CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE DESIGN

1.1 What is Design?
"Design" is the process of turning unclear ideas or concepts into information that can be seen and
understood. This broad term includes many steps, such as ideation, invention, visualization, calculation,
improvement, and specification of details that determine the final shape of a product, whether it's real
or virtual.

A need, problem, idea, or concept is what starts the design process. It changes through careful decision-
making and creative iterations until it comes to a clear conclusion. This kind of information can come in
the form of drawings, computer models, or anything else that makes it easier to make and use the final
product. Effectively, design is the moving link between ideas and real-world implementation.

1.2 Phases of Design Process

Identification
of Need

Presentation Definition
of Problem

Design
Evaluation Synthesis

Analysis and
Optimization

Figure 1.1 Phases of Design Process

The design process is a systematic and iterative approach to solving problems and creating solutions.
While the phases may vary slightly depending on the specific field or industry, the following is a general
overview of the phases involved in the design process:

1. Identification of Need: Recognition of a problem or opportunity that prompts the design

process.
2. Definition of Problem: Clear articulation of the identified problem, including understanding
requirements and objectives.
3. Synthesis: Creative brainstorming and generation of ideas to address the defined problem, often
involving sketching and prototyping.
4. Analysis and Optimization: Evaluation and refinement of design concepts based on factors like
feasibility, functionality, cost, safety, and aesthetics.
5. Evaluation: Rigorous assessment of the designed solution against defined criteria, involving
testing and feedback for further refinement.
 6. Presentation: Communication of the final design solution through drawings, models, reports, or
other media to stakeholders, clients, or end-users.

1.3 Machine Design Process:

Definition: A machine is a combination of linkages with defined motion, capable of performing useful
work. Machine design involves creating plans for machines to perform desired functions.
Design Steps:

Figure 1.2 Design step for machine design process

1. Problem Statement: Clearly state the problem to be solved or the desired purpose of the
machine.
2. Mechanism Selection: Identify possible mechanisms that will provide the required motion or set
of motions.
3. Force and Energy Analysis: Determine the forces acting on each machine element and analyse
energy transmission.
4. Material Selection: Choose the best-suited material for each machine element based on
properties and requirements.
5. Stress and Deflection Criteria: Establish allowable stress and deflection values for each element,
considering material and function.
6. Size and Shape Determination: Determine the size and shape of each machine element to
withstand applied loads without failure.
7. Modification for Manufacturing: Modify dimensions of machine elements, considering
manufacturing aspects.
8. Assembly and Detailed Drawings: Create assembly and detailed drawings of the machine,
specifying materials and manufacturing methods.
 CHAPTER 2. ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Engineering materials refer to the substances or combinations of substances that are utilized in the
design, manufacturing, and construction of various engineering products and structures. These
materials are selected based on their mechanical, thermal, electrical, and chemical properties, as well
as their suitability for specific applications.

Types of material
 Ductile material
 Brittle material

2.1 Ductile Material: A ductile material is one that can undergo significant plastic deformation
before fracturing or rupturing. It exhibits the ability to stretch and deform under tensile stress without
breaking.
Characteristics:

 Plastic Deformation: Can undergo substantial plastic deformation.

 Yielding Behaviour: Often exhibits a distinct yield point on the stress-strain curve.
 Necking: Shows localized reduction in cross-sectional area before fracture.
 Energy Absorption: Can absorb energy through plastic deformation.
 Toughness: Generally associated with high toughness.
 Work Hardening: May experience increased strength during plastic deformation.
 Drawing and Forming: Well-suited for processes involving shaping and stretching.
Examples: Common examples include metals like steel, aluminium, copper, and gold.

2.2 Brittle Material: A brittle material is one that fractures or breaks with little or no plastic
deformation. It lacks the ability to undergo significant stretching or deformation before failure.
Characteristics:

 Limited Plastic Deformation: Undergoes minimal plastic deformation before fracture.

 Lack of Yield Point: Often lacks a distinct yield point on the stress-strain curve.
 Sudden Fracture: Fractures suddenly without warning, often with little deformation.
 Limited Energy Absorption: Does not absorb much energy before failure.
 Low Toughness: Generally associated with low toughness.
 Absence of Work Hardening: Typically, does not exhibit work hardening.
 Challenging Forming: Not well-suited for processes requiring extensive shaping or stretching.
Examples: Common examples include ceramics, glass, and some polymers.
Comparison between ductile and brittle material:

1. Ductile materials are known for their ability to deform plastically and absorb energy, making
them suitable for applications where toughness and deformation capacity are crucial.
2. Brittle materials, on the other hand, are more prone to sudden fracture without warning, which
can be undesirable in applications where deformation and energy absorption are needed.
 3. The distinction between ductile and brittle behaviour is often observed through the analysis of
stress-strain curves during tensile testing, where the material's response to applied stress
provides insights into its mechanical properties and behaviour.

2.3 Material Selection in Machine Design:

Material selection is a crucial step in machine design, influencing the performance and durability of the
final product.
Aspects Considered:
1. Performance Requirements: Select materials based on the specific performance criteria and
functional demands of the machine.
2. Material Properties: Consider the inherent properties of materials, such as strength, hardness,
toughness, and corrosion resistance, to ensure suitability for the application.
3. Manufacturing Aspects: Evaluate the ease of manufacturing, processing, and shaping the
material into the desired machine components.
4. Availability & Cost: Consider the availability of the chosen material and its cost to ensure
feasibility within budget constraints.

2.4 Stress-Strain Curve

2.4.1 For Ductile Material
In the process of conducting a tensile test, a standard specimen, as illustrated in Figure 2.1, undergoes
a systematic application of gradually increasing axial tensile force. Prior to commencing the test, a
predetermined gauge length is marked on the specimen, and initial measurements, including the initial
diameter (d0) and gauge length (l0), are recorded. The axial tensile load is incrementally applied to the
specimen until it ultimately fractures. Throughout this procedure, both load and deformation values are
meticulously measured, allowing for the calculation of stress (Force/Area) and strain
(Deformation/Original Length) at each stage. Subsequently, this compiled data is graphically
represented in the form of a stress-strain curve. A representative Stress-Strain curve for a ductile
material is exemplified in Figure 2.2. This graphical depiction serves as a valuable tool, offering insights
into various mechanical properties, such as the proportional limit, modulus of elasticity, yield strength,
ultimate tensile strength, and other crucial aspects of the material's behaviour under tension.

Figure 2.1 Standard specimen of tensile test

 Figure 2.2 Stress- Strain curve for Ductile material

1. Proportional Limit (OA): The Proportional Limit (OA) denotes the stage on the stress-strain
curve where the relationship between stress and strain adheres to Hook’s Law, displaying a linear
behaviour up to point A within the region OA. At the Proportional Limit (OA), the stress marks the
threshold at which the stress-strain curve initiates deviation from the linear pattern, indicating the onset
of non-linear deformation in the material. This shift signifies the material's transition from purely elastic
behaviour to a state involving both elastic and plastic deformation.

2. Modulus of Elasticity: The Modulus of Elasticity is calculated as the ratio of stress to strain
up to point A and is represented by the slope of the line OA on the stress-strain curve. This modulus,
typically denoted as E, characterizes the material's ability to deform elastically in response to applied
stress. A steeper slope of line OA signifies a higher Modulus of Elasticity, indicating increased stiffness
and resistance to deformation within the elastic range of the material.

3. Elastic Limit (AB): Up to point B on the stress-strain curve, the specimen exhibits elastic
behaviour where, upon load removal, it returns to its original size and shape, defining the elastic limit.
The elastic limit represents the maximum stress before any permanent deformation occurs. If the
specimen surpasses this limit, plastic deformation ensues, resulting in a permanent set when the load is
released. The Proportional Limit (A) and Elastic Limit (B) are closely aligned and are frequently
considered equal due to their proximity on the stress-strain curve.

4. Yield Strength (σyt) : The point on the stress-strain curve where the strain starts to increase
rapidly without a corresponding increase in stress is referred to as the yield point. At the yield point,
there is a marked increase in elongation without a simultaneous increase in the applied load. The Yield
Strength is the maximum stress reached at this stage, signifying the stress level at which the material
undergoes a significant increase in deformation without an additional increase in the applied load.
NOTE:- In cases where materials do not exhibit a well-defined yield point, the determination of Yield
Strength involves the 0.2% proof stress method. This method establishes the stress corresponding to a
permanent set of 0.2% of the gauge length. The process employs the offset method, where a line parallel
to the initial linear portion (OA) of the stress-strain curve is drawn, starting from point A. The length of
this line (OX) corresponds to 0.002 mm/mm strain. The point of intersection between this line and the
stress-strain curve, denoted as Y, signifies the Yield Point, and the corresponding stress is referred to as
the 0.2% Proof Stress. This approach provides a standardized means of determining the yield strength
in materials lacking a distinct yield point.
Example: Aluminium, Titanium, Copper, Polymer etc

Figure 2.3 Proof Stress for highly ductile materials

5. Ultimate Tensile Strength (σut) : As the material begins to deform plastically, it becomes
stronger due to strain hardening, and a higher and higher load is required for its deformation, leading
to an increase in stress, and after point E, it begins to fall. Ultimate tensile strength is the maximum
stress reached in the stress-strain curve, corresponding to point E.

6. Breaking/Fracture Strength: After E, the cross-sectional area of the specimen begins to

decrease rapidly, a localized decrease in area called ‘necking’ takes place, and ultimately the fracture
takes place. F is called the fracture point, and the corresponding stress is called the breaking strength.

