iron Copper 0.23 to 0.27
3 Brass 0.31 to 0.34
4 Aluminium 0.32 to 0.42
5 Concrete 0.32 to 0.36
6 Rubber 0.08 to 0.18

Volumetric Strain
When a body is subjected to a system of forces, it undergoes some changes in its dimensions.
In other words, the volume of the body is changed. The ratio of the change in volume to the
original volume is known as volumetric strain. Mathematically, volumetric strain,
 v  V /V
Where δV = Change in volume, and V = Original volume
Notes : 1. Volumetric strain of a rectangular body subjected to an axial force is given as

2. Volumetric strain of a rectangular body subjected to three mutually perpendicular forces is

given by . Where, εx, εy and εz are the strains in the directions x-axis, y-axis
and z-axis respectively.
Bulk Modulus
When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular stresses, of equal intensity, then the
ratio of the direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is known as bulk modulus. It
is usually denoted by K. Mathematically, bulk modulus,

Relation between Young‟s Modulus and Modulus of Rigidity

The Young's modulus (E) and modulus of rigidity (G) are related by the following relation,
Principal Stresses and Principal Planes
In the previous chapter, we have discussed about the direct tensile and compressive stress as well
as simple shear. Also we have always referred the stress in a plane which is at right angles to the
line of action of the force. But it has been observed that at any point in a strained material, there
are three planes, mutually perpendicular to each other which carry direct stresses only and no shear
stress. It may be noted that out of these three direct stresses, one will be maximum and the other
will be minimum. These perpendicular planes which have no shear stress are known as principal
planes and the direct stresses along these planes are known as principal stresses. The planes on
which the maximum shear known as planes of maximum shear.
Determination of Principal Stresses for a Member Subjected to Bi-axial Stress
When a member is subjected to bi-axial stress (i.e. direct stress in two mutually perpendicular
planes accompanied by a simple shear stress), then the normal and shear stresses are obtained as
discussed below:
Consider a rectangular body ABCD of uniform cross-sectional area and unit thickness subjected to
normal stresses ζ1 and ζ2 as shown in Fig. (a). In addition to these normal stresses, a shear stress
η also acts. It has been shown in books on „Strength of Materials‟ that the normal stress across
any oblique section such as EF inclined at an angle θ with the direction of ζ2, as shown in Fig.
(a), is given by

And tangential stress (i.e. shear stress) across the section EF,
Since the planes of maximum and minimum normal stress (i.e. principal planes) have no shear
stress, therefore the inclination of principal planes is obtained by equating η1 = 0 in the above
equation (ii), i.e.
 Fig. Principal stresses for a member subjected to bi-axial stress
We know that there are two principal planes at right angles to each other. Let θ1 and θ2 be the
inclinations of these planes with the normal cross-section. From the following Fig., we find
that

The maximum and minimum principal stresses may now be obtained by substituting the
values of sin 2θ and cos 2θ in equation (i).
So, Maximum principal (or normal) stress, and minimum principal (or noral) stress,
The planes of maximum shear stress are at right angles to each other and are inclined at 45° to the
principal planes. The maximum shear stress is given by one-half the algebraic difference between
the principal stresses, i.e.

Notes: 1. when a member is subjected to direct stress in one plane accompanied by a simple shear
stress, then the principal stresses are obtained by substituting ζ2 = 0 in above equations.

2. In the above expression of ζt2, the value of is more than ζ1/2

Therefore the nature of ζt2 will be opposite to that of ζt1, i.e. if ζt1 is tensile then ζt2 will be
compressive and vice-versa.

Application of Principal Stresses in Designing Machine Members

There are many cases in practice, in which machine members are subjected to combined stresses
due to simultaneous action of either tensile or compressive stresses combined with shear stresses.
In many shafts such as propeller shafts, C-frames etc., there are direct tensile or compressive
stresses due to the external force and shear stress due to torsion, which acts normal to direct tensile
or compressive stresses. The shafts like crank shafts, are subjected simultaneously to torsion and
bending. In such cases, the maximum principal stresses, due to the combination of tensile or
compressive stresses with shear stresses may be obtained. The results obtained in the previous
article may be written as follows:
1. Maximum tensile stress,

2. Maximum compressive stress,

3. Maximum shear stress,

Where, ζt = Tensile stress due to direct load and bending,
ζc = Compressive stress, and
η = Shear stress due to torsion.
Notes: 1. When η = 0 as in the case of thin cylindrical shell subjected in pressure, then ζtmax = ζt.
2. When the shaft is subjected to an axial load (P) in addition to bending and twisting
moments as in the propeller shafts of ship and shafts for driving worm gears, then the stress due to
axial load must be added to the bending stress (ζb). This will give the resultant tensile stress or
compressive stress (ζt or ζc) depending upon the type of axial load (i.e. pull or push).
Problems:
1. A point in a structural member subjected to plane stress is shown in Fig.Q.l(b). Determine
the following:
i) Normal and tangential stress intensities on plane MN inclined at 45°.
ii) Principal stresses and their direction
iii) Maximum shear stress and the direction of the planes on which it occurs.
2. Point in a structural member is subjected to plane state of stree as shown in Fig. Ql(b).
Determine the following:
i) Normal and tangential stress intensities at a angle of e = 45°
ii) Principal stresses 0', and 0'2 and their directions.
iii) Maximum shear stress and its plane.
Solution:
3. A shaft, as shown in Fig., is subjected to a bending load of 3 kN, pure torque of 1000Nm and an
axial pulling force of 15 kN stresses. Calculate the stresses at A and B.
 UNIT 2
DESIGN FOR STATIC AND IMPACT STRENGTH

Instructional Objectives
 Types of loading on machine elements and allowable stresses.
 Concept of yielding and fracture.
 Different theories of failure.
 Construction of yield surfaces for failure theories.
 Optimize a design comparing different failure theories
Introduction
Machine parts fail when the stresses induced by external forces exceed their strength.
The external loads cause internal stresses in the elements and the component size depends on
the stresses developed. Stresses developed in a link subjected to uniaxial loading are shown in
figure. Loading may be due to:
a) The energy transmitted by a machine element.
b) Dead weight.
c) Inertial forces.
d) Thermal loading.
e) Frictional forces.

Load may be classified as:

a) Static load- Load does not change in magnitude and direction and normally increases
gradually to a steady value.
b) Dynamic load- Load may change in magnitude for example, traffic of varying weight
passing a bridge. Load may change in direction, for example, load on piston rod of a double
acting cylinder. Vibration and shock are types of dynamic loading. Figure shows load v/s
time characteristics for both static and dynamic loading of machine elements.

Factor of Safety
Determination of stresses in structural or machine components would be meaningless
unless they are compared with the material strength. If the induced stress is less than or equal
to the limiting material strength then the designed component may be considered to be safe
and an indication about the size of the component is obtained. The strength of various
materials for engineering applications is determined in the laboratory with standard
specimens. For example, for tension and compression tests a round rod of specified dimension
is used in a tensile test machine where load is applied until fracture occurs. This test is usually
carried out in a Universal testing machine. The load at which the specimen finally ruptures is
known as Ultimate load and the ratio of load to original cross-sectional area is the Ultimate
tress.
Similar tests are carried out for bending, shear and torsion and the results for different
materials are available in handbooks. For design purpose an allowable stress is used in place
of the critical stress to take into account the uncertainties including the following:
1) Uncertainty in loading.
2) In-homogeneity of materials.
3) Various material behaviors. e.g. corrosion, plastic flow, creep.
4) Residual stresses due to different manufacturing process.
5) Fluctuating load (fatigue loading): Experimental results and plot- ultimate strength depends
on number of cycles.
6) Safety and reliability.
For ductile materials, the yield strength and for brittle materials the ultimate strength are taken
as the critical stress. An allowable stress is set considerably lower than the ultimate strength.
The ratio of ultimate to allowable load or stress is known as factor of safety i.e.

The ratio must always be greater than unity. It is easier to refer to the ratio of stresses since
this applies to material properties.
Factor of safety = Maximum stress/ Working or design stress In case of ductile materials e.g.
mild steel, where the yield point is clearly defined, the factor of safety is based upon the yield
point stress. In such cases, Factor of safety = Yield point stress/ Working or design stress In
case of brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as for ductile
materials. Therefore, the factor of safety for brittle materials is based on ultimate stress. Factor
of safety = Ultimate stress/ Working or design stress.

Static Strength
Ideally, in designing any machine element, the engineer should have available the results
of a great many strength tests of the particular material chosen. These tests should be made on
specimens having the same heat treatment, surface finish, and size as the element the engineer
proposes to design; and the tests should be made under exactly the same loading conditions as
the part will experience in service. This means that if the part is to experience a bending load,
it should be tested with a bending load. If it is to be subjected to combined bending and
torsion, it should be tested under combined bending and torsion. If it is made of heat-treated
AISI 1040 steel drawn at 500◦C with a ground finish, the specimens tested should be of the
same material prepared in the same manner. Such tests will provide very useful and precise
information. Whenever such data are available for design purposes, the engineer can be
assured of doing the best possible job of engineering.

The cost of gathering such extensive data prior to design is justified if failure of the
part may endanger human life or if the part is manufactured in sufficiently large quantities.
Refrigerators and other appliances, for example, have very good reliabilities
because the parts are made in such large quantities that they can be thoroughly tested
in advance of manufacture. The cost of making these tests is very low when it is divided by
the total number of parts manufactured.

You can now appreciate the following four design categories:

1. Failure of the part would endanger human life, or the part is made in extremely large
quantities; consequently, an elaborate testing program is justified during design.
2. The part is made in large enough quantities that a moderate series of tests is feasible.
3. The part is made in such small quantities that testing is not justified at all; or the design
must be completed so rapidly that there is not enough time for testing.
4 The part has already been designed, manufactured, and tested and found to be
unsatisfactory. Analysis is required to understand why the part is unsatisfactory and what to
do to improve it.

More often than not it is necessary to design using only published values of yield strength,
ultimate strength, and percentage reduction in area, and percentage elongation, such as those
listed in Appendix A. How can one use such meager data to design against both static and
dynamic loads, two- and three-dimensional stress states, high and low temperatures, and very
large and very small parts? These and similar questions will be addressed in this chapter and
those to follow, but think how much better it would be tohave data available that duplicate the
actual design situation.
Stress Concentration

Stress concentration is a highly localized effect. In some instances it may be due to a surface
scratch. If the material is ductile and the load static, the design load may cause yielding in the
critical location in the notch. This yielding can involve strain strengthening of the material and
an increase in yield strength at the small critical notch location. Since the loads are static and
the material is ductile, that part can carry the loads satisfactorily with no general yielding. In
these cases the designer sets the geometric (theoretical) stress concentration factor Kt to unity.

The rationale can be expressed as follows. The worst-case scenario is that of an idealized non–
strain-strengthening material shown in Fig. 5–6. The stress-strain curve rises linearly to the
yield strength Sy , then proceeds at constant stress, which is equal to Sy . Consider a filleted
rectangular bar as depicted in Fig. A–15–5, where the crosssection area of the small shank is 1
in2. If the material is ductile, with a yield point of 40 kpsi, and the theoretical stress-
concentration factor (SCF) Kt is 2,

 A load of 20 kip induces a tensile stress of 20 kpsi in the shank as depicted at point A
in Fig. 5–6. At the critical location in the fillet the stress is 40 kpsi, and the SCF is K =
ζmax/ζnom = 40/20 = 2.
 A load of 30 kip induces a tensile stress of 30 kpsi in the shank at point B. The fillet
stress is still 40 kpsi (pointD), and the SCF K = ζmax/ζnom = Sy/ζ = 40/30 = 1.33.
 At a load of 40 kip the induced tensile stress (point C) is 40 kpsi in the shank. At the
critical location in the fillet, the stress (at point E) is 40 kpsi. The SCF K =
ζmax/ζnom = Sy/ζ = 40/40 = 1.
For materials that strain-strengthen, the critical location in the notch has a higher Sy . The
shank area is at a stress level a little below 40 kpsi, is carrying load, and is very near its
failure-by-general-yielding condition. This is the reason designers do not apply Kt in static
loading of a ductile material loaded elastically, instead setting Kt = 1. When using this rule
for ductile materials with static loads, be careful to assure yourself that the material is not
susceptible to brittle fracture (see Sec. 5–12) in the environment of use. The usual definition
of geometric (theoretical) stress-concentration factor for normal stress Kt and shear stress Kts
is,
ζmax = Ktζnom (a)
ηmax = Ktsηnom (b)

Since your attention is on the stress-concentration factor, and the definition of ζnom or ηnom
is given in the graph caption or from a computer program, be sure the value of nominal stress
is appropriate for the section carrying the load. Brittle materials do not exhibit a plastic range.
A brittle material “feels” the stress concentration factor Kt or Kts , which is applied by using
Eq. (a) or (b). An exception to this rule is a brittle material that inherently contains micro-
discontinuity stress concentration, worse than the macro-discontinuity that the designer has in
mind. Sand molding introduces sand particles, air, and water vapor bubbles. The grain
structure of cast iron contains graphite flakes (with little strength), which are literally cracks
introduced during the solidification process. When a tensile test on a cast iron is performed,
the strength reported in the literature includes this stress concentration. In such cases Kt or Kts
need not be applied.
Failure Theories
If the failure mechanism is simple, then simple tests can give clues. Just what is simple? The
tension test is uniaxial (that‟s simple) and elongations are largest in the axial direction, so
strains can be measured and stresses inferred up to “failure.” Just what is important: a critical
stress, a critical strain, a critical energy? In the next several sections, we shall show failure
theories that have helped answer some of these questions. Unfortunately, there is no universal
theory of failure for the general case of material properties and stress state. Instead, over the
years several hypotheses have been formulated and tested, leading to today‟s accepted
practices. Being accepted, we will characterize these “practices” as theories as most designers
do. Structural metal behavior is typically classified as being ductile or brittle, although
under special situations, a material normally considered ductile can fail in a brittle manner.
Ductile materials are normally classified such that εf ≥ 0.05 and have an identifiable yield
strength that is often the same in compression as in tension (Syt = Syc = Sy ). Brittle materials,
εf < 0.05, do not exhibit an identifiable yield strength, and are typically classified by ultimate
tensile and compressive strengths, Sut and Suc, respectively (where Suc is given as a positive
quantity). The generally accepted theories are:
Ductile materials (yield criteria)
• Maximum shear stress (MSS)
• Distortion energy (DE)
• Ductile Coulomb-Mohr (DCM)
Brittle materials (fracture criteria)
• Maximum normal stress (MNS)
• Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM)
• Modified Mohr (MM)
It would be inviting if we had one universally accepted theory for each material type, but for
one reason or another, they are all used. Later, we will provide rationales for selecting a
particular theory. First, we will describe the bases of these theories and apply them to some
examples.
Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory for Ductile Materials
The maximum-shear-stress theory predicts that yielding begins whenever the maximum shear
stress in any element equals or exceeds the maximum shear stress in a tensiontest specimen of
the same material when that specimen begins to yield. The MSS theory is also referred to as
the Tresca or Guest theory. Many theories are postulated on the basis of the consequences
seen from tensile tests. As a strip of a ductile material is subjected to tension, slip lines (called
Lüder lines) form at approximately 45° with the axis of the strip. These slip lines are
thebeginning of yield, and when loaded to fracture, fracture lines are also seen at angles
approximately 45° with the axis of tension. Since the shear stress is maximum at 45° from the
axis of tension, it makes sense to think that this is the mechanism of failure. It will be shown
in the next section, that there is a little more going on than this. However, it turns out the MSS
theory is an acceptable but conservative predictor of failure; and since engineers are
conservative by nature, it is quite often used.
Recall that for simple tensile stress, ζ = P/A, and the maximum shear stress occurs on
a surface 45° from the tensile surface with a magnitude of ηmax = ζ/2. So the maximum shear
stress at yield is ηmax = Sy/2. For a general state of stress, three principal stresses can be
determined and ordered such that ζ1 ≥ ζ2 ≥ ζ3. The maximum shear stress is then ηmax = (ζ1
− ζ3)/2. Thus, for a general state of stress, the maximum-shear-stress theory predicts yielding
when

Note that this implies that the yield strength in shear is given by

Which, as we will see later is about 15 percent low (conservative). For design purposes,
Above Eq. can be modified to incorporate a factor of safety, n. Thus,
Plane stress problems are very common where one of the principal stresses is zero, and the
other two, ζA and ζB, are determined. Assuming that ζA ≥ ζB, there are three cases to
consider for plane stress:

Maximum principal stress theory ( Rankine theory)

According to this, if one of the principal stresses ζ1 (maximum principal stress), ζ2
(minimum principal stress) or ζ3 exceeds the yield stress, yielding would occur. In a two
dimensional loading situation for a ductile material where tensile and compressive yield stress
are nearly of same magnitude,

Yielding occurs when the state of stress is at the boundary of the rectangle.Consider,
for example, the state of stress of a thin walled pressure vessel. Here ζ1= 2ζ2, ζ1 being the
circumferential or hoop stress and ζ2 the axial stress. As the pressure in the vessel increases
the stress follows the dotted line. At a point (say) a, the stresses are still within the elastic limit
but at b, ζ1 reaches ζy although ζ2 is still less than ζy. Yielding will then begin at point b.
This theory of yielding has very poor agreement with experiment. However, the theory has
been used successfully for brittle materials.
Maximum principal strain theory (St. Venant‟s theory)
According to this theory, yielding will occur when the maximum principal strain just exceeds
the strain at the tensile yield point in either simple tension or compression. If ε1 and ε2 are
maximum and minimum principal strains corresponding to ζ1 and ζ2, in the limiting case,
Maximum strain energy theory ( Beltrami‟s theory)
According to this theory failure would occur when the total strain energy absorbed at a point
per unit volume exceeds the strain energy absorbed per unit volume at the tensile yield point.
This may be given

Substituting,ε1,ε2,ε3 and εy in terms of stresses we have

This may be written as

 Fig: Yield surface corresponding to Maximum strain energy theory
It has been shown earlier that only distortion energy can cause yielding but in the
above expression at sufficiently high hydrostatic pressure ζ1 = ζ2 = ζ3 = ζ (say), yielding
may also occur.
Distortion energy theory( von Mises yield criterion)
According to this theory yielding would occur when total distortion energy absorbed
per unit volume due to applied loads exceeds the distortion energy absorbed per unit volume
at the tensile yield point. Total strain energy ET and strain energy for volume change EV can
be given as

Substituting strains in terms of stresses the distortion energy can be given as

This is an equation of ellipse and the yield surface is shown in figure. This theory agrees very
well with experimental results and is widely used for ductile materials.

Fig: Yield surface corresponding to von Mises yield criterion.

