DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

PREPARED BY:- RUTUPARNA SAHU

MACHINE DESIGN CHAPTER -1(INTRODUCTION)
SYLLABUS:-
1.1 Introduction to Machine Design and Classify it.
1.2 Different mechanical engineering materials used in design with their uses and their
mechanical and physical properties
1.3 Define working stress, yield stress, ultimate stress & factor of safety and stress- strain
curve for M.S & C.I.
1.4 Modes of Failure (By elastic deflection, general yielding & fracture)
1.5 State the factors governing the design of machine elements.
1.6 Describe design procedure.

1.1 Introduction to Machine Design and classify it:-

Machine Design:-
1 Machine Design is the creation of new and better machines and improving the existing
ones.
2 Machine design is defined as the use of scientific principle, technical information &
imagination in the description of a mechanical system to perform specific functions with
maximum economic and efficiency.

Classification of Machine Design:-

1. Adaptive design:- Here designer’s work is concerned with adaptation of existing designs.
This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill.The designer only makes minor
alternation or modification in the existing designs of the product.
2. Development design:-This type of design needs scientific training and design ability in
order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by adopting a new material or
different method of manufacture. In this case, though the designer starts from the
existing design, but the final product will be quite different from the original product.
3. New design:-This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and creative
thinking. From this design completely new product will be formed.
The designs, depending upon the methods used, may be classified as follows:

 Rational design: - This type of design depends upon mathematical formulae of

principle of mechanics.
 Industrial design: - This type of design depends upon the production aspects to
manufacture any machine component in the industry.
 System design:-It is the design of any complex mechanical system like a motor car.
 Element design: - It is the design of any element of the mechanical system like piston,
crankshaft, connecting rod, etc.
 Computer aided design: - This type of design depends upon the use of computer
systems to assist in the creation, modification & analysis of a design.
LOAD: - It is defined as any external force acting upon a machine part. The following four
types of the load are:-
1. Dead or steady load:-A load is said to be a dead or steady load, when it does not change in
magnitude or direction.
2. Live or variable load:-A load is said to be a live or variable load, when it changes continually.
3. Suddenly applied or shock loads: - A load is said to be a suddenly applied or shock load,
when it is suddenly applied or removed.
4. Impact load:-A load is said to be an impact load, when it is applied with some initial velocity.
1.2 Different mechanical engineering materials used in design with their uses and their
mechanical and physical properties:-

Mechanical Properties of Metals:-

1. Strength: - It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without
breaking. The internal resistance offered by a part to an externally applied force is called
stress.
2. Stiffness:-It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus of
elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
3. Elasticity: - It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation
when the external forces are removed. This property is desirable for materials used in tools
and machines. Steel is more elastic than rubber.
4. Plasticity: - It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load
permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forgings, rolling process.
5. Ductility: - It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application of a tensile force. The ductility is usually measured by the terms, percentage
elongation and percentage reduction in area. The ductile material commonly used in
engineering practice are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead. The ductility
of a material is commonly measured by means of percentage elongation and percentage
reduction in area in a tensile test
Percentage elongation:-

Let l = original length, and

L = final length.
∴ Elongation = L – l
And percentage elongation = ((L–l)/l) * 100
Percentage reduction in area:-
Let A = Original cross-sectional area
a = Cross-sectional area at the neck.
Then reduction in area = A – a

Percentage reduction in area = ((A-a)/A)*100

6. Brittleness:-It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of
breaking of a material with little permanent deformation. Cast iron is a brittle material.
7. Malleability:-It is a special case of ductility which permits materials can be converted into
thin sheets by the application of compressive force. The malleable materials commonly used
in engineering practice are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium.
8. Toughness:-It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows. It is measured by the amount of energy that a unit volume of the material has
absorbed after being stressed up to the point of fracture.
9. Machinability:-It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case with which a
material can be cut. The machinability of a material can be measured in a number of ways
such as comparing the tool life for cutting different materials or force required to remove the
material at some given rate or the energy required to remove a unit volume of the material.
It may be noted that brass can be easily machined than steel.
10. Resilience: - It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact
loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within elastic limit.
This property is essential for spring materials.
11. Creep: - When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period
of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This property is
considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and turbines.
12. Fatigue:-When a material is subjected to repeated or fluctuating stresses, it fails at
stresses below the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue.
The failure consists of initiation & propagation of crack. This property is considered in
designing shafts, connecting rods, springs, gears, etc.
13. Hardness:-It is the property by virtue of which material can resist wear, penetration,
deformation. It also means the ability of a metal to cut another metal. Hardness is determined
by the following tests:
(a) Brinell hardness test
(b) Rockwell hardness test
(c) Vickers hardness (also called Diamond Pyramid) test

(d) Shore scleroscope.