7. Percentage Elongation: The term refers to the percentage increase in the gauge length of
the specimen at the point of fracture, relative to its initial length. This metric serves as an indicator of
the material's ductility and is defined as follows:
( 𝑙1 − 𝑙𝑜 )
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∗ 100
𝑙𝑜
8. Percentage Reduction in Area: It's the percentage decrease in the cross-sectional area of a
material after it breaks, compared to its original cross-sectional area. This measurement is another way
to assess the material's ductility, indicating how it changes in shape before breaking.
( 𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴1 )
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∗ 100
𝐴𝑜
Here, A0 is the original cross-sectional area, and A1 is the cross-sectional area after fracture.

2.4.2 For Brittle Material

The stress-strain curve for a brittle material, as illustrated in Figure 2.4, reflects these distinctive
features, providing a clear representation of the material's brittle behaviour.

Figure 2.4 Stress- Strain curve for Brittle material

Brittle stress-strain curves' unique characteristics. To reiterate:

 No Yield Point: Unlike ductile materials, brittle materials typically lack a well-defined yield point.
They do not exhibit the yielding or plastic deformation behaviour seen in materials with greater
ductility.
 Early Deviation from Straight Line: The stress-strain curve for brittle materials deviates from a
straight line very early in the deformation process. This departure indicates the brittle nature of
the material, as it does not undergo significant plastic deformation before failure.
 Minimal Plastic Deformation: Brittle materials display only a small amount of plastic
deformation, if any. The lack of plasticity contributes to their tendency to fracture suddenly
without significant distortion or elongation.
 No Necking: Ductile materials often undergo necking, a localized reduction in cross-sectional
area, before ultimate failure. In contrast, brittle materials do not experience necking before
fracture.
 Sudden Fracture: The stress-strain curve for brittle materials ends abruptly with a sudden
fracture. This characteristic distinguishes brittle fracture from the more gradual deformation and
necking observed in ductile materials.

2.5 Mechanical Properties of Materials

Mechanical properties of materials describe their behaviour under the action of external forces and are
very important in the determination of shape and size of the components. Following are some important
mechanical properties:
1. Strength: The ability of a material to withstand external forces without yielding or fracture.
2. Stiffness: The ability of a material to resist deformation under the action of external forces.
3. Elasticity: The ability of a material to return to its original shape and size when the external load
is removed.
4. Plasticity: The ability of a material to permanently retain deformation produced due to an
external load. Important for operations like stamping.
 5. Ductility: The ability of a material to undergo large plastic deformation without fracture when
subjected to tensile force. Measured by percentage elongation and reduction in area.
6. Malleability: The ability of a material to undergo large plastic deformation without fracture when
subjected to compressive force. Increases with temperature.
7. Brittleness: The property of a material to show negligible plastic deformation before fracture.
8. Hardness: The ability of a material to resist penetration, plastic indentation, abrasion, or
scratching. Wear resistance increases with hardness.
9. Resilience: The ability of a material to absorb energy when deformed elastically and release this
energy when unloaded. Measured by the modulus of resilience.
10. Toughness: The ability of a material to absorb energy before fracture. Important for components
subjected to shock loads. Measured by the modulus of toughness.

2.6 Engineering Ductile Materials

2.6.1 Ferrous Materials

Ferrous materials are divided into Wrought Iron, Cast Iron, grey cast iron, malleable cast iron, Spheroidal
Cast Iron, Alloy Cast Iron, and Steel.
1. Wrought Iron:
 Introduction: Purest form of iron with over 99.5% Fe.
 Properties: Tough, malleable, ductile, weldable, forgeable, and corrosion-resistant.
 Applications: Bolts, nuts, railway couplings, chains, crane hooks, oil rigs, pipes, pipe fittings,
plates, sheets, etc.
2. Cast Iron:
 Introduction: An alloy of Fe & C with C > 2%, along with other ingredients like Si, Mn, S, Ph.
 Properties: Low cost, good cast ability & machinability, high compressive strength, wear-
resistant, good vibration damping capacity.
 Applications: Automobile engine blocks, machine tool structures.
3. Grey Cast Iron:
 Introduction: Contains 2.5 to 3.75% C in the form of graphite flakes, giving it a grey colour.
 Properties: Low cost, good castability & machinability, high compressive strength.
 Applications: Machine tool structures, gas/water pipes, electric motor frames, piston rings,
flywheels, cylinder blocks, heads, housings.
4. White Cast Iron:
 Introduction: Contains 1.75 to 2.30% C in the form of cementite (Fe3C).
 Properties: Very hard and brittle, good abrasion resistance, poor mechanical properties.
 Applications: Rail/car wheels, valve seats, cams, small pulleys, rollers, gears.
5. Malleable Cast Iron:
 Introduction: Obtained by annealing white cast iron, contains 2.2 to 3.6% C.
 Properties: Low cost, malleable, ductile, forgeable, good wear resistance, impact strength, and
vibration damping capacity.
 Applications: Crankcase, pump bodies, conveyor chain links, crankshafts, levers, etc.
6. Spheroidal Cast Iron:
 Introduction: Also known as nodular or ductile CI, C (graphite) is present in nodular form.
 Properties: Stronger, more ductile, tougher, good fluidity, castability, machinability, weldability,
and wear resistance.
  Applications: Cylinders, cylinder heads, valves, pipes, pipe fittings, power transmission
equipment, earth-moving machinery.
7. Alloy Cast Iron:
 Introduction: Improved properties by adding alloying elements like Ni, Cr, Mo, Cu, Si, Mn, etc.
 Properties: Increased strength, high wear and corrosion resistance.
 Applications: Automobile parts like cylinders, pistons, piston rings, crankcase, brake drums,
crushing and grinding machine parts.
8. Steel:
 Composition: Alloy of Fe and C with C < 1.5%. C is present as iron carbide (Fe3C), providing
hardness and strength. No free carbon (graphite) is present.
 Properties: Used for most engineering applications. Properties can be modified through heat
treatment. Classified as Plain Carbon Steels and Alloy Steels.
a) Plain Carbon Steel:
 Composition: Contains 0.5 to 1.0% of C.
 Properties: Cheap, easily available, wide range of mechanical properties controlled by heat
treatment and alloying elements, good machinability and weldability.
Classification:
1. Low Carbon Steel (Mild Steel): It consists less than 0.3% C. Very soft and ductile, good
machinability and weldability. Used for small forgings, machined, welded, and cold-formed
parts.
2. Medium Carbon Steel: It consists 0.3 to 0.7% C. High strength, good weldability. Used for
most machine components.
3. High Carbon Steel: It consists greater than 0.7% C. High yield strength, tough, hard and
brittle, low weldability. Used for cutting tools, springs, bearings.

b) Alloy Steels:
 Definition: Alloy steels have alloying elements added to impart desired properties.
 Examples: Ni provides hardness, strength & toughness; Cr provides high hardness, strength,
wear & corrosion resistance; Mo & W increase hardenability & wear resistance; V improves
fatigue resistance, etc.
 Examples of Alloy Steels: 40Cr1Mo28, 40Ni3, 37Mn2, 31Ni3Cr65Mo55.
List of Some Alloying Elements and Their Properties:
 Ni: Hardness, strength, toughness without compromising ductility.
 Cr: High hardness, strength, wear & corrosion resistance.
 Mo & W: Increase hardenability & wear resistance.
 V: Improves fatigue resistance.
2.6.2 Non-ferrous Materials

A variety of non-ferrous materials are used in engineering applications. They are soft, have a low melting
point, low strength, high corrosion resistance, can be cold worked, and have good manufacturing
properties. Examples include Al Alloys, Cu Alloys, and Ni Alloys.
2.6.3 Non-Metallic Materials
Non-metals are characterized by low cost, flexibility, and resistance to heat & electricity. Examples
include timber, leather, rubber, plastics, etc.
 CHAPTER 3. DESIGN FOR STATIC LOADING

3.1 Load & Its Determination

In the domain of machinery, components are subjected to a variety of loads caused by factors such as
energy, torque, power transmission, self-weight, frictional resistance, inertia, centrifugal forces, or
temperature gradients. These loads are critical factors in the design and operation of machine elements.
The two primary classifications of loads are:

1. Static Loads
 Definition: Static loads remain constant in magnitude or direction, gradually reaching a steady
state.
 Example: The dead weight of machine elements is a typical illustration of a static load.
2. Dynamic Loads
 Definition: Dynamic loads fluctuate in magnitude or direction, or both, over time.
 Examples: Loads acting on components like the connecting rod of an internal combustion engine,
impact loads (applied with velocity), and shock loads (suddenly applied loads) fall under the
category of dynamic loads.
Load determinations are critical in engineering and design to ensure that structures and components
are adequately designed and capable of withstanding the applied forces, leading to safe and efficient
performance.

3.2 Failure Criteria

When a machine element no longer performs its intended function, it is considered to have failed, often
due to stress or deflection surpassing acceptable limits. Various failure criteria help identify and
understand the causes of failure in machine elements.

a) Stress Limitation:
 Failure can occur if the stress within a component exceeds the permissible limit.
b) Deflection Restriction:
 Excessive deflection, or deformation, beyond acceptable levels can also lead to failure.
c) Uniform Pressure:
 Applicable to components experiencing relative motion with appreciable velocity, such as
bearings, clutches, and brakes.
 Failure may result from uneven pressure distribution or excessive localized stresses.
d) Uniform Wear:
 Pertinent to components engaged in sliding or rolling motion, like gears, bearings, bushes, and
piston-cylinders.
 Failure may manifest through irregular or excessive wear, affecting the functionality of the
element.