Fig: 3.1.6.1
Problem
 UNIT 3
DESIGN FOR FATIGUE STRENGTH
Instructional Objectives
 Mean and variable stresses and endurance limit.
 S-N plots for metals and non-metals and relation between endurance limit and
ultimate tensile strength.
 Low cycle and high cycle fatigue with finite and infinite lives.
 Endurance limit modifying factors and methods of finding these factors
 Design of components subjected to low cycle fatigue; concept and necessary
formulations.
 Design of components subjected to high cycle fatigue loading with finite life;
concept and necessary formulations.
 Fatigue strength formulations; Gerber, Goodman and Soderberg equations.

Introduction

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Stress Cycle

3.3.2.1F- A typical stress cycle showing maximum, mean and variable stresses.

Endurance Limit
It has been found experimentally that when a material is subjected to repeated stresses; it fails
at stresses below the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as
fatigue. The failure is caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are usually

58
fine and of microscopic size. The fatigue of material is effected by the size of the component,
relative magnitude of static and fluctuating loads and the number of load reversals.

In order to study the effect of fatigue of a material, a rotating mirror beam method
is used. In this method, a standard mirror polished specimen, as shown in Fig.2 (a), is
rotated in a fatigue testing machine while the specimen is loaded in bending. As the
specimen rotates, the bending stress at the upper fibres varies from maximum
compressive to maximum tensile while the bending stress at the lower fibres varies
from maximum tensile to maximum compressive. In other words, the specimen is
subjected to a completely reversed stress cycle. This is represented by a time-stress
diagram as shown in Fig.2 (b). A record is kept of the number of cycles required to
produce failure at a given stress, and the results are plotted in stress-cycle curve as
shown in Fig.2 (c). A little consideration will show that if the stress is kept below a
certain value as shown by dotted line in Fig.2 (c), the material will not fail whatever may
be the number of cycles. This stress, as represented by dotted line, is known as
endurance or fatigue limit (ζe). It is defined as maximum value of the completely

59
reversed bending stress which a polished standard specimen can withstand without
failure, for infinite number of cycles (usually 107 cycles).
It may be noted that the term endurance limit is used for reversed bending only
while for other types of loading, the term endurance strength may be used when referring
the fatigue strength of the material. It may be defined as the safe maximum stress which can
be applied to the machine part working under actual conditions.
We have seen that when a machine member is subjected to a completely reversed
stress, the maximum stress in tension is equal to the maximum stress in compression as
shown in Fig.2 (b). In actual practice, many machine members undergo different range
of stress than the completely reversed stress. The stress verses time diagram for
fluctuating stress having values ζmin and ζmax is shown in Fig.2 (e). The variable stress,
in general, may be considered as a combination of steady (or mean or average) stress and
a completely reversed stress component ζv. The following relations are derived from Fig. 2
(e):
1. Mean or average stress,

2. Reversed stress component or alternating or variable

stress,

For repeated loading, the stress varies from maximum to zero (i.e. ζmin = 0) in each cycle
as shown in Fig.2 (d).

3. Stress ratio, R = ζmax/ζmin. For completely reversed stresses, R = – 1 and for

repeated stresses, R = 0. It may be noted that R cannot be greater than unity.

4. The following relation between endurance limit and stress ratio may be used

60
Effect of Loading on Endurance Limit—Load Factor
The endurance limit (ζe) of a material as determined by the rotating beam method is
for reversed bending load. There are many machine members which are subjected to
loads other than reversed bending loads. Thus the endurance limit will also be
different for different types of loading. The endurance limit depending upon the type of
loading may be modified as discussed below:
Let, Kb = Load correction factor for the reversed or rotating bending load. Its value
is usually taken as unity.
Ka = Load correction factor for the reversed axial load. Its value may be taken as 0.8.
Ks = Load correction factor for the reversed torsional or shear load. Its value may be
taken as 0.55 for ductile materials and 0.8 for brittle materials.

Figure- 3.3.3.1 shows the rotating beam arrangement along with the specimen.

61
62
F- A schematic representation of the limits of variation of endurance limit with ultimate
tensile strength.

63
 F- Variation of surface factor with tensile strength and Brinnel hardness for steels with
different surface conditions

C5 is the reliability factor

Kf is the fatigue stress concentration factor

64
65
 S J P N Trust's Mech Engg. Dept.

HirasugarInstitute ofTechnology, Nidasoshi.

Academic
Notes
Inculcating Values, Promoting Prosperity
15ME54
Approved by AICTE, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka and Affiliated to VTU Belagavi.

66
67
Low Cycle Fatigue
This is mainly applicable for short-lived devices where very large overloads may occur at low
cycles. Typical examples include the elements of control systems in mechanical devices. A
fatigue failure mostly begins at a local discontinuity and when the stress at the discontinuity
exceeds elastic limit there is plastic strain. The cyclic plastic strain is responsible for crack
propagation and fracture. Experiments have been carried out with reversed loading and the
true stress strain hysteresis loops are shown in figure-3.4.1.1. Due to cyclic strain the elastic
limit increases for annealed steel and decreases for cold drawn steel. Low cycle fatigue is
investigated in terms of cyclic strain. For this purpose we consider a typical plot of strain
amplitude versus number of stress reversals to fail for steel as shown in figure-3.4.1.2.

67
68
High Cycle Fatigue

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Stress Concentration Factor

76
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Problems:

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84
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Problem

86
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Problem

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 3.4.4.2.F

91
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Problem

90
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 UNIT 4
THREADED FASTENERS

Instructional Objectives
 Some details of tapping and set screws.
 Thread forms in details.
 Different types of stresses developed in screw fasteners due to initial tightening and
external load.
 Combined effect of initial tightening and external load on a bolted joint.

Bolts, screws and studs are the most common types of threaded fasteners.
They are used in both permanent and removable joints.
Bolts: They are basically threaded fasteners normally used with nuts.
Screws: They engage either with preformed or self made internal threads.
Studs: They are externally threaded headless fasteners. One end usually meets a tapped
component and the other with a standard nut.
There are different forms of bolt and screw heads for a different usage. These include bolt
heads of square, hexagonal or eye shape and screw heads of hexagonal, Fillister, button head,
counter sunk or Phillips type. These are shown in figures.

93
 Fig: Types of screw heads

94
 Fig: Types of bolt heads.
Tapping screws
These are one piece fasteners which cut or form a mating thread when driven into a
preformed hole. These allow rapid installation since nuts are not used. There are two types of
tapping screws. They are known as thread forming which displaces or forms the adjacent
materials and thread cutting which have cutting edges and chip cavities which create a mating
thread.
Set Screws
These are semi permanent fasteners which hold collars, pulleys, gears etc on a shaft.
Different heads and point styles are available.
Thread forms
Basically when a helical groove is cut or generated over a cylindrical or conical section,
threads are formed. When a point moves parallel to the axis of a rotating cylinder or cone held
between centers, a helix is generated. Screw threads formed in this way have two functions to
perform in general:
(a) To transmit power - Square. ACME, Buttress, Knuckle types of thread forms is useful
for this purpose.

95
 (b) To secure one member to another- V-threads are most useful for this purpose.
Some standard forms are shown in figure.

96
V-threads are generally used for securing because they do not shake loose due to the wedging
action provided by the thread. Square threads give higher efficiency due to a low friction. This
is demonstrated in figure.

Fig: Different types of thread forms.

The Mechanics of Power Screws
A power screw is a device used in machinery to change angular motion into linear motion,
and, usually, to transmit power. Familiar applications include the lead screws of lathes, and
the screws for vises, presses, and jacks. An application of power screws to a power-driven
jack is shown. You should be able to identify the worm, the worm gear, the screw, and the
nut. In a square-threaded power screw with single thread having a mean diameter dm, a pitch
p, a lead angle λ, and a helix angle ψ is loaded by the axial compressive force F. We wish to
find an expression for the torque required to raise this load, and another expression for the
torque required to lower the load. First, imagine that a single thread of the screw is unrolled or

97
developed for exactly a single turn. Then one edge of the thread will form the hypotenuse of a
right triangle whose base is the circumference of the mean-thread-diameter circle and whose
height is the lead. The angle λ is the lead angle of the thread. We represent the summation of

98
all the unit axial forces acting upon the normal thread area by F. To raise the load, a force PR
acts to the righ, and to lower the load, PL acts to the left. The friction force is the product of
the coefficient of friction f with the normal force N, and acts to oppose the motion. The system
is in equilibrium under the action of these forces, and hence, for raising the load, we have

99
100
101
102
Problem:

100
101
102
Ham and Ryan1 showed that the coefficient of friction in screw threads is independent of
axial load, practically independent of speed, decreases with heavier lubricants, shows little
variation with combinations of materials, and is best for steel on bronze. Sliding coefficients
of friction in power screws are about 0.10–0.15.
Problem:
An M20x2 steel bolt of 100mm long is subjected to impact load. The energy absorbed by the
bolt is 2 N-m,
i) Determine the stress in the shank of the bolt if there is no threaded portion between the nut
and bolt head.
ii) Determine the stress in the shank if the entire length of the bolt is threaded.
Assume modulus of elasticity for steel as 206 GPa.

103
Determine the size of the bolts for the loaded brackets shown in Fig, if the allowable

104
Tensile stress in the bolt material is limited to 80 MPa.

105
Problem:
A MIO steel bolt of 125 mm- long is subjected to an impact load. The kinetic energy absorbed
by the bolt is 2.5 Joules. Determine (i) Stress in the shank of the bolt if there is no threaded
portion between the nut and the bolt head, (ii) Stress in the shank of the area of the shank is
reduced to that of the root area of the threaded or the entire length of the bolt is threaded.

106
Problem:
A bolt is subjected to initial loading of 5 kN and final tensile load of 9 kN. Determine the size
of the bolt, if the allowable stress is 80 MPa and K = 0.05.

Problem:
A Flange bearing as shown in fig 4(b) is fastened to a fram by means of 4 bolts, spaced
equally on a 500mm bolt circle. The dia of the bearing flange in 650mm and a load of 400 kN
acts at a distance of 250mm from the frame. Determine the size of bolt, taking allowable
tensile stress in the bolt material as 60N/m2. Two dowel pins are provided to take up the shear
load.

107
108
 UNIT 5
DESIGN OF SHAFTS
Instructional Objectives
 Definition of shaft
 Standard shaft sizes
 Standard shaft materials
 Design of shaft based on strength
Introduction
A shaft is a rotating machine element which is used to transmit power from one place to
another. The power is delivered to the shaft by some tangential force and the resultant torque
(or twisting moment) set up within the shaft permits the power to be transferred to various
machines linked up to the shaft. In order to transfer the power from one shaft to another, the
various members such as pulleys, gears etc., are mounted on it. These members along with the
forces exerted upon them causes the shaft to bending. In other words, we may say that a shaft
is used for the transmission of torque and bending moment.
The various members are mounted on the shaft by means of keys or splines.
Notes: 1. The shafts are usually cylindrical, but may be square or cross-shaped in section.
They are solid in cross-section but sometimes hollow shafts are also used.
2. An axle, though similar in shape to the shaft, is a stationary machine element and is used
for the transmission of bending moment only. It simply acts as a support for some rotating
body such as hoisting drum, a car wheel or a rope sheave.
3. A spindle is a short shaft that imparts motion either to a cutting tool (e.g. drill press
spindles) or to a work piece (e.g. lathe spindles).
Material Used for Shafts
The material used for shafts should have the following properties:
1. It should have high strength.
2. It should have good machinability.
3. It should have low notch sensitivity factor.
4. It should have good heat treatment properties.
5. It should have high wear resistant properties.

108
The material used for ordinary shafts is carbon steel of grades 40 C 8, 45 C 8, 50 C 4 and 50 C
12.

109
The mechanical properties of these grades of carbon steel are given in the following table.
Mechanical properties of steels used for shafts

When a shaft of high strength is required, then alloy steel such as nickel, nickel- chromium or
chrome-vanadium steel is used.
Types of Shafts
The following two types of shafts are important from the subject point of view:
1. Transmission shafts. These shafts transmit power between the source and the machines
absorbing power. The counter shafts, line shafts, over head shafts and all factory shafts are
transmission shafts. Since these shafts carry machine parts such as pulleys, gears etc.,
therefore they are subjected to bending in addition to twisting.
2. Machine shafts. These shafts form an integral part of the machine itself. The crank shaft is
an example of machine shaft.

Flexible Shaft

110
Standard Sizes of Transmission Shafts
The standard sizes of transmission shafts are:
 25 mm to 60 mm with 5 mm steps
 60 mm to 110 mm with 10 mm steps
 110 mm to 140 mm with 15 mm steps
 140 mm to 500 mm with 20 mm steps.
The standard lengths of the shafts are 5m, 6m and 7m.

Stresses in Shafts
The following stresses are induced in the shafts:
1. Shear stresses due to the transmission of torque (i.e. due to torsional load).
2. Bending stresses (tensile or compressive) due to the forces acting upon machine elements
like gears, pulleys etc. as well as due to the weight of the shaft itself.
3. Stresses due to combined torsional and bending loads.

Design of Shafts
The shafts may be designed on the basis of
1. Strength and
2. Rigidity and stiffness
In designing shafts on the basis of strength, the following cases may be considered:
(a) Shafts subjected to twisting moment or torque only,
(b) Shafts subjected to bending moment only,
(c) Shafts subjected to combined twisting and bending moments, and
(d) Shafts subjected to axial loads in addition to combined torsional and bending loads.

Material for Shafts

The ferrous, non-ferrous materials and non metals are used as shaft material depending on the
application. Some of the common ferrous materials used for shaft are discussed below.

Hot-rolled plain carbon steel

These materials are least expensive. Since it is hot rolled, scaling is always present on the

110
surface and machining is required to make the surface smooth.

111
Cold-drawn plain carbon/alloy composition
Since it is cold drawn it has got its inherent characteristics of smooth bright finish. Amount of
machining therefore is minimal. Better yield strength is also obtained. This is widely used for
general purpose transmission shaft.

Alloy steels
Alloy steel as one can understand is a mixture of various elements with the parent steel to
improve certain physical properties. To retain the total advantage of alloying materials one
requires heat treatment of the machine components after it has been manufactured. Nickel,
chromium and vanadium are some of the common alloying materials. However, alloy steel is
expensive.
These materials are used for relatively severe service conditions. When the situation demands
great strength then alloy steels are used. They have fewer tendencies to crack, warp or distort
in heat treatment. Residual stresses are also less compared to CS (Carbon Steel).
In certain cases the shaft needs to be wear resistant, and then more attention has to be paid to
make the surface of the shaft to be wear resistant. The common types of surface hardening
methods are,
Hardening of surface
Case hardening and carburizing
Cyaniding and nitriding.

Design considerations for shaft

For the design of shaft following two methods are adopted,
Design based on Strength
In this method, design is carried out so that stress at any location of the shaft should not
exceed the material yield stress. However, no consideration for shaft deflection and shaft twist
is included.
Design based on Stiffness
Basic idea of design in such case depends on the allowable deflection and twist of the shaft.
Design based on Strength

112
The stress at any point on the shaft depends on the nature of load acting on it. The stresses
which may be present are as follows.

113
Basic stress equations:

Bending stress,
Where,

M : Bending moment at the point of interest

d : Outer diameter of the shaft
o
k : Ratio of inner to outer diameters of the shaft ( k = 0 for a solid shaft because inner
diameter is zero )

Axial Stress,
Where,

F: Axial force (tensile or compressive)

α: Column-action factor(= 1.0 for tensile load)
The term α has been introduced in the equation. This is known as column action factor. What
is a column action factor? This arises due the phenomenon of buckling of long slender
members which are acted upon by axial compressive loads.

Here, α is defined as,

Where,
n = 1.0 for hinged end
n = 2.25 for fixed end
n = 1.6 for ends partly restrained, as in bearing
K = least radius of gyration, L = shaft length
ζyc = yield stress in compression

114
Stress due to torsion,

Where,
T : Torque on the shaft
ηxy : Shear stress due to torsion

Combined Bending and Axial stress

Both bending and axial stresses are normal stresses; hence the net normal stress is given by,

The net normal stress can be either positive or negative. Normally, shear stress due to torsion
is only considered in a shaft and shear stress due to load on the shaft is neglected.

Maximum shear stress theory

Design of the shaft mostly uses maximum shear stress theory. It states that a machine member
fails when the maximum shear stress at a point exceeds the maximum allowable shear stress
for the shaft material. Therefore,

Substituting the values of ζx and η in the above equation, the final form is,
xy

Therefore, the shaft diameter can be calculated in terms of external loads and material
properties. However, the above equation is further standardized for steel shafting in terms of
allowable design stress and load factors in ASME design code for shaft.

ASME design Code

The shafts are normally acted upon by gradual and sudden loads. Hence, the equation is
modified in ASME code by suitable load factors,

115
Where, Cbm and Ct are the bending and torsion factors. The values of these factors are given
below,

ASME code also suggests about the allowable design stress, η allowable to be considered for steel
shafting,
ASME Code for commercial steel shafting
= 55 MPa for shaft without keyway
= 40 MPa for shaft with keyway

ASME Code for steel purchased under definite specifications

= 30% of the yield strength but not over 18% of the ultimate strength in tension for
shafts without keyways. These values are to be reduced by 25% for the presence of keyways.

Design of Shafts on the basis of Rigiditv

Sometimes the shafts are to be designed on the basis of rigidity. We shall
consider the following two types of rigidity.

1. Torsional rigidity. The torsional rigidity is important in the case of camshaft of an

I.C.engine where the timing of the valves would be affected. The permissible amount
of twist should not exceed 0.25° per metre length of such shafts. For line shafts or
transmission shafts, deflections 2.5 to 3 degree per metre length may be used as limiting

116
value. The widely used deflection for the shafts is limited to 1 degree in a length
equal to twenty times the diameter of the shaft. The torsional deflection may be

117
obtained by using the torsion equation,

Where, θ = Torsional deflection or angle of twist in radians,

T = Twisting moment or torque on the shaft,
J = Polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area about the axis of rotation,
G = Modulus of rigidity for the shaft material, and
L = Length of the shaft.

2. Lateral rigidity. It is important in case of transmission shafting and shafts running at high
speed, where small lateral deflection would cause huge out-of-balance forces. The lateral
rigidity is also important for maintaining proper bearing clearances and for correct gear teeth
alignment. If the shaft is of uniform cross-section, then the lateral deflection of a shaft may be
obtained by using the deflection formulae as in Strength of Materials. But when the shaft is of
variable cross-section, then the lateral deflection may be determined from the fundamental
equation for the elastic curve of a beam, i.e.

BIS codes of Shafts

The standard sizes of transmission shafts are:
25mm to 60mm with 5mm steps; 60mm to 110mm with 10mm steps ; 110mm to 140mm with
15mm steps ; and 140mm to 500mm with 20mm steps.
The standard length of the shafts are 5m, 6m and 7m.

