DESIGN PROCESS

The Design Process is the most important to understand computer aided design
effectively. Thus one should first understand the design process. The design process is an
iterative process which checks the suitability of the design again and again. The design
process explained here is described by shigley.

Design Process as Explained by Shigley

A. Recognition of Need: Recognition of need involves the realization by

someone that a problem exists for which some feasible solution is to be found. This might
be the identification of some defect in a current machine design activity by an engineer or
the perception of a new product marketing opportunity by a salesman.

B. Definition of Problem: Definition of problem involves a through

specification of the item to be designed. This specification will generally include functional
and physical characteristics, cost, quality, performance, etc.
 C. Synthesis: During the synthesis phase of the design process various
preliminary ideas are developed through research of similar product or design in use.

D. Analysis and Optimization: The resulting preliminary design is then

subjected to appropriate analysis to determine their suitability for the specified design
constraint. If this design fails to satisfy the constraints, they are redesigned or modified on
the basis of the feedback from the analysis. This iterative process is repeated until the
proposed design meets the specification or until the designer is convinced that the design
is not feasible.

E. Evaluation: The assessment or evaluation of the design against the

specification established during the problem definition phase is then carried out. This often
requires the fabrication and testing of a prototype model to evaluate operating performance
quality, reliability, etc.

F. Presentation: The final phase of design process is the presentation of the

design. This include the documentation of the design through drawing, material
specification, assembly lists and so on.

Properties of Engineering Materials

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

• Specific Gravity-defined as the weight of a given volume of a material as

compared to the wt of an given volume of water it is measured at atemperature of
60 deg F(15.5 deg C)

• Specific Heat-heat required to raise the temperature of unit wt of material by

one degree.

• Fusibility & Fluidity-the property of a material where it tends to melt and flows
when heat is applied.

• Weldability-ability of uniting two pieces of metal by applying pressure or heat

or both.
 • Elasticity-property due to which a metal regains its original dimension on
removal of load.

• Plasticity-beyon elastic limit the material is unable to regain its original shape
and retains to its moulded shape.this property is called plasticity.

• Porosity-materials in their plastic or molten state contain some dissolved gasses

which are evaporated once they are setformin gas holes and pores.this property is
know as porosity.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

• Strength-ability of a material to reisit the application of load without rupture.

• Hardness-ability of a material to resist penetration or scratching.

• Hardenability-ability of a material to be hardened by heat treat ment.

• Toughness-property of a material where it can absorb energy before actual

fracture.

• Brittleness-ability oa material to fracture on recieving shock or blow

• Malleability-ability oa material to be hammered into thin sheets.

• Ductility-ability of a material to be drawn into wires.

• Creep & Slip-ability of a material to flow like a viscous liqwuid under the
application of stress nd temperature is called creep.the phenomenon where
deformation stops even if the load is acting.

• Fatigue-

• Resilience-property of a material to absorb energy within elastic range.this

required for springing action.

THERMAL PROPERTIES
Conductivity-ability of a material to conduct heat from a hot end to cold end. silver and
copper are good conductors of heat.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES-

Conductivity-ability of a material to conduct electricity from one end to another.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

Ability of material to act as a magnet and attract materials like iron,steel,nickel etc..

MATERIAL SELECTION
No two materials have the same properties and the choice is usually decided by the best
possible combination of material properties and economical factors which necessitates an
optimum solution. Material selection task requires a through and scientific approach and
the following major aspects need to be satisfied:
a) Functional properties: The correct combination of mechanical, physical and chemical
properties to meet the function and operating conditions of the component.
b) Manufacturing properties: Processing or fabrication properties of the material for the
conversion processes needed to convert the material into required shape, such as ease of
casting, forming, joining, and machining.
c) Economics: Cost of the material as well as cost of processing the material into
required shape. As part of overall economics, both availability and recycling aspect
should also be taken into account.
A table containing Relative cost data for common materials is given here.
Material selection involves a complex interaction between component function, material,
process, component shape and costs. Those who select materials should at least have a
broad and basic understanding of properties of materials and their processing
characteristics. The function of the component must be clearly defined in order that the
required mechanical properties may be identified. An ideal list of requirements may be
easy to arrive at, but a material and process to satisfy all of these requirements is unlikely
to exist and an appropriate compromise must be found. It is, therefore, important to
distinguish essential properties from desirable properties, those that can be compromised
in order to achieve the essential properties. Material properties are often quoted
independent of shape but in some circumstances geometry can influence the response of a
component with respect to stiffness and strength, to a considerable degree.
 An additional factor in selecting a material for a particular component is consideration of
the manufacturing process. A process must be found that is capable of making the
component shape, with the correct accuracy, and with an acceptable cost. In reality, both
material and process selection must be considered simultaneously since not all materials
are compatible with every process. For example, steel, nickel and titanium cannot be die
cast, ceramic materials cannot be machined using conventional techniques and the
complexity of component shape limits the process choice further.
It is also important that both the material and processes used must be controlled during
manufacture. For example, an incoming stock of raw material, which shows variations in
composition and microstructure, cannot be heat treated and machined easily. A sheet
metal showing variations in its cold worked condition will exhibit differences in ‘spring
back’ characteristics during forming. A cast component may show inclusions and
porosity unless melting operation, mould filling and solidification of the casting are
controlled. The final functional or mechanical properties of a component, to a large
extent, depend on the degree of control it receives during its processing.
Material property data is widely available in various published form including material
handbooks, reference books, publications of many technical societies, etc., however, a
speedy access to right information may not always be possible. Tools have been
developed to assist in identifying the best material choice for a given set of requirements.
These include for example, material comparison charts, which contain plots of one
property against another.