3.3 Factor of Safety & Allowable Stresses

The factor of safety (FOS) is a crucial parameter in engineering design, defined as the ratio of the
ultimate stress of a material to the working stress. It represents the additional strength that a
component possesses beyond what is required for its intended function. The factor of safety is often
denoted by FOS.
The allowable stress signifies the maximum stress level that can be safely applied to a structure without
risking failure or compromising its integrity. Both the factor of safety and allowable stress play vital roles
in ensuring the reliability and safety of structures and components in engineering applications.
𝑌𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎𝑦
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 (𝐹𝑂𝑆) = = (𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙)
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎𝑎
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎𝑢
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 (𝐹𝑂𝑆) = = (𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙)
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎𝑎

where:
 𝜎𝑦 = yield stress of the ductile material.
 𝜎𝑎 = allowable stress of the material.
 𝜎𝑢 = ultimate stress of the brittle material.
 FOS = factor of safety.

3.4 Design for Simple Stresses

When a mechanical component bears an external load, it triggers a resisting force within the component,
resulting in stress. The key consideration is that the maximum stress in a member should not surpass
the allowable value, obtained from the material strength, while accounting for a certain factor of safety.
1. Direct Tensile & Compressive Stress
 Tensile Stress: When the component's fibers tend to elongate under an external load, it
experiences tensile stress.

Tensile Load Compressive Load

 Compressive Stress: Conversely, when the fibers tend to shorten under the external load, the
component undergoes compressive stress.

Figure 3.1 Tensile and Compressive stress in a specimen

 𝑃 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝜎allowable = = ≤ 𝜎y
𝐴 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
 𝑃 = External normal load,
 𝐴 = Cross-sectional area of the component
 𝜎𝑡 and 𝜎𝑐 are the allowable tensile and compressive stress of the material.
 𝜎y = Yield stress
Tensile or compressive strain, denoting the deformation per unit length, is given by:
𝛿𝐿 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝜖) = =
𝐿 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

According to Hooke's Law, within the elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain:

𝜎𝑡 ∝ 𝜖 or 𝜎𝑡 = 𝐸𝜖

Where E is the Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity.

E=207,000 N/mm2 for Carbon Steels, and 100,000 N/mm2 for Grey Cast Iron.
2. Direct Shear Stress
When an external load tends to slide adjacent planes within a component, it induces direct shear
stresses. Average shear stress is given by:

Tangential Load P
P

P
P

Figure 3.2 Shear stress in a specimen

𝑃 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Shear stress (𝜏) = =
𝐴 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

 𝑃 = External tangential load,

 𝐴 = Cross-sectional area of the component,
 𝜏 = Allowable shear stress.
Shear strain (𝛾) is defined as the change in the right angle of a shear element. Within the elastic limit,
𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾, where 𝐺 is the Modulus of Rigidity.
𝐺 = 80,000 N/mm2 for Carbon Steels, and 40,000 N/mm2 for Grey Cast Iron.
Note: - The relationship between the modulus of elasticity, modulus of rigidity, and Poisson's ratio (𝜇)
is given by: 𝐸 = 2𝐺(1 + 𝜇)

3. Bending Stress

When a machine member is subject to a bending moment, tensile stress develops on one side of the
neutral axis, and compressive stress develops on the other.

Compression

Neutral Axis
Mb Mb

Tension

Figure 3.3 Bending Stress distribution in a simply supported beam

𝑀⋅𝑦
𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎𝑏 ) =
𝐼

Bending stress distribution is linear, with stress proportional to the distance from the neutral axis and
maximum at the farthest fiber.
𝑀 𝜎𝑏 E
= =
𝐼 𝑦 𝑟

 𝑀 = Applied bending moment,

 𝐼 = Moment of inertia of the cross-section about the neutral axis,
 𝑦 = Distance of the fiber from the neutral axis.
 𝐸 = Youngs modulus

4. Torsional Shear Stress

In the case of a shaft subjected to torque, the stress induced to resist the twist is called torsional shear
stress.

T
T T
τ (a)
τ
(b)
 𝑇⋅𝑟
𝜏𝑡 =
𝐽

 𝑇 = Applied torque,
 𝑟 = Radial distance of the fiber from the axis of rotation,
 𝐽 = Polar moment of inertia of the shaft about the axis of rotation.
Figure 3.4 Torsional Stress distribution in a Twisted beam

Torsional shear stress distribution is shown, with maximum stress at the outer fiber and zero at the
axis of rotation.

The angle of twist (𝜃) for a given torque 𝑇 and shaft length 𝑙 can be calculated using the relation:

𝑇 𝐺 ⋅ 𝜃 𝜏𝑡
= =
𝐽 𝐿 𝑟

 𝜃 = angle of twist (radians),

 𝐺= Modulus of Rigidity.

5. Bearing or Crushing Stress

Crushing or bearing stress is the compressive stress developed at the surface of contact between two
interacting members that are relatively at rest.

Figure 3.5 (a) Crushing Stress in a Riveted Joint, (b) Bearing Pressure in Journal

For a riveted joint, if 𝑑 is the diameter of the rivet and 𝑡 is the thickness of the plate, P is the acting
load on rivet, crushing stress is given by:

𝑃
𝜎crushing =
𝑛∗𝑑∗𝑡

The total projected area for 𝑛 rivets used is 𝑛 ⋅ 𝑑 ⋅ 𝑡.

Bearing pressure also exists between the contact surfaces of a journal rotating in a fixed bearing.

𝑃
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑑⋅𝑙

6. Thermal Stresses

Materials undergo changes in length due to temperature fluctuations, leading to the development of
thermal stresses in a component. When a machine element is prevented from freely expanding or
contracting under the effect of temperature change, these stresses arise. The change in length (Δ𝐿) of
any machine member due to temperature change is given by:
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝛥𝐿) = 𝐿𝛼Δ𝑡
Where:
𝐿 is the original length of the member, 𝛼 is the coefficient of thermal expansion, Δ𝑡 is the rise or fall of
temperature.

If this change in length is prevented, i.e., the member is not allowed to freely expand or contract, the
strain (𝜖) induced in the body is given by:
Δ𝐿
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝜖) =
𝐿
The modulus of elasticity (𝐸) of the material of the member is used to relate stress (𝜎) and strain:
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎) = 𝐸𝜖

Figure 3.6 Thermal Expansion and Thermal stresses

3.5 Analysis of Combined Loading and Principal Stresses

In practical machinery scenarios, components rarely encounter isolated axial loads, bending moments,
or torques. More commonly, components undergo a combination of these loads, resulting in a complex
state of stress. This combined loading produces an infinite number of stress vectors acting at any point
within the component. Understanding the state of stress is crucial for design purposes, helping
determine critical planes, corresponding critical stresses, and their relationship to material strength.
1. State of Stress in Combined Loading
When a machine component is subjected to combined loads, the state of stress becomes complex. Stress
vectors act on three mutually perpendicular planes ( 𝑥-plane, 𝑦-plane, and z-plane) passing through a
point. The normal and shear stress components acting on these planes are represented as follows:
 x-plane: 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑧
 y-plane: 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜏𝑦𝑥 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧
 z-plane: 𝜎𝑧 , 𝜏𝑧𝑥 , 𝜏𝑧𝑦
A. Principal Stresses in Combined Loading
Principal stresses represent the maximum normal stresses on different planes. Two principal planes,
perpendicular to each other, have the maximum and minimum values of normal stress. The principal
stresses (𝜎1 and 𝜎2 ) and principal shear stress (𝜏max ) can be calculated using the following formulas:

Maximum (𝝈𝟏 ) and minimum (𝝈𝟐 ) Principal

stress:

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1 , 𝜎2 = ± √( 2
) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2

Maximum Shear stress (𝝉𝐦𝐚𝐱 ):

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜏max = √( 2
) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2
For most equilibrium cases, cross shears are equal (𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 ). Six stress
components are needed to define the state of stress fully. If the stresses on one surface are zero, it is
termed "plane stress."

Note: - When stress is evaluated at an angle (𝜃) from the normal plane, the expressions for normal stress
(σ) and shear stress (τ) components on an arbitrary oblique plane can be calculated using the following
formulas:

Normal stress (𝝈𝜽 ) :

𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝜃 = ( )+( ) cos 2𝜃
2 2
+ 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃

Shear Stress (𝝉𝜽 ) :

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝜃 = − ( ) sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃
2
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃𝑝 =
𝜎𝑥− 𝜎𝑦 Figure 3.7 State of stress at a point

These calculations can be graphically represented using Mohr’s Circle, a helpful tool in understanding
the state of stress at a point.
2. Analysis of Combined Loading and Mohr’s Circle
Determining the state of stress and finding maximum principal stresses and shear stress can be achieved
graphically using Mohr’s Circle. Follow these steps:

i. Define Stress Components:

 OA = σx
 OC = σy
 AB = τxy
 CD = τyx
ii. Construct Mohr’s Circle:
  Join BD to get point E, the intersection of AC and BD.
 Use E as the center and BD as the diameter to construct Mohr’s Circle.
iii. Identify Stresses on Mohr’s Circle:
 OF gives the maximum principal stress σ1.
 OG represents the minimum principal stress σ2.
iv. Determine Maximum Shear Stress:
 EH and EI give the maximum principal shear stress ±τmax.

Figure 3.8 Mohr’s circle construction

Note:
 Normal stresses are plotted along the abscissa.
 Shear stresses are plotted along the ordinate.
 Tensile normal and clockwise shear stresses are considered positive.
 Compressive normal and anticlockwise shear stresses are considered negative.

3.6 Theories of failure

In the field of engineering and materials science, several theories of failure have been developed to
predict and understand the failure mechanisms of materials and structures. These theories provide
guidelines for designing components that can withstand various loading conditions. Here are some of
the prominent theories of failure:
1. Maximum Principal Stress Theory (Rankine's Theory):
 Formulation: Developed by W.J.M. Rankine.
 Principle: Failure in a mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses occurs
when the maximum principal stress equals or exceeds the yield or ultimate strength of the
material.
 Expression:
𝜎𝑦
a) For ductile materials: 𝜎1 =
FOS
𝜎
𝑢
b) For brittle materials: 𝜎1 = FOS
 Applicability: Primarily used for brittle materials.

2. Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Coulomb, Tresca, and Guest's Theory):

 Formulation: Proposed by C.A. Coulomb, H. Tresca, and J.J. Guest.
 Principle: Failure occurs when the maximum shear stress equals the shear strength of the
material.
𝜏𝑦 (𝜎1 −𝜎2 )
 Expression: 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = FOS where, 𝜏𝑦 = 2
 Applicability: Generally employed for ductile materials.

3. Maximum Principal Strain Theory (St. Venant's Theory):

 Principle: Failure happens when the maximum principal (normal) strain reaches the limiting
strain value obtained from a simple tensile test.
(𝜎1 −𝜇𝜎2 )
 Expression: 𝜖𝑚𝑎𝑥 = , where 𝜖𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜖𝑦 .
𝐸1
 Applicability: Typically applied to ductile materials.

4. Maximum Total Strain Energy Theory (Haigh's Theory):

 Principle: Failure occurs when the strain energy per unit volume reaches the limiting strain
energy obtained at the elastic limit from a simple tension test.
1 1 𝜎y 2
 Expression: 2𝐸 [𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − 2𝜇(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 )] = 2𝐸 (𝐹𝑂𝑆)
 Applicability: Generally used for ductile materials.

5. Distortion Energy Theory (Huber von Mises and Hencky's Theory):

 Principle: Failure occurs when the distortion energy per unit volume equals the distortion energy
in a standard tension test specimen.
1
 Expression: 𝑈𝑆 = [(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 ]
12𝐺
 Applicability: Suited for ductile materials.
 CHAPTER 4. STRESS CONCENTRATION AND CREEP

4.1 Stress concentration

It refers to the localized increase in stress in a material or component caused by the presence of
geometric irregularities, such as notches, holes, keyways, or abrupt changes in cross-section. In
engineering and materials science, understanding stress concentration is crucial because it can lead to
premature failure of components. The phenomenon arises due to the disruption of the uniform stress
distribution that is assumed in basic stress calculations for tension, compression, bending, and torsion.

Figure 4.1 Stress concentration in a shaft under tensile load P

Key points about stress concentration include:

 Causes: Stress concentration can be caused by various factors, including geometric features,
material defects (such as internal cracks or inclusions), and surface irregularities (like scratches
or stamp marks).
 Localized Stresses: The presence of stress concentration leads to higher stresses in the
immediate vicinity of the irregularity compared to what would be predicted by basic stress
equations.
 Stress Raisers: Irregularities or features causing stress concentration are often referred to as
stress raisers because they "raise" the stress levels locally.
 Stress Concentration Factor (K): To quantify the effect of stress concentration, engineers use the
stress concentration factor, which is the ratio of the maximum stress to the nominal stress. It is
denoted by K and is specific to the geometry of the component.
There are stress concentration factors for normal stress (Kn) and shear stress (Ks), calculated
using the following equations:
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐾𝑛 =
𝜎𝑜
τ𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐾𝑠 =
τ𝑜
Where:
• 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 , τ𝑚𝑎𝑥 are the localized stresses near the discontinuities.
• 𝜎𝑜 , τ𝑜 are the nominal stresses determined by elementary equations for the minimum cross-
section.
The maximum stress felt near a hole or notch occurs in the area of lowest radius of curvature. In
an elliptical hole of length 2a and width 2b, under a far-field stress 𝜎𝑜 , the stress at the ends of
the major axes is given by Inglis' equation:

2𝑎
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑜 (1 + )
𝑏
 (a) (b)

Figure 4.2 (a) Stress concentration around an elliptical hole in a plate in tension, (b) Stress
concentration in a rivet hole
For the plate shown in Figure 4.2, with width 'w,' thickness 't,' hole diameter 'd,' and applied load 'P,'
the nominal tensile stress (𝜎𝑜 ) is given by the equation:
𝑃
𝜎𝑜 =
(𝑤 − 𝑑) ∗ 𝑡

 Nominal Stress: Nominal stress is the stress calculated using basic stress equations without
considering the effect of stress concentration.
 Applications: Stress concentration is a critical consideration in the design and analysis of
structural components, as it can significantly affect the fatigue life and failure modes of
materials.
 Mitigation: Engineers employ various strategies to mitigate stress concentration, such as using
fillets, reducing sharp corners, and incorporating design modifications to minimize the impact of
irregularities.
4.2 Methods to Reduce Stress Concentration
Reducing stress concentration is crucial in engineering design to enhance the strength and durability of
components. Here are several methods to mitigate stress concentration:

 Fillets and Blends: Introduce fillets or blends at the junctions of different surfaces to smooth out
transitions and reduce stress concentrations. Rounded edges help distribute stresses more
evenly.
 Reduction of Notches: Avoid or minimize sharp notches and abrupt changes in geometry. These
features tend to amplify stress concentrations. Smooth transitions and gradual changes in shape
are preferred.
 Material Selection: Choose materials with better fracture toughness and fatigue resistance.
Some materials may be less prone to stress concentration effects, helping to improve overall
component performance.
 Surface Finish: Ensure a smooth surface finish to reduce the likelihood of surface irregularities
causing stress concentrations. Surface treatments or coatings may be applied to enhance
smoothness.
 Proper Design Geometry: Design components with consideration for stress distribution.
Optimize geometries to minimize stress concentration, and use appropriate shapes and
configurations that promote uniform stress flow.
 Use of Reinforcements: Incorporate reinforcing elements, such as ribs or gussets, to distribute
loads more evenly across the structure. This can help mitigate stress concentrations in critical
areas.
 Gradients in Material Properties: Gradually transition between different material properties
rather than introducing sudden changes. This approach can help in reducing stress concentration
caused by variations in material properties.
 Improved Manufacturing Processes: Employ precision manufacturing techniques to reduce the
likelihood of introducing defects or irregularities during the production process. High-quality
manufacturing can contribute to smoother surfaces and more consistent geometries.
 Finite Element Analysis (FEA): Utilize FEA to simulate and analyse stress distribution in complex
structures. This numerical method allows engineers to identify areas of high stress concentration
and optimize the design accordingly.
 Stress Relief Features: Integrate features like holes or grooves strategically to distribute stress
more evenly. Well-designed stress relief features can help prevent the concentration of stress in
specific areas.
 Avoiding Sharp Corners: Design components with rounded corners instead of sharp corners.
Sharp corners can act as stress concentrators, whereas rounded corners promote smoother
stress distribution.
 Optimization through Testing: Conduct physical testing on prototypes to validate stress
concentrations and iteratively optimize the design based on empirical data.

Figure 4.3 Methods to Reduce Stress Concentration

4.3 Effect of Ductility & Brittleness on Stress Concentration
A. Ductile Materials under Static Loads:
 Negligible Effect: Stress concentration has minimal impact on ductile materials experiencing
static loads.
 Yield Point Deformation: When stress near a discontinuity reaches the yield point, local plastic
deformation occurs, redistributing stresses and alleviating stress concentration.
 No Stress Concentration Factor: For statically loaded ductile materials, stress concentration is
not a significant concern, and there is no need to apply stress concentration factors.
B. Ductile Materials under Dynamic Loads:
 Fatigue Failure Risk: Ductile materials under dynamic loads may experience stress at the
discontinuity reaching the endurance limit, leading to fatigue failure.
 Reduction in Endurance Limit: Stress concentration reduces the endurance limit of ductile
materials under dynamic loads.
 Use of Stress Concentration Factor: Stress concentration factors must be applied to dynamically
loaded ductile materials to account for these effects.
C. Brittle Materials under Static or Dynamic Loads:
 Severe Effect: Stress concentration has a more severe impact on brittle materials due to their
inability to plastically deform.
 Lack of Local Yielding: In brittle materials, no local yielding occurs, and stresses don't
redistribute, causing a significant increase in local stress at the discontinuity.
 Necessity of Stress Concentration Factor: Components made of brittle materials, whether
subjected to static or dynamic loads, require the use of stress concentration factors to address
the heightened stress concentrations.

4.4 Creep
Definition: Creep is the time-dependent, slow, and progressive deformation of a material under
constant stress. It occurs when components are subjected to constant loads for extended periods.

Factors Influencing Creep:

 Creep deformation is influenced by stress and temperature.
 Typically occurs at temperatures above half the melting point of the material.
 Materials like aluminium, copper, and some plastics exhibit creep even at room temperature.
Applications:
 Creep becomes significant in components operating at elevated temperatures, such as
furnaces, steam/gas turbines, internal combustion engines, nuclear reactors, and rocket
engines.
 Stress in components can be tensile, compressive, bending, or shear.
Design Considerations:
 Components operating at higher temperatures must be designed to ensure that creep
deformation remains within allowable limits and does not lead to rupture.
 Creep strength and creep rupture strength are crucial material properties for designing
against creep deformation.
Creep Strength and Creep Rupture Strength:
 Creep Strength: The maximum stress a material can withstand for a specified duration without
excessive deformation.
Creep Rupture Strength: The maximum stress a material can endure for a specified duration without
rupture.
Creep Curve

Figure 4.4 Creep curve

 A typical strain vs. time plot is known as the creep curve.