Physical Properties of Metals:- The physical properties of the metals include colour, size and
shape, density, electric and thermal conductivity, and melting point.
 1.3 Define working stress, yield stress, ultimate stress & factor of safety and stress-
strain curve for M.S & C.I.
Yield stress: - It is defined as the maximum stress at which increase in elongation occurs
without increase in load. After yield point on removal of the load the material will not be
able to recover its original shape and size. Stress corresponding to yield point is known as
yield point stress.
Ultimate stress: - The stress, which attains its maximum value is known as ultimate stress.
It is obtained by dividing the largest value of the load reached in a test to the original
cross-sectional area of the test piece.
Working Stress: - When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress lower
than the maximum or ultimate stress at which failure of the material takes place. This
stress is known as the working stress or design stress. It is also known as safe or allowable
stress.
(Note: By failure it is not meant actual breaking of the material. Some machine parts are
said to fail when they have plastic deformation set in them, and they no more perform
their function satisfactorily)
Factor of Safety:-
It is defined, as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress. Mathematically,
Factor of safety = (Maximum stress)/(Working or design stress)
In case of ductile materials e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is clearly defined, the
factor of safety is based upon the yield point stress. In such cases,
Factor of safety =
(Yield point stress)/(Working or design stress)
In case of brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as for ductile
materials.
Therefore, the factor of safety for brittle materials is based on ultimate stress.
∴ Factor of safety =
(Ultimate stress)/(Working or design stress)

(Stress-strain curve for mild steel) (Stress-strain curve for cast iron)
1.4 Modes of Failure (By elastic deflection, general yielding & fracture):-
1. By elastic deformation: - This type of deformation is reversible. When the force is removed
the object will return to its original shape. Elastomer like rubber shows large elastic
deformation. But in metals, ceramics show smaller elastic range.

2. Yielding: - Yield strength is defined as the stress at which material begins to deform
plastically. Prior to yield point the material will deform elastically & will return to original state
after the removal of load. But once the yield point is attained some fraction of deformation
will be permanent & non reversible.

3. Fracture: - Under tensile stress plastic deformation is characterized by a strain hardening

region and a necking region & finally fracture occurs.
1.5 State the factors governing the design of machine elements:-
1. Strength: - A machine part shouldn’t fail under the effect of forces acting on it. It should
have sufficient strength to avoid failure due to fracture or yielding.
2. Rigidity: - Machine component should be rigid enough, so that it will not deflect or bend
due to forces or moment acting on it. A transmission shaft is designed on the basis of lateral
rigidity & torsional rigidity.
3. Wear resistance: - A machine component should be wear resistant because wear reduces
accuracy of machine tool along with its life cycle. Surface hardening will increase the wear
resistance of the machine component.
4. Safety: - The shape and dimension of the machine part should ensure safety to the operator
of the machine.
5. Minimum dimension and weight: - A machine should have minimum possible dimension
& weight which will reduce the material cost.
6. Conformance to the standard: - Machine part should conform to the national &
international standards covering the dimension, profile & material.
7. Minimum life cycle cost: - Total cost i.e. to be paid for purchasing the parts, operating &
maintaining it over its life span should be minimum.

1.6 Describe design procedure:-

The general procedure to solve a design problem is as follows:
1. Recognition of need:-First of all the need, aim or purpose for which the machine is to be
designed should be recognised.
2. Mechanisms:-Select the possible mechanism or group of mechanisms which will give the
desired motion.
3. Analysis of forces: - Find the forces acting on each member of the machine and the energy
transmitted by each member.
4. Material selection:-Select the material best suited for each member of the machine.
5. Design of elements: - Find the size of each member of the machine by considering the force
acting on the member and the permissible stresses for the material used. It should be kept in
mind that each member should not deflect or deform more than the permissible limit.
6. Modification: - Modify the size of the member to reduce overall cost.
7. Detailed drawing:-Draw the detailed drawing of each component and the assembly of the
machine with complete specification for the manufacturing processes.
8. Production: - The component, as per the drawing, is manufactured in the workshop.
The flow chart for the general procedure in machine design is shown in Fig.
DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
CHAPTER-2 :-( DESIGN OF FASTENING ELEMENTS)
PREPARED BY:-RUTUPARNA SAHU
SYLLABUS:-
2.1 Joints and their classification.
2.2 State types of welded joints.
2.3 State advantages of welded joints over other joints.
2.4 Design of welded joints for eccentric loads.
2.5 State types of riveted joints and types of rivets.

2.6 Describe failure of riveted joints.

2.7 Determine strength & efficiency of riveted joints.
2.8 Design riveted joints for pressure vessel.
2.9 Solve numerical on Welded Joint and Riveted Joints

2.1 Joints and their classification:-

A machine or a structure is made of a large number of parts and they need to be joined
suitably for the machine to operate satisfactorily. Parts are joined by fasteners and fasteners
are conveniently classified as permanent or detachable fasteners. Again permanent and
detachable joints are classified as:-

Permanent fasteners: - The permanent fastenings are those fastenings which cannot be
disassembled without destroying the connecting components. The examples of permanent
fastenings are soldered, brazed, welded and riveted joints.
Detachable fasteners:-The temporary or detachable fastenings are those fastenings which
can be disassembled without destroying the connecting components. The examples of
temporary fastenings are screws, nuts, bolts, keys, cotters, pins and knuckle joint.