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Problems:
Q. The problem is shown in the given figure. A pulley drive is transmitting power to a pinion,
which in turn is transmitting power to some other machine element. Pulley and pinion
diameters are 400mm and 200mm respectively. Shaft has to be designed for minor to heavy
shock.

From the given figure, the magnitude of torque,

It is observed that the load on the shaft is acting both in horizontal and vertical planes. The
loading diagram, corresponding bearing reactions and bending moment diagram is given
below.

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120
The bending moment at C:
For vertical plane, MV: -150 Nm
For horizontal plane, MH: 860 Nm
Resultant moment: 873 Nm
The bending moment at D:
For vertical plane, MV: -850 Nm
For horizontal plane, MH: 580 Nm
Resultant moment: 1029Nm
Therefore, section-D is critical and where bending moment and torsion is 1029 Nm and 600
Nm respectively.
ASME code for shaft design is suitable in this case as no other specifications are provided. In
absence of any data for material property, the allowable shear for commercial steel shaft may
be taken as 40 MPa, where keyway is present in the shaft.
For the given condition of shock, let us consider Cbm = 2.0 and Ct = 1.5.
From the ASME design code, we have,

From standard size available, the value of shaft diameter is also 66mm.
Q. A mild steel shaft transmits 20 kW at 200 rpm. It is subjected to a bending moment of
562.5 N-m. Determine the size of the shaft, if the allowable shear stress is 42 MPa, and the
maximum tensile or compressive stress is not to exceed 58 MPa. What size of the shaft will be
required if it is subjected to gradually applied load.
Solution: Given,

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Hence the diameter of the shaft is 57.08 mm or 58 mm.

Q. A shaft is supported by two bearings placed at a distance of 600 mm diameter pulley is

mounted at a distance of 300mm to the right of left hand bearing and this drives a pulley
directly below it with the help of belt having diameter is placed 200 mm to the left of right
hand bearing anf is driven with the help of electric motor and belt, which is placed
horizontally to the right. The angle of contact for both the pulleys is 180° and μ = 0.24.
Determine suitable diameter of solid shaft, allowing working stress of 63 MPa in tension and
42 MPa in shear for the material of shaft. Assume that the torque on one pulley is equal to that
on the other pulley.

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Problem:

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Problem:

125
126
Comparison of Strength

Problem:
Prove that a hollow shaft is stronger and stiffer than a solid shaft of same length, weight and
material.
Solution: (i) Strength

127
Problem:
Commercial shaft 1 metre long supported between bearings has a pulley of 600 mm diameter
weighing 1 kN, driven by a horizontal belt drive keyed to the shaft at a distance of 400 mm to
the left of the right bearing and receives 25 kW at 1000rpm. Power from the shaft is
transmitted from the 20·, spur pinion of a pitch circle diameter 200 mm which is mounted at
200 mm to the right of the left bearing to a gear such that tangential force on the gear acts
vertically upwards. Take the ratio of the belt tension is 3. Determine the standard size of the
shaft based on maximum shear stress theory assume Cm= 1.75, CT = 1.25.
Solution:
Shaft is subjected to combined Bending & Torsion. Bending is due to weight of pulley, belt
tension & gear forces, where as torsion due to power transmitted)

128
129
Page 130
Page 130
 UNIT 6
COTTER AND KNUCKLE JOINTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS

Instructional Objectives
 A typical cotter joint, its components and working principle.
 Detailed design procedure of a cotter joint.
 A typical knuckle joint, its components and working principle.
 Detailed design procedure of a knuckle joint.
 Different types of keys and their applications.
 Detailed design procedure of a typical rigid flange coupling.
 Detailed design procedure of a typical flexible rubber-bush coupling.

Cotter joint
A cotter is a flat wedge-shaped piece of steel as shown in figure. This is used to connect
rigidly two rods which transmit motion in the axial direction, without rotation. These joints
may be subjected to tensile or compressive forces along the axes of the rods.
Examples of cotter joint connections are: connection of piston rod to the crosshead of a steam
engine, valve rod and its stem etc.
A typical cotter joint is as shown in figure. One of the rods has a socket end into which the
other rod is inserted and the cotter is driven into a slot, made in both the socket and the rod.
The cotter tapers in width (usually 1:24) on one side only and when this is driven in, the rod is
forced into the socket. However, if the taper is provided on both the edges it must be less than
the sum of the friction angles for both the edges to make itself locking i.e., α1 + α2 < θ1 + θ2
where α1, α2 are the angles of taper on the rod edge and socket edge of the cotter respectively
and θ1, θ2 are the corresponding angles of friction. This also means that if taper is given on
one side only then α < θ1 + θ2 for self locking. Clearances between the cotter and slots in the
rod end and socket allows the driven cotter to draw together the two parts of the joint until the
socket end comes in contact with the cotter on the rod end.

Fig: Cross-sectional views of a typical cotter joint

Fig: An isometric view of a typical cotter joint

Design of a cotter joint
If the allowable stresses in tension, compression and shear for the socket, rod and cotter be ζt,
ζc and η respectively, assuming that they are all made of the same material, we may write the
following failure criteria:
Cotters may bend when driven into position. When this occurs, the bending moment cannot be
correctly estimated since the pressure distribution is not known. However, if we assume a
triangular pressure distribution over the rod, as shown in figure.
Tightening of cotter introduces initial stresses which are again difficult to estimate.
Sometimes therefore it is necessary to use empirical proportions to design the joint. Some
typical proportions are given below:

Knuckle Joint
A knuckle joint is used to connect two rods under tensile load. This joint permits angular
misalignment of the rods and may take compressive load if it is guided.

Fig: A typical knuckle joint

These joints are used for different types of connections e.g. tie rods, tension links in bridge
structure. In this, one of the rods has an eye at the rod end and the other one is forked with
eyes at both the legs. A pin (knuckle pin) is insertedthrough the rod-end eye and fork-end eyes
and is secured by a collar and a split pin.
Normally, empirical relations are available to find different dimensions of the joint and they
are safe from design point of view. The proportions are given in the figure,

However, failures analysis may be carried out for checking. The analyses are shown below
assuming the same materials for the rods and pins and the yield stresses in tension,
compression and shear are given by ζt, ζc and η.
1. Failure of rod in tension:

2. Failure of knuckle pin in double shear:

3. Failure of knuckle pin in bending (if the pin is loose in the fork) assuming a triangular
pressure distribution on the pin, the loading on the pin is shown in figure
Equating the maximum bending stress to tensile or compressive yield stress we have
The design may be carried out using the empirical proportions and then the analytical
relations may be used as checks.
Design a socket and spigot type cotter joint to sustain and axial load of 100 kN. The material
selected for the joint has the following design stresses ζT= 100 N/mm2, ζe = 150 N/mm2 and,
η = 60 N/mm2.
Design a cotter joint to sustain an axial load of 100 kN. Allowable stress in tension 80 MPa.
Allowable stress in compression 120 MPa. Allowable shear stress 60 MPa. Allowable bearing
pressure 40 MPa.
Design a Knuckle joint to transmit 150 kN. The design stresses may be taken as 75 N/mm2 in
tension, 60 N/mm2 in shear and 150 N/mm2 in compression.
KEYS AND COUPLINGS
INTRODUCTION
A key is a piece of steel inserted between the shaft and hub or boss of the pulley to connect these
together in order to prevent relative motion between them. It is always inserted parallel to the axis of
the shaft. Keys are used as temporary fastenings and are subjected to considerable crushing and
shearing stresses. A keyway is a slot or recess in a shaft and hub of the pulley to accommodate a key.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
o Identify keys and their application,
o Calculate forces on keys, and
o Design keys.
TYPES OF KEYS
The following types of keys are important from the subject point of view :
(a) Shunk keys,
(b) Saddle keys,
(c) Tangent keys,
(d) Round keys, and
(e) Splines.
We shall now discuss the above types of keys, in detail, in the following sections.
Sunk Keys
The sunk keys are provided half in the keyway of the shaft and half in the keyway of the
hub or boss of the pulley or gear. The sunk keys are of the following types :
Rectangular Sunk Key
A rectangular sunk key is shown in Figure 6.1. The usual proportions of this key are :
Width of key, w  d ; and thickness of key, t  2w  d
4 3 6
where d = Diameter of the shaft or diameter of the hole in the hub.
The key has taper 1 in 100 on the top side only.
Taper 1: 100 w
t
 Square Sunk Key
The only difference between a rectangular sunk key and a square sunk key is that its width and
thickness are equal, i.e.
d
w  t 

4
Parallel Sunk Key
The parallel sunk keys may be of rectangular or square section uniform in width and thickness
throughout. It may be noted that a parallel key is a taperless and is used where the pulley, gear or
other mating part is required to slide along the shaft.
Gib-head Key
It is a rectangular sunk key with a head at one end known as gib head. It is usually provided to
facilitate the removal of key. A gib head key is shown in Figure and its use in shown in Figure.

The usual proportions of the gib head key are :

Width, w  d ;
4

and thickness at large end, t  2w  d .

3 6
Feather Key
A key attached to one member of a pair and which permits relative axial movement of the
other is known as feather key. It is a special key of parallel type which transmits a turning
moment and also permits axial movement. It is fastened either to the shaft or hub, the key
being a sliding fit in the key way of the moving piece.
The feather key may be screwed to the shaft as shown in Figure or it may have double gib
heads as shown in Figure. The various proportions of a feather key are same as those of
rectangular sunk key and gib head key.

Feather Key
The following Table shows the proportions of standard parallel, tapered and gib head keys,
according to IS : 2292 and 2293-1974 (Reaffirmed 1992).
Proportions of Standard Parallel, Tapered and Gib Head Key

Shaft Diameter Key Cross-section Shaft Diameter Key Cross-section

(mm) upto and (mm) upto and
Including Width Thickness Including Width Thickness
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

6 2 2 85 25 14

8 3 3 95 28 16

10 4 4 110 32 18

12 5 5 130 36 20

17 6 6 150 40 22

22 8 7 170 45 25

30 10 8 200 50 28

38 12 8 230 56 32

44 14 9 260 63 32

50 16 10 290 70 36

58 18 11 330 80 40

65 20 12 380 90 45

75 22 14 440 100 50
Woodruff Key
The woodruff key is an easily adjustable key. It is a piece from a cylindrical disc having
segmental cross-section in front view as shown in Figure. A woodruff key is capable of tilting
in a recess milled out in the shaft by a cutter having the same curvature as the disc from which
the key is made. This key is largely used in machine tool and automobile construction.

Woodruff Key
The main advantages of a woodruff key are as follows :
(c) It accommodates itself to any taper in the hub or boss of the mating piece.
(d) It is useful on tapering shaft ends. Its extra depth in the shaft prevents any tendency
to turn over in its keyway.
The disadvantages are :
(a) The depth of the keyway weakens the shaft.
(b) It can not be used as a feather.
Saddle Keys
The saddle keys are of the following two types :
Flat saddle key, and
Hollow saddle key.
A flat saddle key is a taper key which fits in a keyway in the hub and is flat on the shaft as shown in
Figure. It is likely to slip round the shaft under load. Therefore, it is used for comparatively light

Saddle Key
A hollow saddle key is a taper key which fits in a keyway in the hub and the bottom of the
key is shaped to fit the curved surface of the shaft. Since hollow saddle keys hold on by
friction, therefore, these are suitable for light loads. It is usually used as a temporary fastening
in fixing and setting eccentrics, cams, etc.
Tangent Keys
The tangent keys are fitted in pair at right angles as shown in Figure. Each key is to
withstand torsion in one direction only. These are used in large heavy duty shafts.

Tangent Keys

Round Keys

The round keys, as shown in Figure, are circular in section and fit into holes drilled partly in
the shaft and partly in the hub. They have the advantage of manufacturing as their keyways
may be drilled and reamed after the mating parts have been assembled. Round keys are
usually considered to be most appropriate for low power drives.

Round Keys

Sometimes the tapered pin, as shown in Figure, is held in place by the friction between the
pin and the reamed tapered holes
Splines
Sometimes, keys are made integral with the shaft which fit in the keyways broached in the
hub. Such shafts are known as splined shafts as shown in Figure. These shafts usually have
four, six, ten or sixteen splines. The splined shafts are relatively stronger than shafts having a
single keyway.
The splined shafts are used when the force to be transmitted is large in proportion to the size
of the shaft as in automobile transmission and sliding gear transmissions. By using splined
shafts, we obtain axial movement as well as positive drive.

FORCE ACTING ON A SUNK KEY

When a key is used in transmitting torque from a shaft to a rotor or hub, the following two types of
forces act on the key :
(a) Forces (F1) due to fit of the key in its keyway, as in a tight fitting straight key or in a
tapered key driven in place. These forces produce compressive stresses in the key which
are difficult to determine in magnitude.
(b) Forces (F) due to the torque transmitted by the shaft. These forces produce shearing and
compressive (or crushing) stresses in the key.
The distribution of the forces along the length of the key is not uniform because the forces are
concentrated near the torque-input end. The non-uniformity of distribution is caused by the twisting
of the shaft within the hub.
The forces acting on a key for a clockwise torque being transmitted from a shaft to a hub are shown in
Figure. In designing a key, forces due to fit of the key are neglected and it is assumed that the
distribution of forces along the length of key is uniform.
STRENGTH OF A SUNK KEY
A key connecting the shaft and hub is shown in Figure.
Let T = Torque transmitted by the shaft,
 F = Tangential force acting at the circumference of the shaft,
d = Diameter of shaft,
l = Length of key,
w = Width of key,
t = Thickness of key, and
 and c = Shear and crushing stresses for the material of key

A little consideration will show that due to the power transmitted by the shaft, the key may
fail due to shearing or crushing.
Considering shearing of the key, the tangential shearing force acting at the circumference of
the shaft,

F = Area resisting shearing  Shearing stress = l  w  

 Torque transmitted by the shaft,

d d
T  F   l  w   
2 2
Considering crushing of the key, the tangential crushing force acting at the
circumference of the shaft,
t c
F = Area resisting crushing  Crushing stress  l   2
 Torque transmitted by the shaft,
 Torque transmitted by the shaft,
d t d
T  F  2  l  2  c  2
The key is equally strong in shearing and crushing, if
l  w    d  l  t    d
2 2 c 2

Problems:

If a shaft and key are made of same material, determine the length of the key required in terms
of shaft diameter, taking key width and key thickness. Assume keyway factor as 0.75.
Design a rigid flange coupling to transmit 18kW at 1440 rpm. The allowable shear stress in
the cast iron flange is 4 MPa. The shaft and keys are made of AISI 1040 annealed steel with
ultimate strength and yield stress valued as 518.8 MPa and 353.4 MPa, respectively. Use
ASME code to design the shaft and the key.
Design a cast iron flanged couplings for a steel shaft transmitting 100 kW at 250 rpm. Take
the allowable shear stress for the shaft as 40 N/mm2. The angle of twist is not to exceed 1° in a
length of 20 diameters. Allowable shear stress for the bolts is 13 N/mm2. The allowable shear
stress in the flange is 14 N/mm2. For the key shear stress is 40 N/mm2 and compressive stress
is 80 N/mm2.
Design a flanged coupling to connect the shafts of motor and pump transmitting 15 kW power
at 600 rpm. Select C40 steel for shaft and C35 steel for bolts, with factor of safety = 2.
Use allowable shear stress for Cast-Iron flanges =15 N/mm2 ζ =162 N/mm2; and ζ = 81
N/mm2 for bolts (J = 152 N/mm2 and η = 76 N/mm2.
A splined connection in an automobile transmission consists of 10 splines cut in a 58 mm
diameter shaft. The height of each spline is 5.5 mm and the keyways in the hub are 45 mm
long. Determine the power that may be transmitted at 2500 rev/min if the allowable normal
pressure on the splines is limited to 4.8 MPa.
 UNIT 7
RIVETED AND WELDED JOINTS
Instructional Objectives

□ Basic types of riveted joints.

□ Different important design parameters of a riveted joint.
□ Uses of riveted joints.
□ Basic failure mechanisms of riveted joints.
□ Concepts of design of a riveted joint.
□ Different types of welded joints.
□ Factors that affect strength of a welded joint.
□ Possible failure mechanisms in welded joints.
□ How to design various kinds of welding joints.

Introduction
In engineering practice it is often required that two sheets or plates are joined together and
carry the load in such ways that the joint is loaded. Many times such joints are required to be
leak proof so that gas contained inside is not allowed to escape. A riveted joint is easily
conceived between two plates overlapping at edges, making holes through thickness of both,
passing the stem of rivet through holes and creating the head at the end of the stem on the
other side. A number of rivets may pass through the row of holes, which are uniformly
distributed along the edges of the plate. With such a joint having been created between two
plates, they cannot be pulled apart. If force at each of the free edges is applied for pulling the
plate apart the tensile stress in the plate along the row of rivet hole and shearing stress in
rivets will create resisting force. Such joints have been used in structures, boilers and ships.

The development of welding technology in 1940s has considerably reduced the riveted joint
applications. Welding is the method of locally melting the metals (sheets or plates–
overlapping/butting) with intensive heating along with a filler metal or without it and allowing
cooling them to form a coherent mass, thus creating a joint. Such joints can be created to
make structures, boilers, pressure vessels, etc. and are more conveniently made in steel. The
progress has been made in welding several types of steels but large structure size may impede
the use of automatic techniques and heat treatment which becomes necessary in some cases.
Welded ships were made in large size and large number during Second World War and
failures of many of them spurted research efforts to make welding a better technology.

Page 158
Head Forming

You know that the riveted joint is created by passing the stem of a rivet through holes in two
plates as is shown in Figure 3.1(a). The creation of head by process of upsetting is shown in
Figure 3.1(b). The upsetting of the cylindrical portion of the rivet can be done cold or hot.
When diameter of rivet is 12 mm or less, cold upsetting can be done. For larger diameters the
rivet is first heated to light red and inserted. The head forming immediately follows. The rivet
completely fills the hole in hot process. Yet it must be understood that due to subsequent
cooling the length reduces and diameter decreases. The reduction of length pulls the heads of
rivet against plates and makes the joint slightly stronger. The reduction of diameter creates
clearance between the inside of the hole and the rivet. Such decrease in length and diameter
does not occur in cold worked rivet.

d1

a
t
t

(a) (b)
Figure 3.1 : Typical Head Forming of Rivet

Types of Rivets
For steel plates the rivets are normally made in low carbon steel. However, the rivets in
copper add to resistance against corrosion and aluminum rivets can be used to reduce the
overall weight of the structure. The low carbon steel is standardized in composition
particularly for boiler applications.
Rivets with counter sunk head as in Figure 3.2(b) and oval counter sunk rivets shown in
Figure 3.2(c) are not as strong as button head rivets. They are used only when protruding
rivet heads are objectionable. Pan heads and conical heads, Figures 3.2(d) and (e) are less
frequently used and are difficult to form. Tubular rivets, Figures 3.2(f) and (g) are special
deviation from solid rivet shank. These rivets are used in aircrafts.