 Creep testing involves applying a constant force to a specimen at an elevated temperature.
 Divided into three stages: primary, secondary, and tertiary creep.
 Primary Creep: Rapid increase in strain initially.
 Secondary Creep: Slow and constant rate of strain increase.
 Tertiary Creep: Accelerated strain rate, necking of the specimen, and eventual rupture.
4.5 Design for Dynamic Loading

1. Dynamic Load Definition:

 A load that changes in magnitude, direction, or both over time is termed a dynamic load.
 Dynamic loads encompass cyclic and impact loads.
2. Comparison between dynamic and Static Loading:
 In static loading, the load is incrementally applied and reaches a stable maximum value,
leading to a consistent stress level. Conversely, dynamic loading encompasses cyclic
loads, inducing variable stresses that oscillate between different levels.
 Example: For instance, a fiber on the surface of a rotating shaft, subjected to bending
load, experiences tension and compression during each revolution.
3. Fatigue Failure:
 Unlike static loading where failure occurs at yield or ultimate tensile strength, dynamic
loading, especially under repeated or fluctuating stresses, leads to fatigue failure.
 Fatigue failure resembles brittle fracture, lacking noticeable plastic deformation or
necking.
 Sudden and dangerous, it initiates with a microscopic crack at discontinuities, surface
irregularities, or material defects.
4. Endurance Limit: The endurance limit, also known as fatigue limit or fatigue strength, is the
maximum cyclic stress level a material can withstand for an indefinite number of cycles without
failure due to fatigue.
 5. Cyclic Stress: Cyclic stress involves the fluctuation of stress levels, with loading conditions
changing in magnitude or direction over time.
 Various regular and irregular patterns exist for cyclic stresses in machinery.
 Sinusoidal patterns are common due to the nature of rotating machinery.
 For design purposes, the focus is on the maximum and minimum stress values, not the
waveform.
Types of Cyclic Stress:

1. Completely Reversed Stress:

 Extreme stress values are of equal
magnitude but opposite nature, with a
mean stress of zero.

2. Repeated Stress:
 Stress varies from zero to a certain
maximum value, with a consistent nature.

3. Fluctuating Stress:
 Minimum and maximum stress values are
of the same nature (either tensile or
compressive).

4. Alternating Stress:
 Stress changes its nature, and the
magnitude of extreme values of tensile
and compressive stress is not the same.

Stress changes its nature, and the magnitude of extreme values of tensile and compressive stress is not
the same.
All variable stresses can be considered to be made of two components –
 Static component called mean stress (sm) and a variable component called Stress amplitude
(sa).
 Mean Stress = Stress Amplitude

Stress Range,

Stress Ratio, Amplitude Ratio,

4.6 Fatigue Curve (S-N Curve) & Endurance Limit

Definition: The fatigue S-N curve, also known as the stress-life curve, is a graphical representation that
illustrates the relationship between stress amplitude (S) and the number of cycles to failure (N) for a
given material.
Endurance Limit: The high-cycle region represents stress levels below which a material can endure an
infinite number of cycles without fatigue failure. This is known as the endurance limit.
Fatigue Limit: In the middle of the curve, there is a stress range beyond which fatigue failure occurs after
a finite number of cycles. This is often referred to as the fatigue limit.
Graphical Representation: Typically displayed as a plot with stress amplitude on the vertical axis (S) and
the logarithm of cycles to failure on the horizontal axis (log N).

 The S-N curve's vertical axis is termed Fatigue Strength (Sf).

 Represents the maximum stress endurance for a specified number of stress reversals.
 In ferrous metals, the S-N curve shows a horizontal segment after 106 to 107 cycles.
 Indicates the material's ability to endure an infinite number of stress reversals if applied stress is
below this level. The corresponding stress is termed the endurance limit or fatigue limit.
 Fatigue or Endurance Limit (S'e) Defined as the maximum amplitude of completely reversed
stress a standard specimen can withstand without fatigue failure.
  Essential in understanding a material's resistance to cyclic loading.
 Fatigue studies are categorized into Low Cycle Fatigue (failure before 1000 cycles) and High Cycle
Fatigue (failure at cycles exceeding 1000).
 When experimental fatigue data is lacking, empirical relations are applied.
1) For steel, the Fatigue Strength (S'e) = 0.5 Sut.
2) For cast iron, S'e = 0.4 Sut.

4.6.1 Modifying Factors for Endurance Limit Estimation

The determination of endurance limits involves a carefully prepared rotating-beam specimen tested
under controlled conditions. However, variations in material properties, manufacturing quality,
environmental conditions, and design complexities prevent the endurance limit of machine elements
from directly matching test values. To address this, modifying factors are applied to obtain more realistic
results. The estimation of the endurance limit (Se′) for a specific machine part involves the consideration
of several modifying factors:
The endurance limit (Se′) of a machine element can be estimated using the modified relation:
𝑆𝑒′ = 𝐾𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 ∗ 𝐾𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 ∗ 𝐾𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 ∗ 𝐾𝑟𝑒𝑙 ∗ 𝐾𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 ∗ 𝐾𝑓 ∗ 𝑆𝑒

Here's an explanation of each modifying factor:

a) Surface Finish Factor (𝑲𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇 ):
 Describes the influence of the surface finish on the fatigue strength.
 Smoother surfaces generally have higher fatigue strength.
 𝐾𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 =1.0 for a standard finish. It can be greater than 1.0 for finishes that are better than
standard and less than 1.0 for finishes that are worse.
b) Size Factor (𝑲𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 ):
 Accounts for the size of the specimen or machine element.
 Larger components tend to have lower endurance limits due to increased likelihood of material
defects.
 𝐾𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 <1.0 for larger sizes.
c) Load Factor (𝑲𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 ):
 Reflects the effect of different loading conditions.
 Different types of loading (e.g., alternating, pulsating) influence fatigue strength differently.
 𝐾𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 1.0 for a standard loading condition.
d) Reliability Factor (𝑲𝒓𝒆𝒍 ):
 Considers the desired level of reliability or safety.
 Higher reliability requires a lower 𝐾𝑟𝑒𝑙 value.
 It depends on the confidence level or probability of survival.
e) Temperature Factor (𝑲𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 ):
 Considers the effect of temperature on the material's fatigue strength.
 Elevated temperatures often reduce fatigue strength.
 𝐾𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 =1.0 at a standard temperature.
f) Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor (𝑲𝒇 ):
 𝐾𝑓 is defined as the ratio of the endurance limit of a notched specimen to that of a notch-free
specimen.
 Endurance Limit of Notched Specimen
𝐾𝑓 =
Endurance Limit of Notch − Free Specimen
 Incorporates the effect of stress concentrations, such as notches or irregularities in the material.
 𝐾𝑓 is higher for components with stress concentrations.

Notch sensitivity (q): Notch sensitivity is defined as the ratio of actual stress over nominal to the increase
in theoretical stress value over the nominal stress. It is given by,
𝐾𝑓 − 1
𝑞= ( )
𝐾𝑡 − 1
 For q = 0, Kf =1 and for q=1, Kf = Kt.

4.7 Design for Completely Reversed Stresses:

1. Design for Infinite Life:
 For completely reversed stress cycles, where extreme values have equal magnitude and opposite
nature with a mean equal to zero.
 Design for infinite life is achieved by keeping the stress below the endurance limit.
 The endurance limit is the design criteria in this case.
2. Design for Finite Life:
 Components are designed to survive a specific number of cycles (e.g., 103 to 106 cycles).
 Fatigue strength is used as the design criteria.
 Fatigue strength for the required number of stress cycles can be determined graphically from the
S-N curve or mathematically using the equation of the curve.

3. Design for Fluctuating Stresses:

 Involves mean stress with a non-zero value, where both static and variable components
contribute to failure.
 Soderberg, Goodman, and Gerber proposed theories defining the boundary between the safe
and unsafe regions on the stress vs. cycles plot.
The three criteria are Soderberg Line, Goodman Line, and Gerber Parabola.

Figure 4.5 Design for fluctuating stress

a) Soderberg Line: The Goodman line is a criterion used in fatigue analysis to assess the combined
effects of mean stress and alternating stress on the fatigue life of a material. It provides a graphical
representation of the safe region for a given combination of mean stress (σm), alternating stress (σa),
and the material's endurance limit (Se).
The Soderberg line equation is given by:
𝜎𝑚 𝜎𝑎
+ =1
𝑆𝑦𝑡 𝑆𝑒
Considering Factor of Safety:
𝜎𝑚 𝜎𝑎 1
+ =
𝑆𝑦𝑡 𝑆𝑒 𝐹𝑂𝑆
where:
 𝜎𝑚 is the mean stress,
 σa is the alternating stress,
 Su is the ultimate tensile strength of the material,
 Se is the endurance limit of the material,
 Factor of Safety (FOS) is the safety margin applied to the design.
The Soderberg line is plotted on a stress versus cycles diagram. The safe region lies below the Soderberg
line, and failure is predicted to occur if the operating point falls above the line.
b) Goodman Line: The Goodman line is a criterion used in fatigue analysis to assess the combined effects
of mean stress and alternating stress on the fatigue life of a material. It provides a graphical
representation of the safe region for a given combination of mean stress (σm), alternating stress (σa),
and the material's endurance limit (Se).
The Goodman line equation is given by:
𝜎𝑚 𝜎𝑎
+ =1
𝑆𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑒
Considering Factor of Safety:
𝜎𝑚 𝜎𝑎 1
+ =
𝑆𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑒 𝐹𝑂𝑆
where:
 𝜎𝑚 is the mean stress,
 σa is the alternating stress,
  Su is the ultimate tensile strength of the material,
 Se is the endurance limit of the material,
 Factor of Safety (FOS) is the safety margin applied to the design.
The Goodman line is plotted on a graph with alternating stress on the x-axis and mean stress on the y-
axis. The line represents the boundary between safe and unsafe regions for fatigue loading. The safe
region is below the Goodman line, and points above the line indicate a higher risk of fatigue failure.
c) Gerber Parabola: The Gerber parabola, like the Goodman line and the Soderberg line, is a criterion
used in fatigue analysis to assess the combined effects of mean stress and alternating stress on the
fatigue life of a material. The Gerber parabola provides a graphical representation to evaluate
whether a given combination of stresses will lead to failure under cyclic loading.
The equation for the Gerber parabola is:
𝜎𝑚 2 𝜎𝑎
( ) + =1
𝑆𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑒

Considering Factor of Safety:

𝜎𝑚 2 𝜎𝑎 1
( ) + =
𝑆𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑒 𝐹𝑂𝑆
where:
 𝜎𝑚 is the mean stress,
 σa is the alternating stress,
 Su is the ultimate tensile strength of the material,
 Se is the endurance limit of the material,
 Factor of Safety (FOS) is the safety margin applied to the design.
The Gerber parabola is plotted on a graph with alternating stress on the x-axis and mean stress on the
y-axis. The parabolic curve represents the boundary between safe and unsafe regions for fatigue loading.
The safe region is below the Gerber parabola, and points above the curve indicate a higher risk of fatigue
failure.
 5.1 Knuckle Joint
1. Introduction: A knuckle joint is a mechanical connection designed to link two rods subjected to axial
tensile loads. This joint provides a versatile solution for applications where flexibility and ease of
assembly are essential. It may also be employed to support compressive loads if guided. However, it
is not suitable for connecting rotating shafts transmitting torque.