2.2 State types of welded joints:-

a) A welded joint is a permanent joint which is obtained by the fusion of the edges of the two
parts to be joined together, with or without the application of pressure and a filler material.

b) The heat required for the fusion of the material may be obtained by burning of gas (in case
of gas welding) or by an electric arc (in case of electric arc welding).

Types of welded joints: - There are two types of welded joints.

1) Lap joint 2) Butt joint
1) Lap Joint/Fillet Joint:-
a) The lap joint or the fillet joint is obtained by overlapping the plates and then welding
the edges of the plates.
b) The cross-section of the fillet is approximately triangular.
c) The fillet joints may be:-

1. Single transverse fillet

2. Double transverse fillet
3. Parallel fillet joints.

2) Butt Joint:-
a) The butt joint is obtained by placing the plates edge to edge.
b) In butt welds, the plate edges do not require bevelling if the thickness of plate is less
than 5 mm.
c) On the other hand, if the plate thickness is 5 mm to 12.5 mm, the edges should be
bevelled to V or U-groove on both sides.
d) The butt joints may be
1. Square butt joint
2. Single V-butt joint
3. Single U-butt joint
4. Double V-butt joint
5. Double U-butt joint.
 Some other types of welded joints:-

Some Basic Weld Symbols Are:-

Strength of Transverse Fillet Welded Joints:-

The transverse fillet welds are designed for tensile strength. Let us consider a single and
double transverse fillet welds as shown in figure.

(Enlarged view of fillet weld)

In order to determine the strength of the fillet joint, it is assumed that the section of fillet is
a right angled triangle ABC with hypotenuse AC making equal angles with other two sides AB
and BC. The enlarged view of the fillet is shown in figure. The length of each side is known as
leg or size of the weld and the perpendicular distance of the hypotenuse from the intersection
of legs (i.e. BD) is known as throat thickness. The minimum area of the weld is given by the
product of the throat thickness and length of weld.

Let t = Throat thickness (BD)

s = Leg or size of weld= Thickness of plate

l = Length of weld,

From Figure we find that the throat thickness,

t = s × sin 45° = 0.707 s

∴ Minimum area of the weld or throat area,

A = Throat thickness × Length of weld = t × l = 0.707 s × l

If σt is the allowable tensile stress for the weld metal, then the tensile strength of the joint
for single fillet weld,

P = Throat area × Allowable tensile stress = 0.707 s × l × σt

And tensile strength of the joint for double fillet weld,

P = 2 × 0.707 s × l × σt = 1.414 s × l × σt

Strength of Parallel Fillet Welded Joints:-

The parallel fillet welded joints are designed for shear strength. Consider a double parallel
fillet welded joint as shown in Figure (a)

We have already discussed in the previous case, that the minimum area of weld or the throat
area, A = 0.707 s × l

If τ is the allowable shear stress for the weld metal, then the
shear strength of the joint for single parallel fillet weld,

P = Throat area × Allowable shear stress = 0.707 s × l × τ

Shear strength of the joint for double parallel fillet weld,

P = 2 × 0.707 × s × l × τ = 1.414 s × l × τ

Notes:- If there is a combination of single transverse and double parallel fillet welds as shown
in Figure (b) then the strength of the joint is given by the sum of strengths of single transverse
and double parallel fillet welds.

Mathematically,

P = 0.707s × l1 × σt + 1.414 s × l2 × τ

Strength of Butt Joints:-

The butt joints are designed for tension or compression. In case

of butt joint, the length of leg or size of weld is equal to the
throat thickness which is equal to thickness of plates.
Tensile strength of the butt joint (single-V or
square butt joint):-

P = t × l × σt

Where, l = Length of weld. It is generally equal to

the width of plate.

Tensile strength for double-V butt joint as shown

in Fig (b) is given by

P = (t1 + t2) l × σt

Where t1 = Throat thickness at the top

t2 = Throat thickness at the bottom.

Q) A plate 100 mm wide and 10 mm thick is to be welded to another plate by means of

double parallel fillets. The plates are subjected to a static load of 80 kN. Find the length of
weld if the permissible shear stress in the weld does not exceed 55 MPa.

Ans.:- Given: Width = 100 mm; Thickness = 10 mm; P = 80 KN = 80 × 1000N;

τ = 55 MPa = 55 N/mm2 Let L=Length of weld, and s = Size of weld = Plate thickness = 10 mm

We know that maximum load which the plates can carry for double parallel fillet weld

P= 80 × 1000 = 1.414 × s × L × τ = 1.414 × 10 × L × 55 = 778 L

∴ L= 80000 / 778 = 103 mm

Q) A plate 100 mm wide and 12.5 mm thick is to be welded to another plate by means of
double parallel fillet welds. The plates are subjected to a static load of 50 kN. Find the length
of the weld so that the maximum stress does not exceed 56 MPa.