Page 159
Types of Riveted Joints

The classification of riveted joints is based on following:

a) According to purpose,
b) According to position of plates connected, and

c) According to arrangement of rivets. According to purpose the riveted joints are

classified as :
Strong Joints
In these joints strength is the only criterion. Joints in engineering structure such as beams,
trusses and machine frames are strong joints.

Tight Joints
These joints provide strength as well as are leak proof against low pressures. Joints in
reservoirs, containers and tanks fall under this group.

Strong Tight Joints

These are joints applied in boilers and pressure vessels and ensure both strength and
leak proofness.
This classification has no sound basis and is arbitrary. However, it helps understand the basis
of design and manufacturing. The hot working of rivets is one-way of making intimate
contact between plates in the areas of joint. Further, the holes are drilled and reamed to
required tolerances and burrs removed for good contact before rivets are placed in the holes.
The edge of the plate is upset by means of a hammer and a caulking tool so that edge is
strongly pressed against the plate surface to help leak proofing (Figure 3.3).

Caulking 15-18o
tool

Figure 3.3 : Caulking of Riveted Joint

The riveted joints are classified as (i) lap joint and (ii) butt joint according to position of
plates. In a lap joint the edges of plates are simply laid over each other and riveted. Figures
3.4(a) and (d) show lap joints. If we pull the plates by application of tensile forces, they do
not fall in the same line and hence cause the rivets and plates to bend. Plates placed end-to-
end and jointed through cover plates form single cover butt joint. Such joints are shown in
Figures 3.4(b) and (e). You can see that pulling plates apart by collinear tensile forces may
still cause bending of rivets. Figures 3.4(c) and (f) show the butting plates covered by two
straps and then riveted. Such joints are called double cover butt joint. Plate bending and
rivet bending are eliminated.

According to arrangement of rivets, the joints are called single riveted, (Figures 3.4(a), (b)
and (c)) It may be noted that in a single riveted lap joint there is only one row of rivets passing
through both plates while in a single riveted butt joint either of single cover or double cover
type one row of rivets will pass through each of the plates.

Similarly as shown in Figures 3.4(d) and (e) when two rows of rivets pass through both
plates of lap joint it is called double riveted lap joint and two rows of rivets pass through
each of butting plates the joint is a double riveted single cover butt joint. A double riveted
double cover butt joint is shown in Figure 3.4(f).
The arrangement of rivets in Figure 3.4(d) can be described that in both the rows the rivets
are opposite to each other while in Figure 3.4(e) the rivets in the adjacent rows are
staggered. The joint in Figure 3.4(d) is said to be chain riveted while that in
Figure 3.4(e) is zig-zag riveted joint. In zig-zag riveting the rivet in one row is placed at the
middle level of the two rivets in the adjacent row.
Nomenclature
Several dimensions become obviously important in a riveted joint and a design will consist in
calculating many of them. These dimensions and their notations as to be used in this text are
described below.

Pitch
As seen from Figures 3.4(a), (b) and (c) pitch, denoted by p, is the center distance
between two adjacent rivet holes in a row.
Back Pitch
The center distance between two adjacent rows of rivets is defined as back pitch.
It is denoted by pb and is shown in Figures 3.4(d) and (e).
 10ME52

Diagonal Pitch
The smallest distance between centres of two rivet holes in adjacent rows of a
zig-zag riveted joint is called diagonal pitch. Denoted by pd, the diagonal pitch is
shown in Figure 3.4(e).
Margin
It is the distance between centre of a rivet hole and nearest edge of the plate. It is
denoted by m as shown in Figures 3.4(b), (c) and (d).

The plates to be jointed are often of the same thickness and their thickness is denoted by t.
However, if the thicknesses are different, the lower one will be denoted by t1. The thickness
of the cover plate (also known as strap) in a butt joint will be denoted as tc.
The rivet hole diameter is denoted by d. This diameter is normally large than the diameter of
the rivet shank which is denoted by d1.
A problem of designing of a riveted joint involves determinations of p, pb, pd, m, t, tc and d,
depending upon type of the joint.
Modes of Failure of a Riveted Joint
A riveted joint may fail in several ways but the failure occurs as soon as failure takes place in
any one mode. Following is the description of modes of failures of a riveted joint. These
modes are described with the help of a single riveted lap joint, which is subjected to tensile
load P. In general the description will be applicable to any other type of joint. Reference is
made in Figure 3.5 in which a single riveted lap joint is shown loaded.

Figure 3.5 : Single Riveted Lap Joint

(a) Tearing of Plate at the Section Weakened by Holes

Figure 3.6 shows this mode of failure. The plate at any other section is obviously
stronger, and hence does not fail. If tensile force P is to cause tearing, it will occur
along weakest section, which carries the row of rivets. If only one pitch length p is
considered; it is weakened by one hole diameter d. The area that resists the tensile
force is
 At = (p – d) t
If the permissible stress for plate in tension is t, then tensile strength of the joint or tensile load
carrying capacity of the joint
P(pd)t . . . (3.1)
tt

If P is the applied tensile force per pitch length then the joint will not fail if
PP . . . (3.2)

Figure 3.6 : Tearing of Plate at the Section Weakened by Holes

(b) Shearing of Rivet

Figure 3.7 shows how a rivet can shear. The failure will occur when all the rivets in a row
shear off simultaneously. Considers the strength provided by the rivet against this mode of
failure, one consider number of rivets in a pitch length which is obviously one. Further, in a
lap joint failure due to shear may occur only along one section of rivet as shown in Figure
3.7(a). However, in case of double cover butt joint failure may take place along two sections
in the manner shown in Figure 3.7(b). So in case of single shear th0e area resisting shearing of
a rivet, As   d 2/4
(Since the difference between diameter of hole and diameter of rivet is very small, diameter of
hole is used for diameter of the rivet).

Figure 3.7 : Shearing of Rivet : (a) Single Shear; and (b) Double Shear
If permissible shearing stress in single shear of rivet is s, then the shearing strength or
shearing load carrying capacity of the joint.

P   d2 . . . (3.3)
s s 4
The failure will not occur if
Ps  P . . . (3.4)
We may also write if n is the number of rivets per pitch length,
P n  d2 . . . (3.5)
s s 4
If the rivet is in double shear as in Figure 3.7(b) the effective area over which failure occurs in
2 As. The permissible stress in double shear is 1.75 times that in single shear. Hence in double
shear

P  n  1.75   d2 . . . (3.6)
s s 4
(e) Crushing of Plate and Rivet
Due to rivet being compressed against the inner surface of the hole, there is a possibility that
either the rivet or the hole surface may be crushed. The area, which resists this action, is the
projected area of hole or rivet on diametral plane. The area per rivet is (see Figure 3.8).

Ac  dt. If permissible crushing or bearing stress of rivet or plate is c the crushing strength

of the joint or load carrying capacity of the joint against crushing is,

P  dt  . . . (3.7)
c c
P
P
t

Figure 3.8 : Crushing of Rivet

The failure in this mode will not occur if

Pc  P . . . (3.8)
where P is applied load per pitch length, and there is one rivet per pitch. If number of rivets
is n in a pitch length then right hand side in Eq. (3.7) is multiplied by n.
Shearing of Plate Margin near the Rivet Hole
Figure 3.9 shows this mode of failure in which margin can shear along planes ab and cd.
If the length of margin is m, the area resisting this failure is,
Ams  2 mt
If permissible shearing stress of plate is s then load carrying capacity of the joint against
shearing of the margin is,

Pms  2 mt s . . . (3.9)
The failure in this case will not occur if

Pms  P . . . (3.10)

Figure 3.9: Shearing of Margin

The modes of failure discussed above are primary in nature and in certain cases they have to
be considered uniquely. One such case is when rivets are arranged in lozenge form or
diamond shape. This case will be discussed at proper stage.
In writing down the above equations for strength of the joint certain assumptions have been
made. It is worthwhile to remember them. Most importantly it should be remembered that
most direct stresses have been assumed to be induced in rivet and plate which may not be
the case. However, ignorance of actual state of stress and its replacement by most direct
stress is compensated by lowering the permissible values of stresses t, s and c, i.e. by
increasing factor of safety.
The assumptions made in calculations of strengths of joint in Eq. (3.1) through (3.10)
are:
□ The tensile load is equally distributed over pitch lengths.
□ The load is equally distributed over all rivets.
□ The bending of rivets does not occur.
□ The rivet holes do not produce stress concentration. The plate at the hole is not
weakened due to increase in diameter of the rivet during second head formation.
□ The crushing pressure is uniformly distributed over the projected area of the
rivet.
□ Friction between contacting surfaces of plates is neglected.

Efficiency of Riveted Joints

If only a pitch length of solid or hole free plate is considered then its load carrying capacity
will be,
P  pt  . . . (3.11)
1 t
P1 will apparently be greater then Pt, Ps, Pc or Pms. The ratio of any of Pt, Ps, Pc or Pms to P1
is defined as the efficiency of the joint in that particular mode. Ideally Pt, Ps, Pc and Pms all
must be equal, but actually it may not be the case. The efficiency of the joint will be
determined by least of Pt, Ps, Pc, and Pms. Thus efficiency of the joint is,

  Least of Pt , Ps , Pc and Pms

P  . . . (3.12)
t t

The ideal that strengths in different modes of failure are equal is not achieved in a design
because the rivet hole diameters and rivet diameters are standardized for technological
convenience. Table 3.1 describes the average and maximum efficiencies of commercial boiler
joints.
 Table 3.1 : Efficiencies of Commercial Boiler Joints

Type of Joint Average Efficiency Maximum Efficiency

% %

Lap Joints
Single riveted 45-60 63.3
Double riveted 63-70 77.5
Triple riveted 72-80 86.5

Butt Joints
Single riveted 55-60 63.3
Double riveted 70-83 86.6
Triple riveted 80-90 95.0
Quadruple riveted 85-94 98.1

Calculation of Hole Dia and Pitch

For an ideal joint the rivet should be equally strong against shearing and crushing.
Hence, from Eqs. (3.3) and (3.7), making Ps = Pc
 d2
 dt 
s c
4

(in single shear)
 d  1.274  c t . . . (3.13)
If rivet is in double shear,
c
d  0.637
 t
. . . (3.14)
s
2
Generally s = 60 MPa or N/mm
2
c = 130 MPa or N/mm
d = 2.75 t in single
giving shear . . . (3.15)
d = 1.37 t in double shear
Also equating right hand sides of Eqs. (3.1) and (3.3),
(pd)t  d 2 
t 4 s
2
or d
p
4t   s  d
t

Substituting s = 60 MPa

t = 75 MPa
 d2
p 0.628 d
t
Using Eq. (3.15) in above equation
p = 2.73 d (in single shear)
p = 1.86 d (in double shear) . . . (3.16)
Equating right hand sides of Eqs. (3.7) and (3.9)
2mt   dt 
c
d 
or m c

2 
s

Substituting c = 130 MPa

s = 60 MPa
m = 1.08 d . . . (3.17)

There are several practical considerations due to which the design dimensions are modified.
Most important of these is the pressure tightness of the joint, which is mainly achieved by
caulking of the plate edges. The caulking becomes easier with short pitches and smaller
rivets. It also makes it desirable that margin should be 1.5 d but not greater. The results in this
section are indicative of calculation procedure and by no means be treated as standard
formulae. These results are valid only for particular case and permissible stresses adopted. As
a common practice for plate thickness greater than 8mm the diameter of rivet hole is
determined by
d6 t . . . (3.18)

This is known as Unwin‟s formula.

It has been pointed out in the last sections that no attempt was made to derive formulae. The
expressions for various load carrying capacities were written by examining the geometry.
Therefore, you must see that in each problem the geometry is understood and then the
expressions for forces are written. In the examples here we would see how we can approach
to design a riveted joint.
Problem:
Design a double riveted lap joint for MS plates 9.5 mm thick. Calculate the efficiency
of the joint. The permissible stresses are : t = 90 MPa, s = 75 MPa, c = 150 MPa
Solution:
The joint to be designed is shown schematically in Figure 3.10.

P
t
P

p d

b m

Figure 3.10
(a) Dia. of Rivet Hole d : It is determined by Unwin‟s formula, Eq. (3.18)
d6 t

or d6 9.5  18.5 mm

Pitch of the Joint, p : In a double riveted joint there are 4 rivets in a pitch length. The rivet
diameter will be taken as diameter of the hole as difference between them is small. The rivets
can fail in shear or due to crushing. We will first determine the shearing and crushing strength
of a rivet and equate the smaller of two to the plate tearing strength to determine p.
Shearing strength of one rivet
d2   (18.5)2
 s  75  20.16 kN . . . (a)
4 4
Crushing strength of one rivet
  dt  150  18.5  9.5  26.36 kN . . . (b)
c

From (a) and (b) it is seen that the rivet is weaker in shear.
 We will equate tearing strength of plate with shearing strength of rivets in a pitch length.
There are two rivets in the pitch length.
 10ME52

 ( p  d ) t  2   d 
2

t 4 s
2 2
or p  2 dt  s  d   (18.5) 75  18.5
 2 9.5 90
t

or p = 65.55 mm say 65.7 mm . . . (ii)

The pitch should be such that head forming operation is not hindered. The practice dictates
that p  3 d so that head forming is permitted.
3 d = 55.5 mm, and hence the value of p obtained in (ii) is acceptable.

The back Pitch pb : It must be between 2.5 d to 3.0 d. For chain riveting the higher value is
preferred for the reason of head forming
pb  3d  3 18.5  55.5 mm . . . (iii)

Margin, m : m is determined by equating shearing strength of rivet (smaller of shearing and

crushing strengths of rivet). Remember that there are two rivets per pitch length :
 2
 2mt  2 d 
s s
4
d
2  (18.5
)
 m   28.3 mm . . . (iv)
4 t 4 9.5
The minimum acceptable value of m is 1.5 d = 27.5 mm hence
m = 28.3 mm is acceptable.
Thus the design is completed with
d = 18.5 mm, p = 65.7 mm, pb = 55.5 mm, m = 28.3 mm

The diameter is standardized, apparently based on drill size. Normally fractions like 18.5 mm
may not be accepted. The rivet diameters are less than hole diameter by 1 mm. Yet the head
formation process increases rivet diameter. We are not yet describing standard hole and rivet
diameters.
We postpone it for the time being.
 S J P N Trust's Mech Engg. Dept.

HirasugarInstitute ofTechnology, Nidasoshi.

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Efficiency of Joint
Tensile strength of plate without holes, per pitch length
P   pt  90  65.7  9.5  56.2 kN . . . (c)
t

Shearing strength of rivets in a pitch length

 d 2  2  75 
(  40.3 kN
P2   18.5) . . . (d)
s s 4 4
Crushing strength of rivets in a pitch length
P  2    d  t  2  150  18.5  9.5  52.7 kN ................................. (e)
c c

The tearing strength of plate with one hole in a pitch length

P   ( p  d ) t  90 (65.7  18.5) 9.5  40.36 kN ........................ (f)
t t

The shearing strength of margin

Pms  2 s mt  2  75  28.3  9.5  40.32 kN ........................... (g)
Out of all Ps, Pc, Pt and Pms, the lowest is Pm
P 40.3
  Ps  56.2  71.7% ....................................................... (h)
1

The design values are

d = 18.5 mm, p = 65.7 mm, pb = 55.5 mm, m = 28.3 mm,  = 71.7%

Riveted Joints in Structures

For trusses, bridges or girders, etc. where the width of the plates is known in advance
lozenge type or diamond shaped joints are preferred. These joints have uniform or equal
strengths in all modes of failure. Marginal adjustments in calculated dimensions may slightly
reduce or increase strength in any particular mode. The joints are usually of double cover
butt type with rivets so arranged that there is only one rivet in the outermost row and their
number increases towards inner row. (See Figure 3.11). Since the plate width is known in
advance, its strength in tension can be determined. Thus the load carrying capacity of the
joint
 S J P N Trust's Mech Engg. Dept.

HirasugarInstitute ofTechnology, Nidasoshi.

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P   (b  d ) t
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1 2 3 4

21.5Ø

500kN 400kN
85.9 mm 322.25 mm

3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3
2 3 3 3 3 3 3
. . 3. 2
.
. . . . .
2 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 2
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
m m
m m

Figure 3.11
Here b is the plate width; t is thickness and d, the diameter of the hole. t is the permissible
tensile stress. The rivet diameter is determined by Unwin‟s relationship. The determination of
number of rivets is the main task for the required force that is carried by the member. Of
course we would first determine whether the strength of rivet is less in shear or in crushing
which would depend upon relative magnitudes of s and c as well as on the cross sectional
area of the rivet and its projected area. The next step would be to arrange the rivets in
diamond shape as shown in Figure 3.11. Then we decide upon the pitch, back pitch and
margin.
The joint is designed not to tear in the outer most rows, i.e. row 1 in Figure 3.11. Then the row
2, which is the next inner row and weakened by two rivet holes, is subjected to tearing. Note
that this tearing is possible if rivet in the outermost row (or row 1) shears or is crushed at the
same time. That means this type of joint has one more possible mode of failure which
comprises tearing along an inner row accompanied by shearing or crushing of rivets in all
outer rows. The strength in this mode is denoted by Pts or Ptc and one more suffix may be used
to denote the row in which tearing will occur.
2
Thus P   (b  2d ) t    d
ts 2 t 4 s
or P   (b  2d ) t   dt
tc 2 t c
2
And P   (b  3d ) t  3  d
ts 3 t s 4
or P   (b  3d ) t  3 dt
tc 3 t c
Problem:
Two steel plates 12.5 mm thick are required to carry a tensile load of 500 kN in a double
cover butt joint. Calculate the width of the plate if it is not to be weakened by more than one
rivet hole. Design the butt joint completely and show dimensions on a sketch. The ultimate
values of strengths are as follow

Plates in tension – 600 MPa

Rivet in Shear – 490 MPa
Plate and rivet in crushing – 920 MPa
Use a factor of safety of 4.5.
Also use following standards :
Rivet Holes
From 13.5 mm to 25.5 mm in steps of 2 mm and from 27 mm to 42 mm in steps of 3 mm.
Rivets
1.5 mm less than rivet hole diameter upto 24 mm in steps of 2 mm and
2 mm less than rivet hole diameter from 25 mm to 39 mm in steps of 3 mm.
Solution:
The permissible stresses are:
2
t  600  133 N/mm
4.5
2
s  490  109 N/mm
4.5
2
c  920  204 N/mm
4.5
Diameter of the Rivet Hole : Use „Unwin‟s Formula
d  6 t  6 12.5  21.21 mm

From standards, d = 21.5 mm

Hence the rivet dia, d1 = 20 mm . . . (i)
Compare shear strength and crushing strength of one rivet.
2
  (
P  
d 2  109  20) = 34 kN
s s 4 1 4
P   d t  204  20 12.5 = 51 kN
c c 1

Thus rivet in crushing is stronger than in shear.