2. Key Features and Considerations:

a) Load Types:
 Axial Tensile Loads
 Primary application for connecting two rods under axial tensile loads.
 Can also support compressive loads if the joint is guided.
b) Shaft Orientation:
 Shaft Axes:
 Shafts to be joined should lie in the same plane.
 Axes may coincide or intersect, allowing flexibility in alignment.
c) Angular Movement:
 Limited Relative Angular Movement:
 Construction permits limited relative angular movement between rods about the axis of the pin.
 Provides flexibility in applications where some degree of movement is necessary.
d) Construction Components:
 Eye, Fork, and Pin:
  Three main components: eye, fork, and pin.
 Eye is formed on one rod, and fork is formed on the other.
 Eye fits inside the fork, and the pin passes through both components.
 The pin is secured with a split-pin.
 Octagonal and Square Ends:
 Ends of the rods are made octagonal for better grip.
 Forging process transforms the shape into a square portion before forming the eye and fork.
3. Applications:
 Valve Mechanisms: Used to connect valve rods and eccentric rods in internal combustion
engines.
 Tie Rod Joints in Roof Trusses: Used to create flexible connections while maintaining structural
integrity in tie rod joints for roof trusses.
 Heavy Machinery Linkages: Applied in heavy machinery and construction equipment,
particularly in linkages and joints experiencing axial tensile loads.
 Steering Systems: Utilized in some steering systems in vehicles, connecting various
components for controlled movement and adjustments.
 Agricultural Equipment: Used in the linkages of agricultural machinery to provide a flexible
connection between different components.
 Robotics: In robotic arms and mechanisms, knuckle joints enable movement and flexibility in
various joints.

4. Advantages:
 Simplicity: Simple design and manufacturing process.
 Cost-Effectiveness: Fewer parts result in lower costs and increased reliability.
 Ease of Assembly and Dismantling: Components can be easily assembled and dismantled.
 Versatility: Adaptable to various engineering scenarios, including valve mechanisms, cycle
chains, levers, and tie rod joints.
 Reliability Through Fewer Parts: The reduced number of components contributes to enhanced
reliability and decreased likelihood of failure.
 Applicability to Axial Loads: Well-suited for axial tensile loads and can also support
compressive loads if guided appropriately.
5. Conclusion:
The knuckle joint, with its straightforward design and versatility, proves to be an effective solution for
connecting rods under axial tensile loads in various applications. Its construction features and
advantages make it a preferred choice in engineering designs where simplicity and reliability are
paramount.
 5.2 Cotter Joint: Connecting Rods Under Axial Loads
1. Introduction: A cotter joint is a mechanical connection designed to link two rods subjected to axial
tensile or compressive loads. It provides a secure and reliable connection, particularly in applications
where torque transmission is not required, and the axes of the connected rods are collinear.
Design of Cotter Joint

2. Key Features and Considerations:

a) Load Types:
 Axial Loads:
 Used to connect two rods under axial tensile or compressive loads.
 Not suitable for transmitting torque between rotating shafts.
b) Alignment:
 Collinear Axes:
 The axes of the rods to be joined should be collinear.
c) Components:
 Spigot, Socket, and Cotter:
 Spigot is formed on one rod, and the socket is formed on the other.
 Cotter, a wedge-shaped piece made of steel plate, is inserted into a narrow rectangular slot in
both the spigot and socket.
d) Tapered Cotter:
 Wedge Action:
 Cotter has a slight taper (usually 1 in 24) for wedge action.
 Provides tightness in the joint during operation, preventing loosening of parts.
 Facilitates easy removal and dismantling due to its tapered shape.
e) Construction Process:
  Locking Mechanism:
 When the cotter is inserted, it contacts the spigot and pushes it into the socket until collars of
both parts come in contact.
 Cotter gets locked due to frictional force on contacting surfaces.
 Clearance is provided for ease of assembly and disassembly.

3. Applications:
 Steam Engines: Cotter joints are widely used in steam engines to connect components like the
piston rod and the crosshead. The joint provides a secure connection that can withstand the
reciprocating motion of the engine.
 Pumps and Compressors: Cotter joints are employed in pumps and compressors to connect the
piston rod with other moving parts. The joint ensures a reliable connection that can handle axial
loads.
 Foundation Bolts: Cotter joints are used in the connection of foundation bolts. The joint provides
a secure link between the bolt and the structure it supports.
 Tailor Pump Rods: In tailor pumps, cotter joints are used to connect the piston rod with the
pump rod. This application benefits from the cotter joint's simplicity and ease of assembly.
 Agricultural Equipment: Cotter joints find application in various agricultural machinery where a
simple and robust connection is needed for components subjected to axial loads.
 Linkages in Machinery: Cotter joints are employed in linkages of machinery where axial
movement needs to be transferred. This includes various types of levers and linkages in
mechanical systems.

4. Advantages: Cotter joints offer several advantages, making them suitable for specific applications in
engineering. Here are some key advantages of cotter joints:
 Simplicity: Cotter joints have a simple design, making them easy to manufacture and understand.
The simplicity contributes to cost-effectiveness in both production and maintenance.
 Ease of Assembly and Disassembly: One of the significant advantages of cotter joints is their
ease of assembly and disassembly. This facilitates maintenance, repairs, and component
replacement without the need for specialized tools.
 High Tightening Force: The wedge action of the cotter provides a high tightening force. This
ensures that the joint remains secure and prevents loosening of parts during operation.
 Versatility in Applications: Cotter joints are versatile and find applications in various industries,
including steam engines, pumps, compressors, automotive, agriculture, and construction.
 Suitability for Axial Loads: Cotter joints are well-suited for applications involving axial tensile or
compressive loads. They provide a reliable connection for components subjected to such loads.
 Tapered Cotter for Easy Removal: The taper shape of the cotter makes it easy to remove,
facilitating the dismantling of the joint. This taper allows for smooth extraction without excessive
force.
5. Conclusion: Cotter joints serve as fundamental yet effective components in engineering, providing a
simple and reliable means of connecting two rods subjected to axial loads. Their uncomplicated
design and ease of assembly and disassembly make them cost-effective solutions for various
applications, including steam engines, pumps, and automotive linkages. The taper-shaped cotter not
only ensures a high tightening force, preventing part loosening during operation but also facilitates
easy dismantling. While cotter joints may not be suited for every scenario, their proven reliability,
versatility, and historical use in traditional machinery underscore their continued significance in
specific engineering applications where simplicity and efficiency are paramount.
 6. INTRODUCTION TO WELDED JOINTS

6.1 Introduction
Welding:

 Fusion process for joining similar or dissimilar metals.

 Provides a permanent joint by coalescing parts with heat and/or pressure.
 Metallurgical impact on components; often requires post-weld heat treatment.
 Widely used in fabrication and repair of ships, pressure vessels, automobile bodies, bridges,
welded pipes, nuclear fuel sealing, explosives, etc.

Advantages
1. Economical and faster than riveting, bolting, casting, etc.
2. Permanent joints with equal or greater strength than base metal when properly controlled.
3. Joins a wide range of metals and alloys (similar and dissimilar).
4. General welding equipment is cost-effective.
5. Portable welding equipment is readily available.
6. Offers considerable design freedom.
7. Can join welding jobs through spots, continuous pressure tight seams, end-to-end, and various
configurations.
8. Mechanization is possible.

Disadvantages
1. Results in residual stresses and distortion.
2. Requires stress relieving and heat treatment for welded joints.
3. Emits harmful radiations (light), fumes, and spatter.
4. May need jigs and fixtures for holding and positioning parts.
5. Requires edge preparation of welding jobs.
6. Skilled welder needed for good production.
7. Heat during welding causes metallurgical changes in the joint.

6.2 Types of Welding

6.2.1 Fusion Welding Processes
Fusion welding processes involve the application of heat to melt base metals, with the addition of a filler
metal to the molten pool. This category encompasses various methods:
1. Arc Welding:
 Heating is accomplished by an electric arc.
2. Resistance Welding:
 Coalescence is achieved through electrical resistance.
3. Oxyfuel Gas Welding:
 Utilizes oxyfuel gas, such as a mixture of oxygen and acetylene, for melting the base
metal.
4. Other Processes:
  Electron beam welding and laser beam welding are additional fusion welding techniques
that result in the fusion of joined metals.
6.2.2 Solid-State Welding
Solid-state welding processes achieve coalescence through the application of pressure alone or a
combination of heat and pressure. Key characteristics of solid-state welding include:
 Coalescence Mechanism: Results from pressure alone or a combination of heat and pressure.
 Temperature Control: The temperature is maintained below the melting point of the metals, and
no filler metal is used.
6.2.2.1 Processes in Solid-State Welding:
1. Diffusion Welding:
 Surfaces are held together under pressure at an elevated temperature, promoting solid-state
fusion.
2. Friction Welding:
 Coalescence is achieved by the heat generated through friction between two surfaces.
3. Ultrasonic Welding:
 Involves applying moderate pressure along with ultrasonic frequencies, facilitating atomic
bonding between surfaces.
These diverse welding techniques offer a range of options for joining materials, each suited to specific
applications and material characteristics. The choice of welding method depends on factors such as
material composition, joint configuration, and desired properties of the final welded structure.