Ans: - Given: Width = 100 mm; Thickness = 12.5 mm; P = 50 KN = 50 × 1000N;

τ = 56 MPa = 56 N/mm2 Length of weld for static loading

Let L = Length of weld, and

s = Size of weld = Plate thickness = 12.5 mm ... (Given)

We know that the maximum load which the plates can carry for double parallel fillet welds

P=50 × 1000=1.414 s × L × τ= 1.414 × 12.5 × L× 56 = 990 L

∴ L = 50000/ 990 = 50.5 mm

2.3 State advantages of welded joints over other joints:-

Advantages:-

1. The welded structures are usually lighter than riveted structures.

2. The welded joints provide maximum efficiency (may be 100%) which is not possible in case
of riveted joints.

3. Alterations and additions can be easily made in the existing structures.

4. As the welded structure is smooth in appearance, therefore it looks pleasing.

5. A welded joint has a great strength. Often a welded joint has the strength of the parent
metal itself.

6. Sometimes, the members are of such a shape (i.e. circular steel pipes) that they afford
difficulty for riveting. But they can be easily welded.

7. It is possible to weld any part of a structure at any point. But riveting requires enough
clearance.

8. The process of welding takes less time than the riveting.

Disadvantages:-

1. Since there is an uneven heating and cooling during fabrication, therefore the members
may get distorted or additional stresses may develop.

2. It requires a highly skilled labour and supervision.

3. Since no provision is kept for expansion and contraction in the frame, therefore there is a
possibility of cracks developing in it.

4. The inspection of welding work is more difficult than riveting work.

2.4 Design of welded joints for eccentric loads: - An eccentric load may be imposed on
welded joints in many ways. The stresses induced on the joint may be of different nature or
of the same nature. The induced stresses are combined depending upon the nature of
stresses. When the shear and bending stresses are simultaneously present in a joint (case 1),
then maximum stresses are as follows
 CASE-1:-

(Eccentrically loaded welded joint)

Consider a T-joint fixed at one end and subjected to an eccentric load P at a distance e as
shown in Figure

Let P = Eccentric load,

e = Eccentricity i.e. perpendicular distance between the line of action of load and centre of
gravity (G) of the throat section or fillets,
s = Size of weld, l = Length of weld, and t = Throat thickness.

The joint will be subjected to the following two types of stresses:

1. Direct shear stress due to the shear force P acting at the welds, and

2. Bending stress due to the bending moment P × e.

We know that area at the throat,

A = Throat thickness × Length of weld = t × l × 2

= 2 t × l ... (For double fillet weld) = 2 × 0.707 s × l = 1.414 s × l ... ( t = s cos 45° = 0.707 s)
CASE-2:-

When a welded joint is loaded eccentrically as shown in Figure the following two types of the
stresses are induced:
1. Direct or primary shear stress, and
2. Shear stress due to turning moment.
Let P = Eccentric load,
e = Eccentricity i.e. perpendicular distance
between the line of action of load and centre of
gravity (G) of the throat section or fillets,
l = Length of single weld,
s = Size or leg of weld, and
t = Throat thickness.
Let two loads P1 and P2 (each equal to P) are introduced at the centre of gravity ‘G' of the
weld system. The effect of load P1 = P is to produce direct shear stress which is assumed to
be uniform over the entire weld length. The effect of load P2 = P is to produce a turning

moment of magnitude P × e which tends of rotate the joint about the centre of gravity ‘G' of
the weld system. Due to the turning moment, secondary shear stress is induced.
We know that the direct or primary shear stress

Since the shear stress produced due to the turning moment (T = P × e) at any section is
proportional to its radial distance from G, therefore stress due to P × e at the point A is
proportional to AG (r2) and is in a direction at right angles to AG. Consider a section dA which
is at a distance r from G. So stress at dA is proportional to r.
In order to find the resultant stress, the primary and secondary shear stresses are combined
∴ Resultant shear stress at A,
Q.A welded joint as shown in Figure, is subjected to an eccentric load of 2 kN. Find the size
of weld, if the maximum shear stress in the weld is 25 MPa.
Ans.:- Given: P = 2kN = 2000 N; e = 120 mm;
l = 40 mm; 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 25 MPa = 25 N/mm^2
Let s = Size of weld in mm, and
t = Throat thickness.
The joint, as shown in Figure, will be subjected to direct shear stress due to the shear force,
P = 2000 N and bending stress due to the bending moment of P × e.
We know that area at the throat,
A = 2t × l = 2 × 0.707 s × l = 1.414 s ×l = 1.414 s × 40 = 56.56 × s mm^2
Q.A 50 mm diameter solid shaft is welded to a flat plate as shown in Figure If the size of the
weld is 15 mm, find the maximum normal and shear stress in the weld.
Ans.:- Given: D = 50 mm; s = 15 mm; P = 10 kN = 10 000 N; e = 200 mm
Let t = Throat thickness.
The joint, as shown in Figure, is subjected to direct shear stress and the bending stress. We
know that the throat area for a circular fillet weld,