Width of the Plate
Consider the tensile strength of the weakest section of the plate, i.e. the row which is
weakened by one rivet hole.
P  t (b  d ) t
3
or 500  10 = 133 (b  21.5) 12.5 . . . (ii)
b  300.75  21.5  322.25 mm

Number of Rivets
The rivets are in double shear in double cover butt joint. The strength in double shear is
the strength in single shear. Also we assume that the head formation does not change
rivet diameter.

n Ps  P i.e. n 59.5  500 kN

Also crushing strength
n P  P i.e. n  51  500
c

500
or n   9.8 say 10 . . . (iii)
51
We will see that 10 rivets are better arranged.
Rivet Arrangement
Ten rivet can be easily arranged in four rows : 1, 2, 3 and 4 can be arranged in rows 1, 2, 3,
and 4 which will be a good arrangement. We should ensure that 10 rivets should not weaken
the plate. The arrangement is shown in Figure 3.11. The pitch of the rivets is determined by
geometric consideration. The innermost or 4th row should have a margin of
1.5 d = 1.5  21.5 = 32.25 mm from the edge.
Thus, the distance between centers of two extreme rivets in row
4 b  2 m  322.25   32.25 = 257.75 mm

Obviously this distance is equal to 3 p257.75  p85.9 mm . . . (iv)

The distance between the rows, pb should be between 2.5 to 3 d

pb  2.5  21.5 = 53.75 mm

Cover Plate
Theoretically the cover plate may have thickness of t/2 but practically the thickness tc = 0.62 t
tc  0.625 12.5 = 7.8 mm. . . (vi)
The cover plates are given the diamond shape so as to accommodate all the rivets (See Figure 3.11).
Efficiency
Shearing strength of 10 rivets is double shear

P  1.75  10   d 
2

s 4 1 s
 2
(  109  17.5  34  595 kN
 1.75  10  4 20) . . . (a)

Crushing strength of 10 rivets

P  10   d t  10  51  510 kN. . . (b)
c c 1

Tearing strength of plate along weakest section, i.e. along row 1

P  (b  d ) t 
t1 t

 133 (322.25  21.5) 12.5  500 kN. . . (c)

Strength for tearing along second row and crushing of one rivet in row 1
P  133 (322.25  2  21.5) 12.5   d t
tc 2 c 1

 133  279.25  12.5  204  20  12.5

 464.25  51 kN
or P  515.5 kN . . . (d)
tc2

Strength for tearing along third row and crushing of 3 rivets in row 1 and 2
P  133 (322.25  3  21.5) 12.5    3d t
tc 3 c 1

3
 133  257.75 12.5  3  51 10  428.5  3  51 kN . . . (e)
or P  581.5 kN
tc3

Strength for tearing along fourth row and crushing of rivets in other rows
3
P  133 (322.25  4  21.5) 12.5  6  51  10
tc4

or P  699 kN . . . (f)
tc4

(e) and (f) were expected to be more than (d), yet the calculations have been made for the sake of
completeness.
Strength of solid plate without hole
P   bt  133  322.25  12.5  535.74 kN . . . (g)
t t
The least of all strengths from (a) through (f) is Pt1 = 500 kN
  Ptl / Pt = ( 500/535.74 ) 100 = 93.3%
Joints for Boilers and Pressure Vessels
The boiler and pressure vessels are cylindrical in shape and withstand internal pressure. The vessels
are required to be leak proof. The maintenance of pressure and safety of boilers have prompted
several standards. ASME boiler code, Board of Trade (BOT) Rules, Indian Boiler Regulations (IBR)
and ISI standards are available for design of boilers and pressure vessels.

The cylindrical pressure vessel is identified by two dimensions, viz., the length and diameter.
The cylinders are made from plates and whole length may not be obtained from single sheet
hence cylindrical sections are obtained by bending sheets and joining edges by riveted joint.
The sections are then joined together by another riveted joint along circumference. Thus
there are two types of joint longitudinal and circumferential (see Figure 3.12). The
longitudinal joint will bear hoop stress (h) and circumferential joint bears longitudinal stress
(l). Since h = 2l, the longitudinal joint will have to be two times as strong as
circumferential joint. Therefore, longitudinal joints are always made butt joints whereas the
circumferential joints are mode as lap joints.

Location
Longitudinal
Joint

Circumferential
Joint

Length section

Figure 3.12 : Longitudinal and Circumferential Location for Riveted Joints

The steps followed in design of boiler riveted joints are same as followed in any joint
design. They are mentioned here as described in IBR.
Design Procedure for Longitudinal Butt Joint
Determine Thickness of Boiler Shell (t)
The efficiency of the joint is chosen from Table 3.1 and for pressure r, inner diameter D and
permissible tensile stress t, the thickness is calculated from,

r D
t  2   1 mm . . . (3.19)
t
The diameter and thickness will further guide in respect of rivet arrangement. Table 3.2 can be
used for this purpose.

Table 3.2 : Suggested Rivet Arrangement

Dia. of Shell Thickness of Shell Rivet
(mm) (mm) Arrangement
610-1830 6-12.5 Double riveted

915-2130 8-25.0 Triple riveted

1525-2740 9.5-31.75 Quadruple riveted

Determine Rivet Hole Diameter (d) and Rivet Diameter (d1)

Unwin‟s formula, giving d  6 t is used if t  8 mm. In very rare case if t < 8 mm, d is
calculated by equating shearing strength and crushing strength of rivet. The diameter of hole
must be rounded off to the nearest standard value with the help of Table 3.3, and the diameter
of rivet also established.
Table 3.3 : Standard Rivet Hole and Rivet Diameters
d
13 15 17 19 21 23 25 28.5 31.5 34.5 37.5 41 44
(mm)
d1
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 27 30 33 36 39 42
(mm)

Determine Pitch of the Rivet (p)

The minimum pitch is 2 d to accommodate the dies to form head. The pitch is calculated by
equating tearing strength with shearing or crushing strength of rivet(s). However, the pitch
should not exceed certain value for leak proof nature of the joint. The maximum value of p is
given by following equation.
 S J P N Trust's Mech Engg. Dept.

HirasugarInstitute ofTechnology, Nidasoshi.

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pmax  C  t  41.28 mm . . . (3.20)
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The value of C is given in Table 3.4. If by calculation p turns out to be less than pmax, it will be
acceptable.

Table 3.4 : The Value of Constant for Maximum Pitch

Number of Lap Joint Butt Joint Butt Joint
Rivets Single Cover Double Cover
1 1.31 1.53 1.75
2 2.62 3.06 3.50
3 3.47 4.05 4.63
4 4.17  5.52
5   6.00

Determine Back Pitch (pb)

(a) For both lap and butt joints having equal number of rivets in different rows pb is given
as
pb = (0.33 p + 0.67 d) mm for zig-zag . . . (3.21)
and pb = 2 d . . . (3.22)
(b) For joints in which number of rivets in outer rows is half of that in inner rows which
are chain riveted pb should be greater of the values calculated from Eqs. (3.21) and (3.22).
However, the value of pb for rows having full number of rivets will not be less than 2 d.

(c) The third case arises for joints having inner rows zig-zag riveted and outer rows
having half the number of rivets as inner rows where

pb  (0.2 p  1.15 d) mm . . . (3.23)

The back pitch for zig-zag riveted inner rows will be
p
b  (0.165 p  0.67 d ) mm . . . (3.24)
The pitch p in above equations is the one in outer row, i.e. away from butting edges.

Determine Thickness of the Cover Plate (tc)

(a) For single butt cover with chain riveting

tc  1.125 t . . . (3.25)

(b) For single cover with pitch in the outer row being twice that in the inner row
 p  d 
t
 1.125  
t . . . (3.26)
p  2d 
c
(c) For double cover of equal width and chain riveting
tc  0.625 t . . . (3.27)
 (d) For double cover of equal width with pitch in the outer row being twice that in the
inner row
 p  d 
t 
c  t . . . (3.28)
p  2d 

(e) For double cover of unequal width (wider cover on the inside)
t
c1  0.75 t (for cover on the inside) . . . (3.29)
t
c2  0.625 t (for cover on the outside)
Determine margin, m = 1.5 d . . . (3.30)
Determine Caulking Pitch, pt
The pitch of rivets in the row nearest to the edge must be as small as possible to avoid
leakage. This pitch is called caulking pitch and helps edges to be caulked effectively (see
Figure 3.3). A rough rule is that this pitch should not be greater than Stc. The caulking pitch
is, however, calculated from following :
3
t4
pc  d  13.8 1 . . . (3.31)
(  )4
12

This is an empirical relation in which r the pressure is used in N/mm2.

Design Procedure for Circumferential Lap Joint

The thickness of the shell, the diameter of the rivet hole, back pitch and margin are
calculated in the same way as for longitudinal butt joint. The other quantities are
presented under.

Number of Rivets (n)

The rivets are in single shear and all of them are subjected to shear when pressure, r acting
on the circular section of the cylindrical space tends to separate two length sections of the
vessel.
2 2
n d   D
s4 1 r4
2
 D
n  r . . . (3.32)
 2
s d1
 Pitch, (p)
Efficiency of the lap joint  can be taken as half of the efficiency of the longitudinal butt
joint. The efficiency of the lap joint is calculated on the basis of tearing load capacity of the
joint which turns out to be least of strengths in all modes.

pd
Thus,   . . . (3.33)
p

Number of Rows, (N)

The rivets are placed all along the circumferences of the shell. Hence number of rivets in one
row.

n1   ( D  t) p
Hence total number of rivets in N n1 = n.
np
N . . . (3.34)
 (D  t)

Whether the joint will be single riveted or multiple riveted will be decided by N. If N turns out to be
less than 1, a single riveted joint will serve the purpose. In any case the pitch will have to satisfy the
condition of caulking.

Overlap of Shell Length Section (l)

l  (N  1) pb  2m . . . (3.35)

Problem #:

Inner diameter of a boiler is 1500 mm and the steam pressure is 2 N/mm2. Use a proper joint
along the length and design it completely. Use following permissible values of stress.
Tension t = 90 MPa Shear s = 75 MPa Crushing c = 150 MPa
Solution
Thickness of the Shell (t)
From Table 3.2 for shell diameter of 1500 mm a double riveted butt joint is recommended
and from Table 3.1 we can use an efficiency of 80%.
From Eq. (3.17).
r D
  1 mm 2t 




 S J P N Trust's Mech Engg. Dept.

HirasugarInstitute ofTechnology, Nidasoshi.

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 2  1500  1  20.8  1
2  90  0.8
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Approved by AICTE, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka and Affiliated to VTU Belagavi.



or t  21.8 mm say 22 mm


Rivet Hole Diameter (d)

From Eq. (3.18)
d6 t  6 22  28.14 mm

The nearest standard value of hole diameter is 28.5 mm, and corresponding rivet diameter is
27 mm. d1 = 27 mm.
Pitch (p)
In one pitch length there are two rivets which may shear or crush (Figure 3.13).
The shear strength of one rivet in double shear
2  75
P  1.75   d   1.75   27)
(
 75.2 kN
s1 4 1 s 4
The crushing strength of one rivet
P  t d   22  27  150  89.1 kN

The rivet is weaker in shearing. Equating tearing strength of plate with shearing strength of 2
rivets in a pitch length,

( p  d ) t   2  1.75   d 2 
t 4 1 s
 2
p  3.5  (27) 
75
 28.5  104.4 mm
4 22 90
Check for maximum value of pitch from Eq. (3.20). From Table 3.4 for 2 rivets in a pitch
length for a double cover double riveted joint the value of C = 3.5.
 Pmax  C  t  41.28  3.5  22  41.28  118.28 mm
The min. pitch is 2 d. Hence calculated value of p = 104.4 mm is acceptable.
We may choose p = 105 mm.
Back Pitch (pb)
pb  0.33 p  0.67 d  0.33  105  0.67  28.5 pb  34.65  19.1  53.75 mm
However, pb should not be less than 2 d or 57 mm pb = 57 mm.

Thickness of Cover Plate (tc)

The joint has two equal cover plates. From Eq. (3.27) tc  0.625 t  13.75 mm
Margin (m)
m  1.5 d  42.75 mm

Efficiency ()

The shearing strength of the joint

Ps  2  75.2  150.4 kN
The crushing Strength of the joint
Pc  2  89.1  178.2 kN
The tearing strength of plate with holes
Pt  ( p  d ) t   (105  28.5) 22  90
t
or Pt  151.47 kN

The tensile strength of plate without holes

P  pt   105  22  90  208 kN

Ps is least of Ps, Pc and Pt

Ps 150.4  72.3%
   
P 208
Problem:
Design a circumferential lap joint for boiler shell of Problem #.
Solution
The thickness of the shell t and rivet hole diameter d (and rivet diameter d1) will
remain same, i.e.
t = 22 mm, d = 28.5 mm, d1 = 27 mm Number
of rivets (n) : Use Eq. (2.32)
2

rD
n  s d r is pressure in boiler
1
 2 1500  2 
n    82.3 say 83
75  27 
Pitch (p)
These rivets (83 in number) have to be placed along circumference and preferably in two rows
for better leak proofing. However, arranging rivets in two rows will alter the number of rivets.
We will first determine pitch from efficiency, making efficiency in plate tearing mode as the
least. At best it is required that efficiency of the circumferential joint should be 50% of the
efficiency of the longitudinal joint. So in the case

0.8
   0.4
2
pd
   0.4 so that p  0.4 p  d
p

d 28.5
or p    47.5 mm
0.6 0.6

Number of Rows (N)

Apparently n number of rivets are to be distributed with p = 47.5 mm around a circumference
of  (D + t)
np 83  47.5
 N    0.82
 (1500  28.5)   1528.5

To make N = 2 and keeping p = 47.5 mm, n will increase,

n  47.5
2    1528.5 giving n  202

Now choosing n = 202 will alter p

2   1528.5
p   47.54 mm
202

With number of rivets 2 per pitch length the constant C from Table 3.4 is 3.06 and using Eq.
(3.20)

pmax  Ct  41.28  3.06  22  41.28  108.6 mm

But for convenience of caulking p should be at least 2 d.
 p = 2  28.5 = 57 mm
This will further alter number of rivets as
2  1528.8
n  168.5 say 168
57
2  1528.8.5
So that p   57.16 mm
168

 n = 168, p = 57.16 mm, N = 2

pd 57.16  28.5
  p  57.16 50.44%

Back Pitch (Pb)

The rivets can be arranged in zig-zag rows so that pb = 2 d = 57 mm

Margin (m) : m = 1.5 d = 1.5  28.5 = 42.75 mm Overlap (l) : l = (N – 1) pb + 2m

or l = 57.0 + 2  42.75 = 142.5 mm.

Torsional Loading and Eccentric Loading of Riveted Joint

Plate A is riveted to structural element B. A torque is applied to the Plate A. The plate will
rotate, of course by slight elastic amount, about some point as o in Figure 3.15(a). It is not
wrong to assume that any straight line such as oc which passes through the centre of a rivet
remains straight before and after application of the torque. Then the deformation, hence strain
and so the average shearing stress across the section of the rivet will be proportional to the
distance between o and the centre of the rivet. Since the average shearing stress is equal to the
shearing force divided by area of cross section of the rivet, the shearing force on the rivet will
be proportional to the distance between o and centre of the rivet. The direction of this force
will be perpendicular to the joining line.

5Ø 50

B
F1
C
A 1
5 
30
F2 2

O 3
1 1

4
20
3 2

T
P
P
(a) (b)
Figure 3.15
The forces F1, F2, etc. on individual rivets are shown in Figure 3.15(b). For satisfying
condition of equilibrium, components of forces in vertical direction should sum up to zero.
If the forces F1, F2, etc. make angles 1, 2, etc. respectively with y-axis, then
F cos   F cos   . . .  F cos   0
1 1 2 2 n n
n
or  F cos  0 . . . (i)
i 1 i i

i
But F A  rA
i i i i i
ri
And since r or   k r
i i i i
F A
 i kri i . . . (ii)
Here k is a constant, i = shearing stress in i rivet whose area of cross section is Ai and its
th

centre is at a distance ri from o.

Use (ii) and (i) to obtain
n
k  ri Ai cos i  0
1

See from Figure 2.15(b) that ri cos i = x

n
 k  x Ai  0
1
Which is same as k x At  0 .
Where x is the x-coordinate of centroid of all the rivet and sum of their areas of cross sections
is At. And since neither k nor At is zero therefore, x  0 . If then we consider sum of forces
along x-axis we would arrive at the result y  0 . This means that o is the point coinciding with
the centroid of the rivet area system

Problem:
In Figure 3.15(a) the distances between columns and rows of rivets are shown. Each rivet is 5
mm in diameter and force P = 1 kN. Calculate the maximum shearing stress in rivet.
Solution
The five rivets have been numbered as 1, 2, . . . , 5. Take centre of rivet 3 as origin and x
and y axes along 32 and 35 respectively. Areas of all rivets is

186
 (5)2  19.64 mm2. If x and
A  4 y are the coordinates of the centroid, then

187
 50 A  50 A  5A x
Hence
, x  20 mm
Also
, 50 A  20 A  30 A 5 A y , y  20 mm

Hence centroid is on the horizontal line through rivet 4. We can calculate various distances
of rivet centres from centroid.

2 2
r1  10  30  10 10
2 2
r2  20  30  10 13
2 2
r3   20  10
20 8
2
r4   0  10  2
20
2 2
r5  30  20  10 13
Now F1 = k r1 = k 10 10 , moment of F1 about O,
2
M1  k r1  1000 k
F2  k r2  k 10 13, M 2  1300 k

F1 r1 10 10
F
F2  r2  13 or F1  13 2
We can find each of F1, F2, F3, F4 and F5 in terms of k or we can find each force in terms of
F2. We may like to choose F2 because F2 is grater than all other forces because r2 is larger
than all other r.

F  8 F , F  2 F , F  F
3 13 2 4 13 2 5 2

Taking moments of all forces about O and equating with the applied moment of 50 P =
50000 N mm.
4
10 F 10 10  F 10 13  8 F 10 F 10  2  F 10
82 13 5  10
2
13 2 2 13 132 2
100 F2 130 F2 80 F2 40 F2 130 F2 4
 5  10
13  13  13  13  13
500 13
F
 2 

188
 
4.8 
37
5.6
N
 Maximum shearing F2 375.6 2
stress  
A 19.64  19.12 N/mm

189
Problem:
Figure 3.16(a) shows a plate riveted on to a vertical column with three rivets placed at three
corners of an equilateral triangle of size 75 mm. A load of 37 kN acts on the plate at a distance
of 125 mm from vertical line through a rivet as shown in Figure 3.16(a). If the permissible
stress in rivet is 60 N/mm2 calculate the diameter of the rivet.
The rivets are at corners of equilateral triangle hence their centroid will be at the centroid of
the triangle, C. Each of rivets 1, 2 and 3 will be at the same distance from C.