6.3 Types of Welded Joints

6.3.1. Lap Joint or Fillet Joint: A lap joint, also known as a fillet joint, is a type of welded joint formed
by overlapping plates and welding their edges together. The cross-sectional shape of the fillet is
approximately triangular. There are three main types of fillet joints within this category:
 Single Transverse Fillet: In this configuration, a single weld is applied perpendicular to the axis
of the joint.
 Double Transverse Fillet: Here, two welds are applied on either side of the joint axis.
 Parallel Fillet Joints: These joints involve parallel welding on both sides of the joint, forming a
symmetrical configuration.

(a)Single Transverse Fillet (b) Double Transverse Fillet (c) Parallel Fillet Joints
Figure 6.1 Types of Lap or Fillet Joint
6.3.2 Butt Joint: A butt joint is another common type of welded joint, achieved by placing the plates
edge to edge. The preparation of the joint varies based on the plate thickness:
  No Bevelling (Plate Thickness < 5 mm): If the plate thickness is less than 5 mm, bevelling of the
edges is not required.
 Bevelling to V or U-groove (Plate Thickness 5 mm to 12.5 mm): For plate thickness ranging from
5 mm to 12.5 mm, it is recommended to bevel the edges to either a V or U-groove on both sides
of the joint. This preparation enhances the welding process and ensures a secure connection.

6.3.3. Corner Joint: Formed by joining two members at right angles to each other, creating a corner.
Commonly used in structures where members intersect at corners, such as frames and boxes.
6.3.4. Edge Joint: Involves the welding of two parallel edges of overlapping plates or sections. Frequently
used in the fabrication of sheet metal and plates to create continuous and seamless connections.
6.3.5. T-Joint: Created when one member is perpendicular to the other, forming a T-shape. Widely
utilized in structures where one member needs to be attached perpendicularly to another, often found
in the assembly of frames and supports.
 7. DESIGN OF SHAFTS
7.1 Shafts Overview: A shaft is a pivotal rotating element utilized for power transmission in
diverse mechanical systems, including engines, motors, pumps, and various mechanical devices. The
choice of shaft types and materials is contingent upon specific application requirements.

7.2 Types of Shafts:

 Axle: An axle is a central shaft on which wheels or other rotating parts revolve. It is a crucial
component in various mechanical systems, such as vehicles and machinery, providing support
and facilitating rotational movement.
 Spindle: A spindle is a slender, often cylindrical, rod or shaft used for various purposes, including
holding and rotating objects. In machining, a spindle is commonly found in lathes and milling
machines, where it holds the workpiece or cutting tool and facilitates rotational motion.
 Counter Shaft: A counter shaft, also known as a layshaft, is a secondary shaft used in mechanical
systems, typically parallel to the main shaft. It may distribute power, change the direction of
rotation, or serve other specific functions depending on the system's design.
 Line Shaft: A line shaft is a power-driven rotating shaft used in early industrial systems to
transmit power to various machines in a factory. It typically runs the length of the building and
is connected to individual machines via belts or other means, providing a centralized power
source.
 Straight Shafts: Characterized by a consistent diameter along their entire length.
 Stepped Shafts: Sections with different diameters, used for weight reduction or specific
support.
 Tapered Shafts: Diameter gradually decreases along the length, facilitating easy
assembly/disassembly.
 Splined Shafts: Feature grooves or splines for meshing with gears or couplings.
 Flexible Shafts: Designed to transmit torque around obstacles, ideal for applications requiring
flexibility.

7.3 Materials for Shafts:

 Steel: Common for its strength, durability, and cost-effectiveness; alloy steels for high-stress
applications.
 Stainless Steel: Corrosion-resistant, suitable for environments requiring rust resistance.
 Aluminium: Lightweight and corrosion-resistant, apt for weight-sensitive applications.
 Titanium: Known for high strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance, prevalent in
aerospace.
 Composite Materials: Fiber-reinforced composites (e.g., carbon fiber) for lightweight, high-
strength applications.
 Ceramics: Utilized in specialized applications for high wear resistance and low friction.

7.4 Design of Shaft:

The design of a shaft involves calculating various parameters to ensure that it can withstand the
applied loads and provide a sufficient factor of safety. Here are some key formulas commonly used in
shaft design:
𝑷∗𝟔𝟎
(a) Torque (T): 𝑻= 𝟐𝝅𝑵
Where: T is the torque (Nm),
 P is the power (Watts),
N is the rotational speed (revolutions per minute).
(b) Bending Moment (M):

𝑀 =𝐹∗𝐿
o Where: M is the bending moment (Nm),
 F is the Force (N),
 L is the length of specimen (m).
(c) Torsional Shear Stress (𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 ):
𝒅
𝑻∗𝒓 𝑻𝟐 𝟏𝟔𝑻
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = = 𝝅 = 𝟑
𝑱 𝒅𝟒 𝝅𝒅
𝟑𝟐
o where: 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum torsional shear stress (Pa or N/m²),
 T is the torque (Nm),
 r is the radius of the shaft (m),
 J is the polar moment of inertia.
(d) Bending Stress (𝝈𝒃 ):
𝒅
𝑴∗𝒚 𝑴𝟐 𝟑𝟐𝑴
𝝈𝒃 = = 𝝅 =
𝑰 𝒅𝟒 𝝅𝒅𝟑
𝟔𝟒
o Where: 𝜎𝑏 is the bending stress (Pa or N/m²),
 M is the bending moment (Nm),
 y is the distance from the neutral axis to the outer fiber (m),
 I is the moment of inertia.
(e) Equivalent Stress:
According to Maximum shear stress is given by,

𝜎𝑏 2 16𝑀 2 16𝑇 2 16
𝜏max = √( 2 √
) + (𝜏) = ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) = √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 ≤ [𝜏]
2 𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑 3

√𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 Is called equivalent torque, Te , such that

𝑇𝑒 𝑟
𝜏max. = ≤ [𝜏]
𝐽
According to Maximum principal stress is given by,

𝜎𝑏 𝜎𝑏 2 16𝑀 16𝑀 2 16𝑇 2 16

𝜎= √ 2
+ ( ) + (𝜏) = √
+ ( 3 ) + ( 3) = [𝑀 + √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 ] ≤ [𝜎𝑡 ]
2 2 𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑 3

[𝑀 + √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 ] Is called equivalent bending moment, Me, such that

𝑀𝑒 𝑦
𝜎= ≤ [𝜎𝑡 ]
𝐼
(f) Shaft Diameter (D):
1 1
32 𝑀 3 16 𝑇𝑒 3
𝐷 = 𝑀𝐼𝑁 [( 𝜋∗𝜎 𝑒) , (𝜋∗𝜏 )]
𝑏 𝑚𝑎𝑥
These formulas provide a basic framework for shaft design, where:
 J (polar moment of inertia) and
 I (moment of inertia) depend on the shaft's geometry and can be calculated differently
for various shaft cross-sections (circular, rectangular, etc.).
 𝜎𝑏 is the bending stress, and 𝜏max. is the maximum torsional shear stress.
 The factor of safety is typically applied to the calculated stresses to ensure the shaft's
reliability.
 8. Key and its design
8.1 Introduction:
 A key is a machine element crucial for connecting transmission shafts to rotating components
like pulleys, gears, sprockets, or flywheels.
 It provides a positive means of transmitting torque between the shaft and the hub of the
mating element.
 A slot, called a keyway, is machined in the shaft or hub or both to accommodate the key.

8.2 Types of Key:

1. Sunk Keys:
Shear Stress (τ):
𝑻
𝝉=𝟐
𝒃∗𝒍∗𝒅
𝟑
τ_ is the torsional shear stress (Pa or N/m²),
T is the torque (Nm),
b is the width of the key (m),
l is the length of the key (m),
(a) Rectangular Sunk Key:
Description: The simplest type with a rectangular cross-section and a taper on its top side.
Application: Commonly used where a straightforward key design is suitable.

Figure 8.1 Rectangular Sunk Key

(b) Square Sunk Key:
Description: Rectangular sunk key with equal width and thickness.
Application: Suitable for applications requiring a key with uniform dimensions.

(c) Parallel Sunk Key:

Description: A sunk key without a taper, uniform in width and thickness throughout.
Application: Used where sliding movement along the shaft is necessary.
(d) Gib-head Key:
Description: Rectangular sunk key with a head (gib head) at one end to aid in removal.
Application: Facilitates easy extraction of the key when needed.

Figure 8.2 Gib Head Key

(e) Feather Key:
Description: A parallel key integral to the shaft, allowing axial movement with a sliding fit.
Application: Permits axial movement and is suitable for specific design requirements.
 Figure 8.3 Feather Key
(f) Woodruff Key:
Description: A sunk key in the form of a semi-circular disc with uniform thickness.
Application: Used with tapered shafts, allowing tilting and self-alignment.