(Refer table no. 10.7 in R.S KHURMI book)

We know that maximum normal stress,

(Ans)

2.5 State types of riveted joints and types of rivets:-

Rivet & Application of rivet:-
 A rivet is a short cylindrical bar with a head integral to it. The
cylindrical portion of the rivet is called shank or body and lower
portion of shank is known as tail.
 The rivets are used to make permanent fastening between the
plates such as in structural work, ship building, bridges, tanks
and boiler shells.
METHODS OF RIVETING:-

 The function of rivets in a joint is to make a connection that has strength and tightness.
The strength is necessary to prevent failure of the joint. The tightness is necessary in
order to prevent leakage.
 The plates are drilled together and then separated to remove any burrs or chips so as
to have a tight joint between the plates.
 A cold rivet or a red hot rivet is introduced into the plates and the point (i.e. second
head) is then formed. When a cold rivet is used, the process is known as cold riveting
and when a hot rivet is used, the process is known as hot riveting.
 The riveting may be done by hand or by a riveting machine. In hand riveting, the
original rivet head is backed up by a hammer or heavy bar and then the die or set is
placed against the end to be headed and the blows are applied by a hammer. This
causes the shank to expand thus filling the hole and the tail is converted into a point.
 In machine riveting, the die is a part of the hammer which is operated by air, hydraulic
or steam pressure.

Material of Rivets:-
The material of the rivets must be tough and ductile. They are usually made of steel (low
carbon steel or nickel steel), brass, aluminium or copper.

Types of riveted joints:-

Following are the two types of riveted joints, depending upon the way in which the plates are
connected.

1. Lap joint, and 2. Butt joint.

Lap Joint: - A lap joint is that in which one plate overlaps the other and the two plates are
then riveted together.
Depending upon the number of rows of the rivets lap joints are of following types:-
1. Single riveted lap joint, and 2. Double riveted lap joint.
  In a single riveted lap joint Plates are held together by one row of rivets.
 A double riveted lap joint is that in which plates are held together by two rows of
rivets.
 Joints may be triple riveted or quadruple riveted.
 In double and triple riveted lap joints, the rivets can be arranged either in chain
pattern or zig-zag pattern.
 When the rivets in the various rows are opposite to each other, then the joint is said
to be chain riveted.
 If the rivets in the adjacent rows are arranged in such a way that every rivet is in the
middle of the two rivets of the opposite row then the joint is said to be zig-zag riveted.

(Triple riveted lap joint)

Butt Joint: - A butt joint is that in which the main plates are kept in alignment butting (i.e.
touching) each other and a cover plate (i.e. strap) is placed either on one side or on both sides
of the main plates. The cover plate is then riveted together with the main plates.
Following are the types of butt joints depending upon the number of rows of the rivets.
1. Single riveted butt joint and 2. Double riveted butt joint.

 A single riveted butt joint is that in which there is a single row of rivets on each side in
a butt joint.
 A double riveted butt joint is that in which there are two rows of rivets on each side
in a butt joint.
Butt joints are of the following two types on the basis of cover plates (straps):-
1. Single strap butt joint, and 2. Double strap butt joint.

 In a single strap butt joint, the edges of the main plates butt against each other and
only one cover plate is placed on one side of the main plates and then riveted
together.
 In a double strap butt joint, the edges of the main plates butt against each other and
two cover plates are placed on both sides of the main plates and then riveted together.

(Single riveted double strap butt joint)

(Double riveted double strap butt joint)

Important Terms Used in Riveted Joints:-

1. Pitch: - It is the distance from the centre of one rivet to the centre of the next rivet in the
same row. It is usually denoted by p.
2. Back pitch: - It is the perpendicular distance between the centre lines of the successive
rows of rivets. It is usually denoted by Pb. It is also known as transverse pitch or row pitch.
3. Diagonal pitch: - It is the distance between the centres of the rivets in adjacent rows of zig-
zag riveted joint. It is usually denoted by Pd.
4. Margin or marginal pitch: - It is the distance between the centre of rivet hole to the nearest
edge of the plate. It is usually denoted by m.

Types of rivets:-
Rivets are classified on the basis of their heads. Such
as:-
Snap head rivet, Pan head rivet, Counter sunk head
rivet, Flat head rivet, Half counter sunk head rivet

 Snap head or the button head rivets are used in

boilers, pressure vessels.
  Pan head rivets are also known as cone head rivets. They are used in boilers & mainly
suited for corrosive atmosphere.
 Counter sunk head rivets are used in structural work & ships.
 In flat head rivet the height of the protruding head is less than that of snap head &
pan head rivets. They are used in light sheet metal work such as manufacture of
buckets, steel boxes.
 Half counter sunk head rivet is the combination of snap head & counter sunk head
rivets. It is used for joining steel plates up to 4 mm thickness.