2 2 2 2
r1  r2  r3  3 75  37.5  3 5625  1406.25  43.3 mm
The force of 37 kN is acting at a distance of 125 mm from vertical line through the centroid as
shown in Figure 3.16(b). Apply two forces, each equal to 37 kN but in opposite direction at C.
Combining two 37 kN forces as shown in the figure, we are left with a couple 37 kN by 125
mm and a vertical force 37 kN acting downward. This force will be distributed equally on
three rivets, i.e. if F = 37 kN, then F3 will be a direct shearing force acting downward on each
rivet as shown in Figure 3.16(b). The moment of the couple, T = 37  125 = 4625 kN mm will

be balanced by moments of forces F1, F2 and F3 about C. F1, F2 and F3 are perpendicular to

r1, r2 and r3, respectively and each is proportional to its r. incidentally due to symmetry of

equilateral triangle ri, r2 and r3 are mutually equal and hence F1 = F2 = F3.

Equate moments F1 r1  F2 r2  F3 r3  T
3F1 r1  T

F2 2
75mm 75mm F/3
37
F1
C
3 F 1
F/3 3 F/3
75
125 37 125 37kN
37000N

(a) (b)

Figure 3.16

Or by putting r1 = 43.3 mm

190
 F1  4625  35.6 kN
3  43.3

191
  Resultant force on rivet 3
2
F 2 F
R   F3 2 F3 cos 
  3  3

1 2 3
o
F
30 1

F2

o
30
F/3 F/3 F/3
F3
Figure 3.17
o
Put F = 37 kN, F3 = 35.6 kN,  = 30
2 2
R  (12.33)  (35.6)  2  12.33  (35.6) cos 30
 152  1267.36  761  2180.36  46.7 kN With  as
permissible shearing stress and d as diameter of rivet
 2
R  4 d 
3 2
R  46.7  N,   60 N/m
Use 10 m
4  46.7
2 3
d
 60  10  991

 d = 31.5 mm
We had assumed that all rivets have same diameter that is how we had determined
centroid. Hence all three rivets will have the diameter of 31.5 mm each.

18
 Welded Joints

Introduction
The problem of connecting plates was first solved through riveted connections but the
development that occurred during World War-II saw the welded joints replace riveted joints in
most applications. The ship building industry was perhaps in the fore front and large ships in
excess of 10,000 in number were build with welded structures welding technology, indeed
provided several advantages. The ease of processing and weight reduction were the
identifiable advantages in the beginning. The automation and variety of welding processes
have now become the most obvious advantages the technological developments have included
several steels and even non-ferrous metals in the lists of weldable materials.

Welded Connections

Welding is a process of joining two or more pieces of metals. The process is of course
adopted to obtain specific shapes and sizes to perform specific function. In the process of
welding the temperature of metal to be jointed is raised to a level so that the metal becomes
plastic or fluid. When metal is just plastic then pieces to be welded are pressed together to
make the joint. When metal is melted to fluid state another metal is filled in the region of the
joint and allowed to cool to solidify.
Connections between metal plates, angles, pipes, and other structural elements are
frequently made by welding. Fusion welds are made by melting portions of the materials
Metals may also be joined by resistance welding in which a small area or spot is heated under
high localized pressure. The material is not melted with this type of welding. Other joining
methods for metals include brazing and soldering, in which the joining metal is melted but the
parts to be connected are not melted. Such connections are usually much weaker than the
materials being connected. Fusion welding is the most effective method when high strength is
an important factor, and it will be discussed more in detail.
At present time welding has become a powerful technology and almost all joining of steels is
done by welding. Welding has replaced riveting, particularly in the manufacturing of boilers

19
and ships, and in many cases is being preferred in construction of structure. Some of the
advantages of welding over riveting are as follows :

20
  The plates and sections to be joined are not weakend as happens in case of riveting.
For riveting drilling or punching removes the metal from working sections thus
making them weaker. The net weight of metal making the joint is less in case of
welded joints. The weight added due to filling of metal is much less than the weight
added by way of riveting. The butt welded joints do not require any cover keeping the
weight low.

 The riveted joints require a great deal of labour in marking and making holes. There
is no possibility of making the riveting process automated whereas welding has
become fully automatic particularly when long seams, such as in boiler are to be
produced.
 Tight and leak proof joints are ensured by welding.
 Welding is a noiseless operation whereas riveting can never be noiseless
 Curved parts are easily joined by welding

However, following difficulties in producing good welded joints must be kept in mind.
Some of these may become disadvantage of welding unless special care is taken.
 The parts to be joined have to be prepared carefully along the seam and arranged to
have sufficient clearance so that filler metal can easily be filled.
 Since metal is heated to a very high temperature (to melting point in most cases) there
exists a strong possibility of metallurgical changes taking place in parent metals,
particularly in the close vicinity of the joint. These changes may deteriorate the
mechanical properties. The loss of ductility is a major problem.
 Since the metal to be joined is held by clamping, residual stresses develop in the
region of weld. These residual stresses are often tensile in nature and greatly affect
the behavior of metal under fatigue loading.
 The quality of weld is highly dependedent upon the welder if automated process is
not used.
 The residual stresses may be removed and metallurgical changes reversed by heat
treatment (annealing and normalising). But very large structures are difficult to heat.

191
  Stress concentration is produced where filler metal joins with the parent metal. Care
must be taken in post welding clearing and grinding of joint to eliminate such stress

192
 concentration.
 The welded joints are particularly found to lose their ductility at low temperature.
Combination of possible existence of defects, stress concentration and loss of
ductility has been the reason of various structural failure in ships, reservoirs, pressure
vessels and bridge structure.
 The designer has to keep above points in mind while designing welded joins.
Recommendation about treatment, grinding welds and inspection for defects must
be thoroughly incorporated in design. Further, in non-automated processes the
welder should be made to undergo rigorous skill tests before he is put on a job.
Types of Welded Joints, Strength
Two types of welding joints are clearly recognized viz. joints between two plates that
overlap and joints between two plates that butt with each other. Figure 4.1(a) shows a fillet
joint and Figures 4.1(b) and (c) show example of butt joints. Four types of fillet joints
commonly used are illustrated in Figure 4.2.
It may be of interest to note that if a weld is analyzed elastically the shearing stress
distribution in the weld turns out to be as shown in Figure 4.3(a). The stress is much higher at
ends but quickly reduces to constant minimum. But in actual practice the ends of the weld
deform plastically making distribution almost uniform. This is true if weld is ductile which is
normally true. Thus, in the design of a welded joint it is reasonable to assume uniform
distribution of shearing stress. However, the fillet welds are designed on the assumption that
failure will occur by shearing the minimum section of the weld. This minimum section is
called the throat of the weld and is shown as section AB in Figure 4.3(b). This is true in case
of both parallel and transverse welds as shown in Figure 4.2 and is supported by experiments.

(a) Fillet Weld (b) Butt Joint Double

Vee Groove Weld

193
 Figure 4.1 : Welded Joints

l
l

(a) Single Fillet Joint (Transverse) (b) Double Fillet Joint (Transverse)

l2
l
l1

(c) Parallel Fillet Joint (d) Compound Fillet Joint

Figure 4.2 : Types of Fillet Welded Joints

Although it is desirable to make fillet weld slightly concave, yet a reinforced weld obtained
from welding is ground to obtain a triangular section with two sides equal to the thickness
of plates jointed. Therefore, the width of the section AB in Figure 4.3(b) will be 0.707 t and
area over which shearing will occur, for a length l, will be 0.707 t l and force of resistance
will be 0.707 t l  as shown in Figure 4.3(c). Here s is the permissible shearing stress. The
permissible shearing stress is chosen as 50% of permissible tensile stress of parents metal
for manual welding. In case of automated process the permissible shearing stress in the
weld is assumed as 70% of permissible tensile stress of parent metal. If the load on the
joints varies between Pmin and Pmax, the permissible stress is multiplied by a factor ,

ting on a fillet welded joint of length l, is

P  0.707 t l s . . . (4.2)

min max

194
 (a)

195
 p
A t
p
B
A
0.707lt s B
(b) (c)

Figure 4.3
This equation will be used to calculate the design dimension l
P
l  t s . . . (4.3)
0.707
This length is increased by 12.5 mm to take care of starting of weld in each segment.

T-Joint
It is a case of fillet weld but a plate is welded at right angle to another. The joint may be
subject a tension, P or bending due to P acting parallel to weld, as can be seen in Figure 4.4.
Two loads are shown in this figure for convenience but they will be analysed separately.

Figure 4.4 : A T-Joint under Axial and Eccentric Load

Axial Tension
It is a case of fillet weld. The leg of the weld is equal to thickness of the plate, t and the
cross-section of fillet is an isosceles triangle. Thus the depth of the throat of the weld is 0.7 t
as in last section. The length of the weld is l and hence the areas to resist shearing failure
A  0.7 t l  2
 P  1.4 t l s . . . (4.4)
where s is the permissible shearing stress in the weld.

196
 Eccentric Load
Figure 4.4 shows an eccentric load P with an eccentricity of e which is measured as distance
between line of action P and the line joining the centers of gravity of triangular sections of
fillet welds on two sides. The load P will have two actions on the fillet, viz. :

induce shearing along the throat plane, and

causes bending of throat plane of the weld.
The shearing stress due to P acting as a shearing force will be induced on the area

A  0.7 t l  2
P  1.4 t l  . . . (4.5)
Fore calculating bending stress, one has to consider modulus of the section of the throat plane.
This section has a width of 0.7 t and depth equal to l. There are two such sections. Though
both these sections are not perpendicular to the axis of the joint this fact is disregarded and
modulus of section is calculated as if these sections were perpendicular to the axis.

Calling modulus of section, Z

1 2
Z  2  6 0.7 t l

Bending moment M=P.e

M 6Pe
2
Bending stress   Z 1.4t l . . . (4.6)

The value of bending stress  occurs at top of the fillet at point A in Figure 4.4. At these
points the shearing stress is given by Eq. (4.5). The maximum shearing stress can be found
by using the formula,
2
  x  y  2
max     xy
2
 

Unsymmetrical Section Loaded Axially
Figure 4.5 presents an angle section welded to a plate. If a tensile force P is applied so as to
pass through the centre of gravity of the section then the length of the fillet nearer to CG (lb)
will take greater proportion of the force P than the length of fillet weld which is away from

197
CG. The lengths la and lb are to be so proportioned that the forces carried by two fillet welds
exert no moment about centre of gravity axis. The two fillets are at

198
 distances of a and b respectively from CG (see Figure 4.5) and if S is the
force per unit length carried in the welds, then
Machine Design
S la a  S lb b  0
la
or b
l
b a
or la  lb  l  a  b
lb lb a
al bl
lb  and la  . . . (4.8)
a  b ab

Where, l  la  lb .
l
a

a
G

Pb

lb

Figure 4.5 : An Unsymmetrical Section Welded to Plate and Welded along Line of CG

Eccentrically Loaded Welded Joint

We have earlier talked of a T-joint under axial load. Another example of eccentric loading is
shown in Figure 4.6. In this case the force applied at a distance from the CG of the weld group
is in the plane of the fillet weld. This will cause the torsional effect in the same way as was
considered for riveted joint in Figure 3.16. Two equal and apposite forces are assumed at CG,
each being equal to P will result in a couple and a single force downward at G.

199
e
This force P at G will cause what we term as primary shearing stress denoted by 1.

Here t is the thickness of the plate. The torque P . e will cause secondary shearing stress 2 at
the weld end, A, which will be greater than shearing stress at any other point in the weld, A is
at a distance of R from CG. It can be shown that

P . e. R
 2 . . . (4.10)
JG
Here, JG is the polar moment of inertia of fillet weld about G. AS shown in Figure 4.6, 1
and 2 at A act at an angle Q. Since nature of both these stresses is same, they can be added
vectorially. The resultant stress A is

   2   2  2  cos  . . . (4.11)
A 1 2 12

To solve a problem of eccentric loading such as one depicted in Figure 4.6 one would require
computing the value of JG. It is generally required to find the size of the weld, t, whereas the
width involved in calculation of JG is that of throat of the weld, say h. It is also known that h
= 0.707 t so that the section of weld is an isosceles triangle. In a given problem the length a is
given which is the distance from point A to the inner side of the vertical fillet while distance
b will be equal to the width of the plate or distance between inner edges of horizontal fillets.
To compute JG following procedure is adopted.

(a) Determine the position of CG of weld group with reference to inside edges of
vertical and horizontal fillets.

(b) Determine second moment of inertia Ixx1 and Iyy1, respectively first with
respect to horizontal and vertical axes passing through their CG and then
transferring them to horizontal and vertical axes passing through CG of weld
group.

(c) Similarly for vertical fillet determine and transfer Ixx2 and IYY2 to the
horizontal and vertical axes passing through CG of weld group.

(d) By adding the four moments of inertia obtain JG, i.e.

200
 J G  I xx1  I yy1  I xx 2  I yy2

201
where quantities on right hand side refer to horizontal and vertical axes through CG of
weld group.

One important point if considered during calculation will greatly help achieve solution. The
expressions for I xx1 , I yy1 , etc. will contain terms like ah3 and ha3, etc. Since h is much
smaller than a or b, its cube can be neglected. This will greatly reduce the efforts on
computations. Finally h may be replaced by 0.707 t. The procedure will be illustrated in one
of the following solved problems. Table 4.1 gives formulae for JG in different weld groups.
Table 4.1 : Polar Moment of Inertia of Weld Groups about Axis Passing through
Centre of Gravity
Weld Group JG Weld Group JG
3 2 2
hb (3 
ha a a b)
a 12 6
b P
G
e P
G
e

3 3
p hb a h (a  b)
G
b
12 b p 6
G
e

a 2 2 a 3 2 3 4
ha (3b  a ) h 8a  6ab  b  ha
G p 6 p 12 2a  b
b b G

e e

202
 S J P N Trust's Mech Engg. Dept.

HirasugarInstitute ofTechnology, Nidasoshi.

Academic
Notes
Inculcating Values, Promoting Prosperity
15ME54
Approved by AICTE, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka and Affiliated to VTU Belagavi.

Problem:
A steel plate strip of 150 mm width and 10 mm thickness is welded by a compound fillet weld
to another plate. The strip is required to carry an axial load P such that P is equal to tensile
load capacity of the strip with a factor of safety of 2.5 on ultimate tensile strength of strip.
Calculate the length of the fillet weld and show on diagram. Ultimate tensile strength of strip

material is 380 MPa. Find fillet length if Pmin  P2 and Pmax  P .

Solution
This is the type of the joint shown in Figure 4.2(d). The permissible tensile stress in strip

material is 380/2.5  152 MPa . Hence permissible shearing stress in the weld, with the

assumption of manual welding,

1
s   152  76 MPa
2
The axial load on the joint as shown in Figure 4.7
P  (150 10) t  1500  152  228000 N
Also P  228000  0.707  10 (2l1  l2 )  76

150 228000 N

10 mm
150
Figure 4.7

Apparently the vertical weld length, l2 = 150 mm

 l1  228000  150  137.16 mm
2  0.07  76 2

Correct l1 by adding 12.5 mm, l1 = 137.16 + 12.5 = 149.66 say 150 mm.

When P varies between P  P and Pmax = P, the factor

min 2
1 1 1 6
203   1P   
4 min 4  1 .1 8  1 7
204
 3P
3 max
2
6
    76  65.143 N/mm
s
7
228000
 l1   75  12.5  185 mm
2 0.07  65.143

Problem:

A bracket is welded to its support as shown in Figure 4.8. All welds are fillet welds of equal
thickness. Determine the fillet size if the permissible stress in the weld is 80 N/mm2

The welded joint of Figure 4.8 is eccentrically loaded. The weld will be subjected to two
types of shearing stress. The direct primary shearing stress 1 due to shearing force acting
through CG. The shearing force is 25 kN, through CG of weld group. The secondary
shearing stress 2 due to torque P.e acting about CG.
Position of CG
The weld group is made up of three fillet weld, 1, 2, and 3 which are regarded as rectangles
of width h and lengths respectively 60 mm, 60 mm and 150 mm. With o (middle of vertical
fillet of height 150 mm) ox and oy are drawn horizontal and vertical axes. Areas of fillets 1,
2 and 3 are denoted by A1, A2 and A3 so that

A1 = 60 t, A2 = 60 t, A3 = 150 t mm2
Since the weld group is symmetrical about horizontal axis, CG will be on ox axis. Its
distance from oy is x . Then

A1 (30)  A2 (30)  A3 (0)

x 
A1  A2  A3
60 h  30  60 h  30 2  60  30
i.e. x  
60 h  60 h  150 h 270
= 13.33 mm
Remember h = 0.707 t.
Polar Moment of Inertia of Weld Group about CG
Ixx and Iyy denote second moments of inertia of plane rectangles about horizontal and

200
vertical axes passing through CG of respective rectangles. I xx and I yy denote moments

of inertia about horizontal and vertical axes passing through CG of weld group, G. The

201
suffixes 1, 2 and 3 will be used to distinguish between areas as 1, 2 and 3. It may also be
noted that since h is much smaller than and also not known at the initial stage, it may be
neglected in comparison with transfer distances 13.33 mm and 75 mm, etc.
3
60 h
I  3
xx2 12  5h
3
h (150)
I 3
xx3  12  281.25  10 h
3 2 3 3
I  5h  60h (75) 5h  337.5  10 h
xx1
3 2 3 3
I   5h  60h (75) 5h  337.5  10 h
xx2
3
I I  281.25  10 h
xx 3 xx3 3
I h (60) 3
yy1  12 3 18  10 h
h (60)
I 3
yy2  12  18  10 h
3
150  ( h)
I 3
yy3  12  12.5 h
3 2 3
I   18 10 h  60h (16.7)  34.7  10 h
yy1
3 2 3
I  18  10 h  60h (16.7)  34.7  10 h
yy2
3 2 3 3
 12.5h  120 h  (13.33)  12.5 h  21.32 10 h
The polar moment of inertia of the weld group about CG.
J  I   I   I   I   I   I 
G xx1 xx 2 xx 3 yy1 yy 2 yy3
3 3 3 3
 5 h  337.5  10 
h 5h  337.5  10 h 
3
281.25 10 h
3 3 3
 34.7  10 h  34.7  10 h  12.5 h  21.32
3
 10 h
3 3 4
 (22.5h  1047  10 h) mm
Since h is a small quantity, contribution of its cubes, h3, may be neglected. Hence to the first
approximation,
3 4
J G  1047  10 h mm . . . (iii)
The secondary shearing stress at any point on the fillet at a distance of R from G is given as
202
This stress will act perpendicular to R. Obviously its value will be higher if R is higher. R at A
and C is greatest. From triangle ABG.
2 2
R A  ( AB  BG )
2 2
 (75  46.7 )  88.5 mm
e  50  BG  50  46.7  96.7 mm
for  and calling its value at A as 2
 2 25000  96.7  88.35  204 MPa  288.5 MPa . . . (iv)
3
1047  10 h h t
BG 46.7
cos   A  88.35  0.53
R

Since 1 and 2 are of same type they can be added vectorially to obtain
resultant
stress.
   2   2  2  cos 
A 1 2 1 2
1 2 2
 t (131)  (288.5)  2  131  288.5  0.53

1 374.8
 17161  832.5  40067  MPa
t t
The stress A should not exceed 80 MPa, the permissible value
374.8
  80
t
374.8
 t  4.685 say 5.0 mm
80

203
 UNIT 8
POWER SCREWS
Instructional Objectives
 Power screw mechanism.
 The thread forms used in power screws.
 Torque required to raise and lower a load in a power screw
 Efficiency of a power screw and condition for self locking
 Describe geometry of screw and nut,
 Determine forces on screw and nut threads,
 Calculate dimensions of screw and nut for transmission of force, and
 Find the force on screw fastener and load transmitted to parts jointed by fasteners.