FACTOR OF SAFTEY AND ALLOWABLE STRESS

In designing a shaft, it is essential to guarantee sufficient reserve strength left on it in case of
an accident. It must be assumed that the shaft would be subjected to extremely high load under
unforeseeable situations while it is performing. Taking a suitable factor of safety (fs) can
ensure this. The factor of safety is defined as

The allowable stress is the one, which is used in design calculations to determine the
dimensions of shaft. It is considered as a stress, which the designer expects will not be
exceeded under normal operating conditions. For ductile materials, the failure stress is limited
to the yield stress or yield strength (Syt); and the allowable stress (σ) is
For brittle materials, the failure stress is limited to the ultimate tensile stress (Sut); and the
allowable stress is
Fatigue stress
Conditions often arise in machines and mechanisms when stresses fluctuate between a
upper and a lower limit. For example in figure-3.3.1.1, the fiber on the surface of a
rotating shaft subjected to a bending load, undergoes both tension and compression for
each revolution of the shaft

Stresses developed in a rotating shaft subjected to a bending load. Any fiber on the
shaft is therefore subjected to fluctuating stresses. Machine elements subjected to
fluctuating stresses usually fail at stress levels much below their ultimate strength
and in many cases below the yield point of the material too. These failures occur
due to very large number of stress cycle and are known as fatigue failure. These
failures usually begin with a small crack
which may develop at the points of discontinuity, an existing subsurface crack or
surface faults. Once a crack is developed it propagates with the increase in stress
cycle finally leading to failure of the component by fracture. There are mainly two
characteristics of this kind of failures:
(a) Progressive development of crack.
(b) Sudden fracture without any warning since yielding is practically absent.

Fatigue failures are influenced by

(i) Nature and magnitude of the stress cycle.
(ii) Endurance limit.
(iii) Stress concentration.
(iv) Surface characteristics.

These factors are therefore interdependent. For example, by grinding and

polishing, case hardening or coating a surface, the endurance limit may be
improved. For machined steel endurance limit is approximately half the
ultimate tensile stress. The influence of such parameters on fatigue failures will
now be discussed in sequence.
Stress cycle
A typical stress cycle is shown in figure- 3.3.2.1 where the maximum, minimum, mean
and variable stresses are indicated. The mean and variable stresses are given by

Endurance limit Figure- 3.3.3.1 shows the rotating beam arrangement along with the
specimen.

The loading is such that there is a constant bending moment over the specimen length and
the bending stress is greatest at the center where the section is smallest. The arrangement
gives pure bending and avoids transverse shear since bending moment is constant over
the length. Large number of tests with varying bending loads are carried out to find the
number of cycles to fail. A typical plot of reversed stress (S) against number of cycles to
fail (N) is shown in figure3.3.3.2. The zone below 103 cycles is considered as low cycle
fatigue, zone between 103 and 106 cycles is high cycle fatigue with finite life and beyond
106 cycles, the zone is considered to be high cycle fatigue with infinite life.

For non-ferrous metals there is no knee in the curve as shown in figure- 3.3.3.3 indicating
that there is no specified transition from finite to infinite life

SN curve for nonferrous materials showing there is no endurance limit

Surface characteristics

Fatigue cracks can start at all forms of surface discontinuity and this may include surface
imperfections due to machining marks also. Surface roughness is therefore an important
factor and it is found that fatigue strength for a regular surface is relatively low since the
surface undulations would act as stress raisers.
It is, however, impractical to produce very smooth surfaces at a higher machining cost.
Another important surface effect is due to the surface layers which may be extremely thin
and stressed either in tension or in compression. For example, grinding process often
leaves surface layers highly stressed in tension. Since fatigue cracks are due to tensile
stress and they propagate under these conditions and the formation of layers stressed in
tension must be avoided. There are several methods of introducing pre-stressed surface
layer in compression and they include shot blasting, peening, tumbling or cold working
by rolling. Carburized and nitrided parts also have a compressive layer which imparts
fatigue strength to such components. Many coating techniques have evolved to remedy
the surface effects in fatigue strength reductions.

Creep
• It is a time- dependent deformation under a certain applied load.
• Generally occurs at high temperature (thermal creep), but can also happen at room
temperature in certain materials (e.g. lead or glass), albeit much slower.
• As a result, the material undergoes a time dependent increase in length, which could be
dangerous while in service.

The rate of deformation is called the creep rate. It is the slope of the line in a Creep Strain
vs. Time curve.
Creep Stages

• Primary Creep: starts at a rapid rate and slows with time.

• Secondary Creep: has a relatively uniform rate.
• Tertiary Creep: has an accelerated creep rate and terminates when the material breaks or
ruptures. It is associated with both necking and formation of grain boundary voids.

Design Considerations to avoid Creep

• Reduce the effect of grain boundaries:

• Use single crystal material with large grains.
• Addition of solid solutions to eliminate vacancies.
• Employ materials of high melting temperatures.
• Consult Creep Test Data during materials Selection
• Type of service application
• Set adequate inspection intervals according to life expectancy.