2.6 Describe failure of riveted joints:-

A riveted joint may fail in the following ways :-

1. Tearing of the plate at an edge:-A joint may fail due to tearing of

the plate at an edge as shown in figure. This can be avoided by
keeping the margin, m = 1.5d, where d is the diameter of the rivet
hole.
2. Tearing of the plate across a row of rivets: - Due to the tensile
stresses in the main plates, the main plate or cover plates may tear off across a row of rivets
as shown in figure In such cases, we consider only one pitch length of the plate, since every
rivet is responsible for that much length of the plate only. The resistance offered by the plate
against tearing is known as tearing resistance or tearing strength or tearing value of the plate.
Let p = Pitch of the rivets,
d = Diameter of the rivet hole,
t = Thickness of the plate, and
σt = Permissible tensile stress for the plate material.

We know that tearing area per pitch length,

At = (p – d) t
∴ Tearing resistance or pull required to tear off the plate per pitch length,
Pt = At.σt = (p – d) t.σt
When the tearing resistance (Pt) is greater than the applied load (P) per pitch length, then this
type of failure will not occur.
3. Shearing of the rivets: - The plates which are connected by the rivets exert tensile stress
on the rivets, and if the rivets are unable to resist the stress, they are sheared off as shown in
figure.
It may be noted that the rivets are in single shear in a lap joint and in a single cover butt joint.
But the rivets are in double shear in a double cover butt joint.
(When the shearing takes place at one cross-
section of the rivet, then the rivets are said to be
in single shear. Similarly, when the shearing
takes place at two cross-sections of the rivet,
then the rivets are said to be in double shear.)
The resistance offered by a rivet to be sheared
off is known as shearing resistance or shearing
strength or shearing value of the rivet.

Let d = Diameter of the rivet hole,

τ = Safe permissible shear stress for the rivet
material, and
n = Number of rivets per pitch length.
We know that shearing area,

When the shearing resistance (Ps) is greater than the applied load (P) per pitch length, then
this type of failure will occur.
4. Crushing of the plate or rivets:-This type of failure occurs when the compressive stress
between the shank of the rivet and the plate exceeds the yield stress in compression. The
failure results in elongating the rivet hole in the plate and loosening of the joint. Due to this,
the rivet hole becomes of an oval shape.
The resistance offered by a rivet to be crushed is known as crushing resistance or crushing
strength or bearing value of the rivet.
Let d = Diameter of the rivet hole,
t = Thickness of the plate,
σc = Safe permissible crushing stress for the rivet
or plate material, and
n = Number of rivets per pitch length under
crushing.
We know that crushing area per rivet:-
Ac = d.t

∴ Total crushing area = n.d.t

And crushing resistance or pull required to crush
the rivet per pitch length,
Pc = n.d.t.σc
When the crushing resistance (Pc) is greater than the applied load (P) per pitch length, then
this type of failure will occur.
2.7 Determine strength & efficiency of riveted joints:-
Strength of a Riveted Joint:-
The strength of a joint may be defined as the force that the joint can withstand, without
causing failure. Pt, Ps and Pc are the pulls required to tear off the plate, shearing off the rivet
and crushing off the rivet. If we go on increasing the pull on a riveted joint, it will fail when
the least of these three pulls is reached. So strength of the riveted joint is the least of Pt, Ps,
and Pc.
Efficiency of a Riveted Joint:-
The efficiency of a riveted joint is defined as the ratio of the strength of riveted joint to the
strength of the un-
riveted or solid plate.

Q. A double riveted lap joint is made between 15 mm thick plates. The rivet diameter and
pitch are 25 mm and 75 mm respectively. If the ultimate stresses are 400 MPa in tension,
320 MPa in shear and 640 MPa in crushing, find the minimum force per pitch which will
rupture the joint.
If the above joint is subjected to a load such that the factor of safety is 4, find out the actual
stresses developed in the plates and the rivets.
Ans.:- Given : t = 15 mm ; d = 25 mm ; p = 75 mm ; σtu = 400 MPa = 400 N/mm2 ;
τu = 320 MPa = 320 N/mm2 ; σcu = 640 MPa = 640 N/mm2

Minimum force per pitch which will rupture the joint:-

Since the ultimate stresses are given, therefore we shall find the ultimate values of the resistances of
the joint. We know that ultimate tearing resistance of the plate per pitch,

Ultimate shearing resistance of the rivets per pitch,

and ultimate crushing resistance of the rivets per pitch,

From above we see that the minimum force per pitch which will rupture the joint is 300 000
N or 300 kN.(Ans)

Actual stresses produced in the plates and rivets:-

Since the factor of safety is 4, therefore safe load per pitch length of the joint = 300 000/4 =
75 000 N
Let σta, τa and σca be the actual tearing, shearing and crushing stresses produced with a safe
load of 75 000 N in tearing, shearing and crushing .