Screws are used for power transmission or transmission of force. A screw is a cylinder on whose
surface helical projection is created in form of thread. The thread will have specified width and
depth, which bear some ratio with the diameter of the cylinder. The screw rotates in a nut, which
has corresponding helical groove on the internal surface. Thus a nut and a screw make a
connected pair in which one remains stationary while other rotates and translates axially. The
helical surface of the screw thread makes surface contact with the helical groove surface of the
nut. If an axial force acts on, say screw moving inside stationary nut, the point of application of
the force will move as the screw advances in axial direction. This will result in work being done
and hence power being transmitted. Both types – one in which screw rotates and advances in a
stationary nut or one in which screw rotates between fixed support and nut is free to move
axially – are used in practice. In the latter case the force acting on nut will move as nut
translates. However, the friction between the surfaces of contact will require some power to be
overcome. Hence the power delivered by the screw-nut pair will be less than the power supplied.

The contact surfaces of screw thread and nut groove are made perpendicular to the
outside and inside cylindrical surfaces. They are sometimes given a small inclination. Such

203
provision keeps coefficient of friction to a reasonable low level. The coefficient of friction may
be further reduced by lubrication. However, by creating considerably inclined surfaces in nut

204
and screw the effective coefficient of friction is increased. Such screw thread joint will make
advancing of threaded part difficult. This combination will be used as fastening device.

Geometry of Thread

Look at Figures 8.1(a) and (b) and you will get a fair idea how would a screw and a nut appear.
The screw will pass into nut by rotating either of them. For understanding how a helical thread
can be formed on a cylinder you can take a plane sheet of paper and draw an inclined line on it.
Then roll the paper to form a cylinder by bringing two opposite edges of the paper together.

The line which you drew will appear like a helix on the surface of the cylinder. A line
drawn as AC, inclined at angle  with horizontal line AA1, will be wrapped on the cylinder to
AA, looking like a helix. AA1, becomes the circumference of the cylinder and  coincides with
C. In Figure 5.2, you can see two parallel lines AC and AC drawn inclined at  to horizontal
and then paper wrapped to form a cylinder and thus two threads are formed on cylinder. p is the
vertical distance between A and C or between C and C. If the paper is wrapped such that the
lines drawn are on the inside surface, you can get the idea of internal thread.

The distance A1C which is equal to AA and AC is called the pitch of the screw. Pitch is
apparently the distance between two corresponding points on two consecutive threads. The angle
 between the base of the triangle and hypotenuse becomes the angle of helix. Obviously,

205
 S J P N Trust's Mech Engg. Dept.

HirasugarInstitute ofTechnology, Nidasoshi.

Academic
Notes
Inculcating Values, Promoting Prosperity
15ME54
Approved by AICTE, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka and Affiliated to VTU Belagavi.

d1 P/2

Do
p
D

p/2

(a) A Screw (b) A Nut

Figure 8.1 : Screw and Nut with Helical Surfaces Cut on Outside and Inside Surfaces of
Cylinders, respectively

C’
C’

C” A’ C

A
d d A1

Figure 8.2 : Formation of a Helix on the Cylindrical Surface

P = π d tan α

tan α =

206
The thread depicted in Figure 8.1(a) is a square thread. The Vee thread is created by a triangular
section while trapezoidal thread has a trapezium section. This thread is also known as the Acme
thread. Buttress thread has a triangular section but one side of the triangle is perpendicular to the
axis. The square, the Acme and the buttress threads are used for power transmission, as they are
more efficient than the Vee thread. The square thread is most efficient but difficult to produce
and hence becomes costly. The adjustment for wear in square thread is very difficult but can be
easily achieved in the Acme threads, by splitting the nut along the axis. The Acme threads thus
can be used as power transmission element when power is to be transmitted in both the
directions.

Bose cylinder
Helix created in Figure 5.2

Thread

Generating
rectangle

Figure 8.3 : Generating a Square Section Thread on Cylindrical Surface

There is little or no backlash in the Acme threads which are commonly used as feed and lead
screws of machine tools. The buttress thread having one side flat and other sloping combines the
advantage of square thread and Acme thread. The flat side provides the efficiency of power
transmission while the inclined side provides the ease of adjustment.

However, these advantages become possible only when the power is transmitted in one
direction. Vee threads for their lower efficiency for power transmission are used as fasteners.
Due to sides being inclined the effective coefficient of friction between the screw and the nut
increases. Figure 8.4 shows Vee or triangular, the Acme and the buttress threads with leading

207
nomenclature.

208
The major diameter is the largest diameter of the screw thread denoted by d for external thread
and by D for internal thread. Minor diameter (d1 or D1) is the smallest diameter of the screw.
Some times more than one thread may be cut on the screw. These multiple threads may be easily
seen at the end of the screw where more than one thread will appear to start. Multiple start
threads give the advantage that screw can move through a longer distance in the nut when given
one rotation as compared to the screw with a single thread or start. The distance moved by a
screw along its axis when given one rotation is called the lead. Apparently
lead = number of starts  pitch
Thread
angle Crest

Root

o
45
d
d m
d
1
o
45

P
Vee Thread
(a) Vee Thread
0.37 P

0.5p+ 0.25mm
d
1 dm d

(b) Acme Thread

o 0.245P
P/2 45 P

0.503P 0.89P

d dm d
1 0.139P

209
 S J P N Trust's Mech Engg. Dept.

HirasugarInstitute ofTechnology, Nidasoshi.

Academic
Notes
Inculcating Values, Pro moting Prosperity
15ME54
Approved by AICTE, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka and Affiliated to VTU Belagavi.

Buttress thread
Figure 8.4 (c)Buttress Thread

210
Mechanics of Screw and Nut Pair

It was mentioned earlier that the motion between nut and screw is like a body moving on an
inclined plane. Figures 8.5(a) and (b) will explain this motion. The body of weight W is pushed
up the inclined plane by a force P which acts upon the body horizontally. This inclined plane is
bent round a cylinder in Figure 8.5(b) and aome body is being pushed up the plane while force P
remains horizontal but also tangential to circular path of the body. This illustrates how the
motion of the nut on the thread is similar to motion of a body on an inclined plane. The weight of
the body on the inclined plane is replaced by weight carried by the nut in axial direction. The
force P is applied by the help of a wrench and W may be the reaction developed between
surfaces of contact.

F W

(a) Inclined Plane

Base
cylinder
r
Thread

(b) Inclined Plane Wrapped Round a Base Cylinder to Form a Thread Figure 8.5

This is illustrated in Figures 8.6(a) and (b). Imagine that a lever is pivoted on the axis of the
cylinder and pushes the body of weight W up the incline of helically wrapped plane on the
cylinder. The lever touches the body at a radius r while a force P1 is applied on the lever at an
arm length of L. In the nomenclature we have already defined the outer diameter of the thread
as major diameter, d and the smallest diameter as the diameter of the cylinder, d1, (also called
core diameter). r is dm where dm is the mean diameter of 2 thread, being mean of d and d1. If P

211
be the force applied by the lever on the body of weight W, then by taking moments of forces,
acting upon the lever, about the axis of the cylinder.

212
 2P1 L
P . . . (8.3)
d
m
Threads
Coads add
upto W

Nut

M
W
r
e
n
c
h
P1

(a)

d
m /

2
L

P
F

 W

P1

(b)

Figure 8.6

The force P has to overcome the friction as well as cause lifting of the body in vertical direction.
To find the relationship between force P, called effort, and weight of the body, W, we have to
consider the equilibrium of the body on an inclined plane as shown in Figures 5.7(a) and (b).
The free body diagram clearly shows forces along and perpendicular to the inclined plane.
N
PCos

WSin P



 N W WCosPSin

(a) A Body being Pushed Up the Inclined Plane with Angle of Inclination a, by a Horizontal

213
 Force P

214
 NWcosPSin

PCos
WSin


(b) Free Body Diagram of Body of Weight w
Figure 8.7
The sum of the forces perpendicular to the plane and sum of the forces along the plane should
separately be zero to satisfy the conditions of equilibrium.  is taken as coefficient of friction
between the body and the plane, which is same as coefficient of friction between the nut and
screw thread surfaces.  = tan  where  is the angle of friction. Summing up the forces
perpendicular to the plane.
The normal reaction,
N = W cos  + P sin 

Hence, force of friction between the surfaces of contact
F   N   W cos    P sin 

Summing up the forces parallel to the inclined plane

P cos   W sin   W cos    P sin  . . . (i)
 
sin 
Replacing  by tan  
cos 
  
sin  sin 
P cos   P sin   W sin   W cos 
cos  cos 

p cos  cos   P sin  sin   W sin  cos   W cos  sin  . . . (ii)

P cos (  )  W sin (  )
P  W tan (  ) . . . (8.4)

If there is no friction,  = 0 and effort in such a case is called ideal effort denoted by Pi where
P  W tan  . . . (8.5)
i
Hence the efficiency of an inclined plane with inclination of screw having helix angle is
Pi

p

210
 tan 

tan (  )

211
 If in a situation as shown in Figure 8.7(a), P is removed, will the body slide down obviously it
will depend upon the fact as to how large angle  is. If W sin  >  W cos  the body will slide
down under its own weight (Examine (i) and (ii) with P = 0). Same thing will happen in case of a
nut in Figure 8.6 (a), i.e. when effort P1 is removed from the wrench or wrench is removed, the
nut will rotate back under load W. It means the nut is not self-locking. However, if  is reduced
it can be seen that at  = , the downward component (along the plane) of weight W, i.e. W sin 
and friction force (along the plane)  W cos  become equal and the body remains just stationary
or the nut does not move down. If  < , the body will need a force to act so as to push it down.
If this force is P then

P   W tan (  ) . . . (8.7)

Naturally screws of  > , will not be self locking or in other words they cannot act as fasteners.
If, however, the angle  < , an effort P, given by Eq. (8.7) will be required to unscrew the nut,
and such screws can be used as fasteners.

The Eq. (8.6) which defines the efficiency of the screw and that the condition for screw to be self
locking is that    can be used to determine the maximum efficiency of a self locking screw
and nut pair.

For self locking condition, the efficiency

 tan 
s tan (   )
2
 tan   tan  (1  tan )
tan 2 2 tan 

2
 1 tan 2

Since tan2  is always less than 1, ( = tan )

1
s  2 . . . (8.8)

The screw having efficiency greater than 50% is said to over haul, meaning the load W will
cause the nut to roll down.

212
POWER SCREW MECHANICS
In the preceding section the simple case of a square thread was considered. As will be seen in the
text that follows that the square thread is more efficient than the Acme thread because in the
Acme thread the effective coefficient of friction increases, yet for power screws it is the Acme
thread which is used more predominantly. The Acme thread can be machined more easily than
the square thread and more importantly the clearance in the Acme thread can be adjusted to take
care of the wear or machining inaccuracy.
Figure 8.8 shows the nuts in pair with square and the Acme threads and an adjusting
mechanism for the acme thread.
An Acme thread has two inclinations. Firstly the plane of the thread is sloping along angle of
helix in the direction of the helix. The plane of the thread also slopes away from the
circumference of the screw, i.e. the circumference of diameter d1, The same is true for the V-
thread. Both types of threads are as shown in Figures 8.4(a) and (b). The effect of inclination in
the radial direction is to increase the normal reaction between the nut and the screw. This
inclination in the radial direction of thread gives a shape of trapezium of angle 2 as shown in
Figure 8.9 and since the motion will occur perpendicular to the plane of paper; the force of
friction will depend upon the normal reaction.
W

Nut Screw

N  W W
2 Cos 

Figure 8.9 : A Nut Moving on a Screw having Acme Thread

For a vertical force W pressing the nut on the thread of screw, the normal reaction is N.
Resolving N in the vertical direction and equating with W

212
 W
N cos   W or N 
cos 

213
and hence the force of friction along the direction of helix is N W
or cos  which can

also be written as  W and  can be called a modified or effective coefficient of friction. No

doubt you can see that


  cos    . . . (8.9)

It is because cos is less than 1. Greater the angle , lesser the cos and hence  will increase
with increasing . This is what happens in V-thread. The force of friction between nut and thread
in V-threads is greater than in Acme thread. The P-W relationship given by Eq. (8.4) stands valid
for square thread and can be modified for Acme thread by replacing  by  where
1
  tan 
P  W tan (  ) . . . (8.10)

Efficiency of the Acme thread will be

tan 
  . . . (8.11)
tan (  )

A word about the horizontal component of N, which is N sin  will be in order. Remember we
are talking about the thread round the circumference of the screw. There is other side of the
screw on right of Figure 8.9 and N sin  there will be acting to the right. Thus the horizontal
components of N are balanced.

Here  is the effective angle of friction which could be   tan  if the square thread is on the
screw. Apparently the torque in Eq. (8.12) will twist the cylinder of screw and cause shearing
stress in it. The cylinder is acted upon by an axial compression also. The axial compressive force
causes compressive stress at any point in the section.

Problem:
A square threaded screw is required to work against an axial force of 6.0 kN and has following
dimensions. Major diameter d = 32 mm; pitch p = 4 mm with single start,  = 0.08. Axial force
rotates with the screw. Calculate:

213
(a) Torque required when screw moves against the load.
(b) Torque required when screw moves in the same direction as the load.
(c) Efficiency of the screw.

214
Solution:
Remember the relationship between p, d and d1 which has been shown in Figure 8.1.
p  d  d1
But d  d  d1 or d  2d d
m 2 1 m

p  2 ( d  dm )
p
or d m  d 
2
Using d = 32 mm and p = 4 mm
dm  32  2  30 mm . . . (i)
The angle of helix is related to the circumference of mean circle and the pitch from
description of Section 8.2.
p 4
tan     0.042 . . . (ii)
dm 30
o
   2.4 . . . (iii)
and tan     0.08 . . . (iv)
o
tan   4.57
From Eq. (8.12) torque required to move screw against load
dm
M t  W tan (  ) 2
30
 6  tan (2.4  4.57)   6  0.12225  15
Nm 2

= 11 Nm
When screw moves in the same direction, is a case in which the body moves down the inclined
plane. In this case the fore P to push down is given by Eq. 5.7. Hence, the torque
d d
MP m
 W tan (  ) m

t 2 2
30
 6  tan (4.57  2.4)   6  0.038  15 Nm
2
= 3.42 Nm .............................................................. (vi)
From Eq. (8.6), efficiency

215
 tan  0.042
   0.344
tan (  ) 0.12225
or  = 34.4% . . . (vii)

216
Problem:
If in the Example 8.1, the screw has the Acme thread with thread angle 2 = 29o instead of
square thread, calculate the same quantities.

Solution:
There is no difference in calculation for square and the Acme thread except that in case of the
Acme thread the coefficient of friction is modified and effective coefficient of friction is given
by Eq. (8.9).
 0.08 0.08
     0.0826
cos  cos 29 0.968
2
o
   4.724
From Figure 8.2(b) for the Acme thread note that
p
dm d  0.125 mm
2
 32  2  0.125

or dm  29.875 mm . . . (i)
p 4
 tan     0.0426
dm   29.875
o
  2.44

dm
M t  W tan (  ) 2

 3.0  29.875  tan (2.44  4.724)  89.625  0.126 kNmm

or Mt  11.265 Nm . . . (ii)
tan  tan 2.44 0.0426
  
tan (  ) tan (2.44  4.724) 0.126
or   33.8% . . . (iii)
When the screw moves in the same direction as the load, the torque

M   W dm tan (  )
t 2

217
  6  29.875 tan (4.724  2.44) kNmm
2
or M   3.58 Nm . . . (iv)
t

218
Comparing the results of Examples 8.1 and 8.2 we can see that the screws have got same
major diameter and pitch and for this reason their helix angles are different. Coefficients of
friction are inherently different. But the torque on the screw increases by 2.41% and
efficiency decreases by 1.744%.

Application of Power Screw

The lead screw of a lathe machine, which moves the tool carriage, is another example of power
screw in which the screw rotates in a nut and screw is supported like a shaft between two
bearings. The thrust is caused on the nut, which is integral part of the tool carriage. The nut
moves along the length of the screw taking the carriage. The reaction of the thrust bears on the
supports of the screw. The screw can be used for accurate positioning of the carriage if it is
rotated by a separate stepper motor. The screw in transferring of force can also be used in hand
operated punching machines, as a lifter of dam gate or as a presser of masses.
If there is a support like a collar, shown in Figure 8.10(a) on the top of which the load is placed
so that it does not rotate, then the applied torque has to be equal to the sum of the torque required
to rotate the screw in the nut and the friction torque between the surfaces of the collar and load
platform. The friction torque between the supporting bearing surface and stationary surface may
be reduced by lubrication or by providing rolling bearing as showing in Figure 8.10(b). In any
given situation the torque at bearing surface will have to be calculated.
d
c

W/2
W/2

Nut (Fixed)

W/2 W/2

219
 (a)

W
Load

Platform

Bearing
Nut Rotating

Handle

W/2 W/2

(b)
Figure 5.10
If the collar surface is like a flat disc of outer and inner diameters of do and di then the
friction torque is given by

do3
 di  3
  
  3 3
2c W  2   2 d o  di

M tf  2 2  c W 2 2 . . . (8.13)
3
 do  di  3 (d o  di )
    
 2  2
The Eq. (8.13) has not been derived here. In the above equation c is the coefficient of friction
between the collar and the platform or between bearing surfaces. Hence M tf can also be writer
as c Wrf where rf is the radius of an imaginary circle. Along the tangent of this circle the force
of friction e W is assumed to act. An approximate value of
d  di can also be used. Incidentally this value of rf may be true for unlubricated
rf  o
4
Surface which is not a reality.

Standard Threads

220
Standards of threads describe pitch core diameter and major diameter. The standard threads can
be cut in standard machine tools with standard cutters and designer can use them for calculation
of sizes and ensure interchangeability. We will see in illustrated examples how the standards are

221
used by designer. Presently we describe Indian standard IS 4694-1968 for square threads in
which a thread is identified by its nominal diameter which is also the major diameter. According to
standard the major diameter of nut is 0.5 mm greater then major diameter of the screw which will provide
a clearance of 0.25 mm between the outer surface of screw and inner surface of nut thread. The basic
dimensions of square threads are described in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1 : Basic Dimensions of Square Thread, (mm)

Pitch, p 5
Core Dia. d1 17 19 24 23
Major Dia. d 22 24 26 28
Pitch, p 6
Core dia. d1 24 26 28 30
Major dia. d 30 32 34 36
Pitch p 7
Core dia. d1 31 33 35 37
Major dia. d 38 40 43 44
Pitch, p 8
Core dia. d1 38 40 42 44
Major dia. d 46 48 50 56
Pitch, p 9
Core dia. d1, 46 49 51 53
Major dia. d 55 58 60 62
Pitch, p 10
Core dia. d1 55 58 60 62 65 68 70 72
Major dia. d 65 68 70 72 75 78 80 82

Design of Screw and Nut

Designing is calculating the dimensions, which can be seen in Figure 8.1. They are core
diameter, di, major diameter d and pitch, p. the number of threads also has to be determined we
have to realize that the load comes upon the screw as axial.

Compression causing compressive stress, which is uniformly distributed over circular cross
section of diameter, d1. As the screw rotates, in the nut it is subjected to a torque

222
 S J P N Trust's Mech Engg. Dept.
HirasugarInst itute ofTechnology, Nidasoshi. Academic
Notes
Inculcating Values, Promoting Prosperity
given byApPprodvmed boyr AWICtTaEn, (Recogni)zeddbmy G. oTvht.isoftoKarqrnuaetaw
kailalncdaAufsfeilisahte
edartionVgTsUtreBsesla, gw
avhi .ich will
15ME54
2 2
d 1
be maximum on the surface or at radius of
2 . The transfer of axial load between the

223
screw thread and nut occurs through surface of thread. The pressure is to be kept within
permissible limits, which normally is such that squeezing of oil film between contact surface
should not occur. Further the thread and the cylindrical surface of the cylinder may tend to shear
off under the load acting on the thread. Lasting we must realize that the axial load on screw
makes the screw to act like a column. This column is not allowed to buckle. We will consider
each of the above modes of failure to establish equations for calculating dimension.

Direct Stress
The axial load (force) is W, compressive in nature and the area which carries the force is the
core cross section of diameter di. Hence, compressive stress,
4W
 . We will see that this direct compressive stress combines with shearing

2
 d1
stress to give principal and maximum shearing stresses. The resulting equations cannot be solved
for d1, hence the expression for  is used to calculate d1 from given permissible compressive
stress. To account for other stresses, which we will see in next section, the magnitude of the
compressive stress is increased by 30%.

1.3W
Hence   d 2 . . . (8.14)

4
As an example if W = 50 kN and permissible
3 compressive stress is 80 MPa, then
4  1.3  50 
10
d  3
 1.0345  10
  80
1

By the helps of Table 8.2 you can see that nearest standard value value of d1 is

33 mm with p = 7 mm and d = 40 mm. This apparently gives all the information we require
for a screw but we have to check for safety against other stresses.
Ma imum Shearing Stress
d
m
We have already seen that torque M t W tan (  )
2 is required to rotate the
screw to cause it to move against force W or to lift weight W. the torque will cause shearing

224
stress in addition to direct compressive stress  as stated earlier. The shearing stress at any point
on surface of core

225
 16 M
  t
3
d1
The state of stress at any point on the surface of core of the screw will be compressive or a
direct stress  and a shearing stress  as shown in Figure 8.11.









Figure 8.11: State of Stress at any Point on Core Surface of Dia d1

The maximum principal stress is given by


     2
2
 p1  
2  2 

This stress is not of much significance because it is reduced from higher magnitude  or if
it becomes tensile, to a magnitude which is still not much. However maximum shearing
stress is significant.

  2 2
 max     
 2 

2 2
 4W   16 Mt 
   
3
 2  

  2d1   d1 
2
or max  16 W 2 4 Mt6 . . . (8.15)
 64 d d
1 1
The permissible shearing stress will be known but solving Eq. (8.15) will be too difficult as you
can see that it contains fourth and sixth power of d1 and Mt is also the function of dm (or d1 and
d). Therefore it is recommended to calculate d1 from Eq. (8.14) and using this value of d1,
calculate max. Then you have to see that the calculated value of max is less than permissible
value of shearing stress.

220
Determining Number of Threads
The screw may be as long as required by consideration of geometry of machine. For example a
lead screw may be as long as the length of the lathe bed. But in all cases the load transfer
between the screw and nut will require total load to be shared among the threads on nut, which is
smaller in length than the screw. The number of threads is decided on the basis of the load
carried by thread surface perpendicular to core cylinder as shown in Figure 8.12. All threads in
contact will carry axial force of the screw through uniformly distributed pressure pb, in a square
thread, the width and depth of each is equal to t. The thread section is shown on left hand side of
Figure 8.12 and on right hand side wherein one thread is shown loaded by pressure. The same
pressure will be acting on the thread of the nut. Area on which pressure is acting is the area
between the compressive circles of diameters d and d1 for one thread and if there are n threads in
contact or n threads on the nut, then total area of contact to carry the pressure.
2 2
And t  n (d  d )
p m 1

4W W
 Permissible pressure pb   . . . (8.16)
2
n (d  d 2) ndmt
1

d1
d/2

d1
A

B t
d 1 /2 t pb
t

Figure 8.12 : Pressure on Contact Surface

This equation can be used for a check if the pressure between the threads of the nut and screw is
within the permissible limit or it can be used to calculate the number of threads, n, in contact

221
Shearing of Threads from the Core Cylinder
Because of the force W, acting as uniformly distributed pressure as shown in Figure 5.12 thread
may have a tendency to shear. The area over which shear effect will occur is shown shaded in
Figure 5.13. The thread is shown in broken lines. This area apparently is a strip of width, t, on the
cylinder of diameter d1. Hence the area

Ac   d1 t
With shearing stress , which will be created at the bottom of n thread of screw?
  W . . . (8.17)
screw
n  d1 t

d
1

pb

d
1

Figure 8.13 : The Area at the Bottom of a Thread in Screw

You must realize that the threads on the inside of the nut will also be similarly subjected to
shearing stress at their bottom. Hence, in nut

W
nut  . . . (8.18)
ndt

Normally, the screw and nut are not made in the same material. While screw is made in steel
the preferred material for nut is either cast iron or bronze. The permissible value of shearing
stress for nut material may be less and in that case Eq. (8.18) must be used to calculate n.

The height of the nut is simply the product if n and p, i.e.

h = np . . . (8.19)
You must realise that the nut is threaded all along its length.

222
The various screw-nut material combinations are described in Table 5.2.
Table 8.2 : Screw-Nut Material Combination and Safe Bearing Pressure
Application Material Safe Bearing Rubbing Velocity
Screw Nut Pressure at Mean Diameter
(MPa) m/min
Hand Press Steel Bronze 17.5-24.5 Well lubricated
Steel C.I 12.5-17.5 Low Velocity
Screw Jack Steel C.I 12.5-17.5 Velocity < 2.5
Steel Bronze 10.5-17.5 Velocity < 3.0
Hoisting Machine Steel C.I 4.0-7.0 6-12
Steel Bronze 35.0-100.0 6-12
Lead Screw Steel Bronze 10.5-17.0 > 15.0

Problem:
A screw press is required to exert a force of 50 kN when applied torque is 560 Nm. The
unsupported length of the screw is 450 mm and a thrust bearing of hardened steel on cast iron is
provided at the power end.

The permissible stresses in the steel screw are :

Tension and compression – 85 MPa, Shear – 55 MPa,
The permissible bearing pressure is 13.5 MPa for steel screw and C.I nut
The permissible shearing stress in the CI is 20 MPa
The yield strength of steel of screw, Y = 260 MPa
The coefficient of friction in screw and nut is 0.15
Determine the dimensions of screw and nut, and efficiency.
Solution:
Step 1
Determine diameter d1, d, p,  to define the thread
Eq. (8.14), will be used to estimate d1,

 1.3W
2
 d1
4
2
Use W = 50,000 N, = 85 N/mm
4 1.3 50,000
 d12     973.54
  85

223
  d1  31.2 mm

Look in the Table 8.1, close to 31.2 mm the core diameter is 33 mm with pitch p = 7 mm.

224
However, you may also use following rule : between
d1 = 30 and d1 = 40 mm, p = 0.2 d1. We choose to
use Table 8.1.

So d1  33 mm, d  40 mm, p  7 mm . . . (i)

d p
d  1  33  3.5  36.5 mm
m
2
p 7
1 1 1
  36.5 
Angle of helix,   tan tan tan 0.061
dm
o
  3.5 . . . (ii)
1
tan     0.15,   tan 0.15
o
  8.53 . . . (iii)
tan  tan 3.5 0.061
Efficiency of screw,    
tan (   ) tan (3.5  8.53) 0.213

  28.6% . . . (iv)
Number of threads in contact, i.e. threads in nut and height of nut.
p 2
Use Eq. (8.18), put t   3.5 mm,  nut  20 N/mm
2
W
 nut 
ndt
50,000
20 
n   40  3.5

n = 5.684 say 6
This has to be checked for bearing pressure, pb = 13.5
2
N/mm Use Eq. (8.16)
W
pb  n  (d 2  d 2 )
1
4  50,000
 n  2 2  9.23 say 10
 13.5 (40  33 )
This n is greater than the earlier calculated 6. Hence n = 10 is
chosen.
Check for maximum shearing stress
d
M  W tan (  ) m
t

225
 2
d  d1 40  33
Use d    36.5 mm
m
2 2

226
 2
The permissible shearing stress is 55 N/mm .

Hence screw in safe against shearing.

Problem:
Design a screw jack to lift a load of 100 kN through a height of 300 mm. Assume u = 400
MPa, u = 200 MPa, Y = 300 MPa, pb = 10 MPa. The outer diameter of bearing surface is 1.6
d1 and inner diameter of bearing surface is 0.8 d1.
Coefficient of friction between collar on screw and C.I is 0.2. Coefficient of friction between
steel screw and bronze nut is 0.15. Take a factor of safety of 5 for screw and nut but take a factor
of safety of 4 for operating lever.
Solution:

The screw jack to be designed is shown in Figures 8.15(a) and (b) shows the details of the
cup on which the load W is to be carried.
227
 5d

4d
5d ro

Figure 8.14 Screw jack assembled

Figure 8.15 : (a) Screw Jack Assembled; and (b) The Load Cup
The overall design of screw jack comprises designing of
(a) Screw,
(b) Nut,
(c) Arm,
(d) Cup, and
(e) Body of the jack.
Screw
Screw becomes the central part. The other parts will be dependent upon the screw. The screw
design will decide core diameter d1, major diameter d and pitch, p. Hence screw design will
consist of calculating d1, d and p and checking for maximum shearing stress and buckling of the
screw.

Assume square thread

400 2
Use Eq. (5.14) with W = 100,000 N,   50  80 N/mm 5

 1.3W
2
d1
4
1 1

228
  d  5.2  100, 000 2  (2069) 2
1


   80 
















































229


or d1 = 45.5 mm
From Table 5.1, choose next higher value as d1 = 46 mm with p = 9 mm and d = 55 mm.
After estimated values we go to check for maximum shearing stress and the buckling of the
screw.
Maximum Shearing Stress
Compressive stress,
5
4W 4  10 2
 d
2
 60.17 N/mm
   (46)
2
1
dm
Torque on the screw, M  W tan (  )
t 2
d  d1 55  46
dm    50.5 mm
2 2
1 p 1 9 1 o
  tan  tan  tan 0.0567  3.25
dm   50.5
1 1 o
  tan   tan 0.15  8.53
5
5 50.5 0.21  50.5  10
Mt  10 tan (3.25  8.53)  2  2
5
 5.266  10 N-mm
5
16 Mt 16  5.266 10 2
 3
3
 27.6 N/mm
d
1   (46)

  2
 
2
 max   
 2 
 60.17 2 2 2
    (27.6)  1666.87  40.827 N/mm
 2 
 220
u

The permissible sharing stress is 5 5  44 N/mm .


Thus the screw is safe against shear.

Nut
For standard square thread the depth or thickness of the thread,

t  p  9  4.5 mm
230
 2 2

Use Eq. (8.16), pb  W with pb = 10 N/mm2, dm = 50.5 mm,

n  dm t

231
 5
t = 4.5 mm, W = 10 N
10 5

n   14
10  50.5  4.5
Normally n >10 is not preferred. So we can go for higher d1, d and p. Next standard values will
be d1 = 49 mm, d = 58 mm, p = 9 mm.

58  49 107 p
Hence, dm    53.5 mm, t   4.5 mm
2 2 2
5 
n 10  13.2
10  53.5  4.5

Since this is also greater than 10, we can go for next higher value of d1 = 51 mm with d = 60 mm
and p = 9 mm.

51  60 111
dm 
2  2  55.5 mm
So that

Which will also not satisfy the condition?

The last choice in the table with same p is d1 = 53 mm and d = 62 mm.

53  62 115  57.5 mm which result in n = 12.3 mm.

So that dm 
2  2
Still better solution is to go for next series with p = 10 mm.
With d1 = 55, d = 65 mm, and dm  120  60; t = 5 mm 2
5
 n 10
 10.6
10  60  5
Which is very close to 10, hence can be accepted.
So the solution changes to d1 = 55 mm, d = 65 mm, p = 10 mm. You need not check these
dimensions because they are larger than the safe ones.
(It is important that the reader understands the reiterative nature of design and how the help from
standards is derived. The iterations have been done to emphasize that the exercise in design
should not be treated as a problem in strength of materials. In design the problem serves to bring
practicability in focus.

The length of the nut, H = np = 10.6  10 = 106 mm. Outside Diameter of Nut; see Figure

232
5.1(b) and Figure 5.9. The nut is in tension. The section to bear tensile stress is

233
  2 2 0
(D  D ) 4
D = d + 0.5 mm = 65 + 0.5 = 65.5 mm

Bronze is not as strong as steel. Silicon bronze (Cu = 95%, Si = 4%, Mn = 1%) is quite
good for making nut. This material is available in wrought condition with u = 330 MPa.
2
If factor of safety of 5 is used, then permissible tensile stress is 66 N/mm .
5
  4W  66  4  10
2 2
t 2
 ( D0  D )
2  ( D 655 )
0
2
 D0  1929  4290  6219
or D0 = 78.86 say 79 mm

To fit the nut in position in the body of jack, a collar is provided at the top (see Figure 8.15(a)).
The thickness of the collar = 0.5 D = 0.5  65.5 = 32.72 mm

The outside diameter of the Collar D00 can be found by considering crushing of collar
surface under compressive stress. The area under compression is
2 2
=  (D  D ) .
4
The compressive strength of bronze is same as tensile stress, 66 MPa
5
4W 4  10
66   (D 2  2  2
79 )  (D  6241)
00 00

D00  1929  6241  8170  90.4 mm

The nut is shown in Figure 8.16.

90.4

32.72

73.28

65.5
79

234
 Figure 5.16

235
Arm
The arm is used to rotate the screw in the stationary nut. The portion of the screw at the top is
enlarged to a diameter, 2r0
where 2r0 =1.6 d1 = 1.6  55 = 88 mm (see Figure 8.15(b)).
2r0 is the outer diameter for bearing surface of collar on which will rest the load cup. The cup
will turn around a pin of dia. 2ri = 0.8 d1,
2r1 = 0.8  55 = 44 mm.
These two diameters will be used to calculate the torque of friction at bearing surface. Call this
torque Mtf and use Eq. (8.13)
3 3
c W (2r )  (2r )
M 0
2 i
2
tf  3 (2r 0  (2r i
) )
c = 0.2 and all other values are described earlier
5 3 3 5 3
M 0.2  10 (88)2  (44)2 0.2  10  (44)
2 81
tf
 (88  (  (
3 ) 44)  3 44) 41
5
 6.84  10 Nmm

The arm will have to apply this torque along with the torque for lifting the load which is given
as : M t  W tan (  ) dm 2
o 1 p 1
  8.53 , dm  60 mm,    ta 10 1 0.05  o
tan d n   60 tan 3
m
5 5
Mt 10  30 tan (11.53)  6.12  10 N-mm
5 5
Total torque, M  M tf  Mt  (6.84  6.12)  10  13  10 N-mm

A single man can apply 400 N of force but two men can apply 80 N with an efficiency of 90%.
Let‟s assume two persons work at the end of the arm, the length of the arm
5
13  10
L   1805.5 mm or 1.805 m
0.9  800

Actual length will incorporate allowance for grip and insertion in collar so arm of 2.1 m length will be

230
appropriate.

231
The torque M will acts as bending moment on the arm with permissible bending stress as
2
160 N/mm . The diameter of arm

1 1
 32 M 3  32  13  10  3
5
d
 160   43.75 mm
    
a

 b   
The Cup
The shape of the cup is shown in Figure 8.15(b). It can be made in C1 and side may incline 30o
with vertical. With bottom diameter as 1.2 (2ri), its height can be decided by the geometry of
load to be lifted. Since no information is given we leave this design only at shape.

The Body of the Jack

Height = Lifting height +length of the nut – length of the collar on the nut + allowance for
bottom plate of 2 mm thickness and head of the bolt holding plate.

= 300 + 106 – 32.72 + (2 + 4.8) (using a 6 mm bolt)

= 380.1 mm
Thickness,   0.25 d  0.25  65  16.25 mm

Thickness of base, 1  0.5 d  0.5  65  32.5 mm

Diameter of base, D2  4.0 d  4  65  260 mm
Diameter of base (outside), D3  5d  5  65  325 mm .
Efficiency

tan  0.05
    24.5%
tan (   ) 0.204

Listing of Designed Dimensions.

Screw : Square Thread.
Core diameter of screw, d1 = 55 mm
Major diameter of screw, d = 65 mm
Pitch of Thread, p = 10 mm.

232
Nut
Number of threads, n = 10.6
Height of the nut, H = 106 mm
Outside diameter D0 = 79 mm

Diameter of Nut collar, D00 = 90.4 mm

Thickness of collar = 32.72 mm

Arm of the Jack

The length of the arm = 2.1 m
The diameter of the arm = 43.57 mm

The Body of the Jack

Thickness of the body,  = 16.25 mm

Thickness of the base, 1 = 32.5 mm

Inside diameter of base, D2 = 260 mm

Outside diameter of base, D3 = 325 mm
Height of the body H1 = 380.1 mm

233