Q. Find the efficiency of the following riveted joints:

1. Single riveted lap joint of 6 mm plates with 20 mm diameter rivets having a pitch of 50
mm.
2. Double riveted lap joint of 6 mm plates with 20 mm diameter rivets having a pitch of
65mm.
Assume
Permissible tensile stress in plate = 120 MPa
Permissible shearing stress in rivets = 90 MPa

Permissible crushing stress in rivets = 180 MPa

Ans.:- Given: t = 6 mm; d = 20 mm; σt = 120 MPa = 120 N/mm2; τ = 90 MPa = 90 N/mm2;
σc = 180 MPa = 180 N/mm2
1. Efficiency of the first joint:-
Pitch (p) =50mm

(i) Tearing resistance of the plate:-

We know that the tearing resistance of the plate per pitch length,
Pt = (p – d) t × σt = (50 – 20) 6 × 120 = 21 600 N
(ii) Shearing resistance of the rivet:-
Since the joint is a single riveted lap joint, therefore the strength of one rivet in single shear
is taken.

(iii) Crushing resistance of the rivet:-

Since the joint is a single riveted, therefore strength of one rivet is taken.
Pc = d × t × σc = 20 × 6 × 180 = 21 600 N
∴ Strength of the joint

= Least of Pt, Ps and Pc = 21 600 N

We know that strength of the unriveted or solid plate,
P = p × t × σt = 50 × 6 × 120 = 36 000 N
∴ Efficiency of the joint:-

2. Efficiency of the second joint:-

Pitch (p) =65mm
(i) Tearing resistance of the plate:-
Pt = (p – d) t × σt = (65 – 20) 6 × 120 = 32 400 N
(ii) Shearing resistance of the rivets:-
Since the joint is double riveted lap joint, therefore strength of two rivets in single shear is
taken.

(iii) Crushing resistance of the rivet:-

Since the joint is double riveted, therefore strength of two rivets is taken.
Pc = n × d × t × σc = 2 × 20 × 6 × 180 = 43 200 N
∴ Strength of the joint = Least of Pt, Ps and Pc = 32 400 N
We know that the strength of the unriveted or solid plate,

P = p × t × σt = 65 × 6 × 120 = 46 800 N
∴ Efficiency of the joint:-

Q. A double riveted double cover butt joint in plates 20 mm thick is made with 25 mm
diameter rivets at 100 mm pitch. The permissible stresses are:

σt = 120 MPa; τ = 100 MPa; σc = 150 MPa

Find the efficiency of joint, taking the strength of the rivet in double shear as twice than
that of single shear.
Ans: - Given: t = 20 mm; d = 25 mm; p = 100 mm; σt = 120 MPa = 120 N/mm2;
τ = 100 MPa = 100 N/mm2; σc = 150 MPa = 150 N/mm2
(i) Tearing resistance of the plate:-
Pt = (p – d) t × σt = (100 – 25) 20 × 120 = 180 000 N

(ii) Shearing resistance of the rivets:-

Since the joint is double riveted butt joint, therefore the strength of two rivets in double shear
is taken.

(iii) Crushing resistance of the rivets:-

Since the joint is double riveted, therefore the strength of two rivets is taken.

Pc = n × d × t × σc = 2 × 25 × 20 × 150 = 150 000 N

∴ Strength of the joint
= Least of Pt, Ps and Pc
= 150 000 N

We know that the strength of the unriveted or solid plate,

P = p × t × σt = 100 × 20 × 120 = 240 000 N
∴ Efficiency of the joint:-

= 0.625 or 62.5% (Ans)

2.8 Design riveted joints for pressure vessel:-

 Boiler & pressure vessels are cylindrical vessels &
they are subjected to circumferential tensile stress
and longitudinal tensile stress.
 The pressure vessel has a longitudinal joint as well as
circumferential joint.
 The longitudinal joint is used to join the ends of the
plate to get the required diameter of a boiler. For this
purpose, a butt joint with two cover plates is used.
 Circumferential joint is used to get the required
length of the boiler. For this purpose, a lap joint with
one ring overlapping the other alternately is used.

Assumptions in Designing Boiler Joints:-

The following assumptions are made while designing a joint for boilers:-
1. The load on the joint is equally shared by all the rivets.
2. The tensile stress is equally distributed over the section of metal between the rivets.
3. The shearing stress in all the rivets is uniform.

4. The crushing stress is uniform.

5. There is no bending stress in the rivets.
6. The holes into which the rivets are driven do not weaken the member.
7. The rivet fills the hole after it is driven.
8. The friction between the surfaces of the plate is neglected.
Design of Longitudinal Butt Joint for a Boiler:-

1. Thickness of boiler shell:-

2. Diameter of rivets:-
After finding out the thickness of the boiler shell (t), the diameter of the rivet hole (d) may be
determined by using Unwin's empirical formula, i.e.

But if the thickness of plate is less than 8 mm, then the diameter of the rivet hole may be
calculated by equating the shearing resistance of the rivets to crushing resistance.
3. Pitch of rivets:-
The pitch of the rivets is obtained by equating the tearing resistance of the plate to the
shearing resistance of the rivets.
Pt = (p – d) t × σt =

Here p is the optimum pitch.

(a) The pitch of the rivets should not be less than 2d.
(b) The maximum value of the pitch of rivets for a longitudinal joint:-

t = Thickness of the shell plate and

C = Constant.
If optimum pitch is more than maximum pitch then maximum pitch is considered as the pitch
of the rivet.
4. Distance between the rows of rivets:-
The distance between the rows of rivets (pb) should not be less than 0.33 p + 0.67 d, for
Zig-zig riveting, and 2 d, for chain riveting.
5. Thickness of butt strap:-
t1 = 0.625 t, for double butt-straps of equal width
For unequal width of butt straps, the thicknesses of butt strap are

t1 = 0.75 t, for wide strap on the inside, and

t2 = 0.625 t, for narrow strap on the outside
6. Margin: - The margin (m) is taken as 1.5 d.

Design of Circumferential Lap Joint for a Boiler:-

1. Thickness of the shell and diameter of rivets:-

But if the thickness of plate is less than 8 mm, then the diameter of the rivet hole may be
calculated by equating the shearing resistance of the rivets to crushing resistance.
3. Pitch of rivets:-
The pitch of the rivets is obtained by equating the tearing resistance of the plate to the
shearing resistance of the rivets

The maximum value of the pitch of rivets for a longitudinal joint:-

t = Thickness of the shell plate and

C = Constant.
If optimum pitch is more than maximum pitch then maximum pitch is considered as the pitch
of the rivet.
4. Number of rivets: - Since it is a lap joint, therefore the rivets will be in single shear.
∴ Shearing resistance of the rivets

Where n = Total number of rivets.

Knowing the inner diameter of the boiler shell (D), and the pressure of steam (P), the total
Shearing load acting on the circumferential joint,

Now, Ps = Ws

5. Number of rows: - The number of rows of rivets for the circumferential joint may be
obtained from the following relation:-

And the number of rivets in one row

Where D = Inner diameter of shell.

6. Distance between the rows of rivets:-

The distance between the rows of rivets (pb) should not be less than 0.33 p + 0.67 d, for
Zig-zig riveting, and 2 d, for chain riveting.
7. Margin: - The margin (m) is taken as 1.5 d.
8. Overlap = (No. of rows of rivets – 1) pb + m
Where m = Margin.
Q. Design a double riveted butt joint with two cover plates for the longitudinal seam of a
boiler shell 1.5 m in diameter subjected to a steam pressure of 0.95 N/mm2. Assume joint
efficiency as 75%, allowable tensile stress in the plate 90 MPa; compressive stress 140 MPa;
and shear stress in the rivet 56 MPa. (C=3.50).Take double shear is 1.875 times single shear.
Consider the rivets are arranged in zig zag manner.
Ans:-Given: D = 1.5 m = 1500 mm; P = 0.95 N/mm2; ηl = 75% = 0.75; σt = 90 MPa
= 90 N/mm2; σc = 140 MPa = 140 N/mm2; τ = 56 MPa = 56 N/mm2; C=3.5

1) Thickness of boiler shell plate:-

2) Diameter of rivet:-
Since the thickness of the plate is greater than 8 mm, therefore the diameter of the rivet hole,

= 21 mm
3) Pitch of rivets:-
Let p = Pitch of rivets.
The pitch of the rivets is obtained by equating the tearing resistance of the plate to the
shearing resistance of the rivets.
Pt = (p – d) t × σt = (p – 21)12 × 90 = 1080 (p – 21) N

Pt = Ps

1080 (p – 21) = 72 745

∴ p – 21 = 72 745 / 1080 = 67.35 or p = 67.35 + 21 = 88.35mm
pmax = C × t + 41.28 mm
From Table 9.5, we find that for a double riveted double strap butt joint and two rivets per
pitch length, the value of C is 3.50.
∴ pmax = 3.5 × 12 + 41.28 = 83.28 say 84 mm
Since the value of p is more than pmax, therefore we shall adopt pitch of the rivets,

p = pmax = 84 mm
4. Distance between rows of rivets:-
Assuming zig-zag riveting, the distance between the rows of the rivets
pb = 0.33 p + 0.67 d = 0.33 × 84 + 0.67 × 21 = 41.8 say 42 mm
5. Thickness of cover plates:-
The thickness of each cover plate of equal width is

t1 = 0.625 t = 0.625 × 12 = 7.5 mm

6. Margin:-
We know that the margin,
m = 1.5 d = 1.5 × 21 = 31.5 say 32 mm
Let us now find the efficiency for the designed joint.

Tearing resistance of the plate:-

Pt = (p – d) t × σt = (84 – 21)12 × 90 = 68 040 N
Shearing resistance of the rivets:-

Crushing resistance of the rivets,

Pc = n × d × t × σc = 2 × 21 × 12 × 140 = 70 560 N
Since the strength of riveted joint is the least value of Pt, Ps or Pc, therefore strength of the
riveted joint,

Pt = 68 040 N
We know that strength of the un-riveted plate,
P = p × t × σt = 84 × 12 × 90 = 90 720 N
∴ Efficiency of the designed joint,

Since the efficiency of the designed joint is equal to the given efficiency of 75%, therefore the
design is satisfactory.
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