Figure 8.4 Woodruff Key

2. Saddle Keys:
𝑻
Shear Stress: 𝝉 = 𝒃∗𝒍∗𝒅
τ_ is the torsional shear stress (Pa or N/m²),
T is the torque (Nm),
b is the width of the key (m),
l is the length of the key (m),

(a) Flat Saddle Key:

Description: Saddle key with a flat bottom surface, suitable for applications with minimal torque
requirements.
Application: Offers stability with a flat surface machined on the shaft.

Figure 8.5 Saddle Keys Figure 8.6 Tangent Keys

(b) Hollow Saddle Key:

Description: Saddle key with a concave bottom surface, matching the circular shaft surface.
Application: Suitable for applications with slightly higher torque requirements.

3. Tangent Keys:
𝑻
Shear Stress: 𝝉 = 𝟐
𝒃∗𝒍∗𝒅
𝟑
 τ_ is the torsional shear stress (Pa or N/m²),
T is the torque (Nm),
b is the width of the key (m),
l is the length of the key (m),

(a) Single Tangent Key:

Description: Used to transmit torque in one direction, either individually or as part of a pair at right
angles.
Application: Suitable for specific torque transmission needs.
(b) Pair of Tangent Keys:
Description: Two tangent keys used together to transmit torque at right angles.
Application: Provides enhanced torque transmission capabilities.

4. Round Keys:
 Circular cross-section
 Fit into holes drilled partly in the shaft and hub
 Used for low torque transmission

5. Splines:
 Series of parallel ridges or grooves along the shaft and mating component
 Transmit higher torque loads
 Commonly used in automotive transmissions, industrial machinery, and aerospace systems

Figure 8.7 Round Key Figure 8.8 Splines

8.3 Key Advantages:

 Efficient Torque Transmission: Keys enable the effective transfer of torque between rotating
shafts and connected components.
 Positive Engagement: Ensure a secure and positive connection, preventing slipping or relative
motion.
 Ease of Assembly and Disassembly: Facilitate straightforward installation and removal during
maintenance or repairs.
 Compact Design: Contribute to a streamlined and space-efficient mechanical system design.
 Cost-Effective: Generally simple and economical to manufacture, providing a cost-effective
solution.
 Variety of Types: Diverse key types (sunk, saddle, tangent, round, splines) offer flexibility in
design.
 Adjustability: Some keys allow for fine-tuning, providing a degree of adjustability in the
connection.
 Uniform Stress Distribution: Well-designed keys help distribute loads evenly, reducing stress
concentrations.
 9. Springs
9.1 Springs:
 Essential elastic components, mechanical springs undergo deflection under load, reverting to
their original shape upon load removal.
 Their versatility enables applications across various scenarios, offering diverse functionalities.
 Springs play a crucial role in shock absorption, energy storage (common in clocks and toys),
force measurement (utilized in spring balances), and motion control (employed in mechanisms
like cam and follower systems).
9.2 Types of springs:
1. Helical springs:
 Constructed from a wire coiled into a helical shape.
 1f helix angle is less than or equal to 10∘ then it is called closed coil spring.
 If helix angle is greater than 10∘ then it is called open coil spring.

The best form of spring absorbs greatest amount of energy for a given stress. Spring stored
energy in the form of resilience.
Series and parallel arrangement of springs/Equivalent spring constant (𝑘eq )

1 1 1 1
In Series: 𝑘 = 𝑘 +𝑘 +⋯𝑘
𝑒𝑞 1 2 𝑛
In parallel: k eq = k1 + k 2 + ⋯ k n

 Point to remember:
1. 𝜎 Stiffness of spring inversely proportional to
number of coils in the spring.
2. Therefore when a spring cut into two parts
its stiffness become double for every individual part.
Cross-sections can be circular, square, or rectangular.
Two primary types:
(a) Compression helical springs designed for handling compressive loads.
(b) Tension helical springs engineered for managing tensile loads.

Figure 9.1 Helical Spring

 Closed coil helical spring under axial pull
 Axial deflection of spring ( 𝜹 )
8𝑊𝐶 3 𝑁 64𝑊𝑅 3 𝑁
Deflection (𝛿) = =
𝐺𝑑 𝐶𝑑 4
  Shear stress in spring (𝝉𝐦𝐚𝐱 )
𝟖 𝐊 𝒘 𝐅𝐂
𝝉𝐦𝐚𝐱 =
𝝅𝐝𝟐
 Stiffness of Spring (K)
𝑮. 𝒅
𝑲=
𝟖𝑪𝟑 𝑵
Here,
𝑊 = Applied load
𝐶 = Spring index
𝑑 = Spring wire diameter
𝐶 = Modulus of rigidity
𝑁 = Number of turn
𝐾𝑤 = Wahl's factor

𝑫
 Spring index (𝑪) =
𝒅

 Strain energy stored in spring (U)

𝟏
𝐔= 𝑻⋅𝜽
𝟐
Where, T = torque applied
θ = angular deflection

 Wahl's correction factor (𝒌𝒘 )/ Stress concentration factor (𝐤 𝐜 )

4𝐶 − 1 0.615
𝑘𝑤 = +
4𝐶 − 4 𝐶
4𝐶 − 1
𝑘𝑐 =
4𝐶 − 4
Here, 𝐶 = Spring index
 Points to remember:
 The average value of modulus of rigidity for steel used for spring equal to 79300MPa.
 Shot peening, result in raising the fatigue life of spring because it leave the surface in
compression.

3. Conical springs:
 Primarily operates in compression.
 The wire is coiled into the shape of a cone, making it suitable for applications requiring
variable spring rates.

Figure 9.2 Conical Spring

4. Torsion Springs:
 Available in helical and spiral configurations, specifically designed to handle torsional loads.
  These springs have a natural tendency to wind up under applied loads.
 The wire constituting torsion springs is subject to bending moments.

Figure 9.3 Torsion Spring

5. Leaf or Laminated Springs:
 Comprises flat plates (leaves) with a semi-elliptical shape, secured together using clamps and
bolts.
 Widely employed in automotive applications for their durability and flexibility.

Figure 9.4 Leaf Spring

 10. Belts Drive

10.1 Belt Drive Overview:

 A belt drive comprises two pulleys on each shaft and an endless belt with initial tension wrapped
around them.
 Power transmission occurs from the driver pulley to the belt and from the belt to the driven pulley
through friction.
 Friction between the belt and pulley surface sets the limit for maximum power transmission, with
excess leading to belt slipping.
 Belts have a finite lifespan and require periodic inspection for wear, aging, and loss of elasticity.
Replacement is necessary upon signs of deterioration.

10.2 Types of Belts:

(a) Flat Belts:

 Rectangular cross-section identifies flat belts.
 Suitable for transmitting moderate power within shafts less than 6m apart.
(b) V-Belts:
 Trapezoidal cross-section characterizes V-belts.
 Paired with pulleys of similar cross-section for higher power transmission between parallel shafts
with smaller center distances.
 Included angle in the pulley groove is smaller than the belt cross-section angle, preventing the belt
bottom from touching the pulley.
 Employed to enhance power transmission capacity.
 Multiple V-belts run on pulleys with multiple grooves, transferring power between shafts.

Figure 10.1 flat belt, v belt, and circular belt

(c) Circular Cross-Section Belts and Ropes:

 Utilized for transmitting large power across shafts exceeding 10m.
 Grooved pulleys (sheaves) with multiple grooves increase power transmission capacity.
 Rope fits into the groove, reducing slip chances.

10.3 Types of belt drive:

(a) Open Belt Drive:
 In an open belt drive, the belt is not enclosed and is exposed to the surroundings.
 The open design allows for easier installation and maintenance but may be susceptible to
environmental factors like dust and debris.
(b) Closed Belt Drive:
 A closed belt drive is enclosed, providing protection to the belt from external elements.
 This design helps prevent contamination and enhances the lifespan of the belt, making it suitable
for applications where cleanliness is crucial.
(c) Cross Belt Drive:
 In a cross belt drive, the belt is arranged in a crossed manner between the pulleys.
 This design helps to eliminate the need for a larger center distance between the pulleys and is
often used when space constraints are a consideration.
(d) Right-Angled Belt Drive:
 A right-angled belt drive involves the use of pulleys that are oriented at a right angle to each
other.
 This configuration is often employed when the shafts needing power transmission are not in line
and a change in direction is required.
(e) Idler Belt Drive:
 An idler belt drive includes an additional pulley, known as an idler pulley, which does not transmit
power but helps to guide and tension the belt.
 Idler pulleys are often used to change the direction of the belt or to provide additional wrap
around the pulleys, increasing friction and power transmission efficiency.

Figure 10.2 Types of Belt Drives

10.4 Belt Material
The belt material should have high coefficient of friction, tensile strength, wear resistance and
flexibility and low flexural rigidity. Commonly used belt materials are: Leather, Rubber, Balata, Cotton
or Fabric, Plastics.
10.5 Velocity Ratio
 Velocity Ratio is the ratio of speeds of driver and driven pulley. Let
N1 , d1 = speed (rpm) and diameter of driving pulley
N2 , d2 = speed (rpm) and diameter of driven pulley
Velocity Ratio,
𝑁2 𝑑1
=
𝑁1 𝑑2
If thickness of the belt is considered,
Velocity Ratio,
𝑁2 𝑑 +𝑡
= 1
𝑁1 𝑑2 +𝑡
Slip of belt over the pulleys reduces the velocity ratio. Let
s1 = percentage slip between driver and belt
S2 = percentage slip between belt & driven pulley
s = total percentage slip
Velocity Ratio,
𝑁2 𝑑1 +𝑡 𝑠
= [1 − ]
𝑁1 𝑑2 +𝑡 100

10.6 Length of the Belt

If 𝑑&𝐷 are diameters of smaller and larger pulleys respectively with 𝐶 as the centre distance between
the axes of the pulleys, length of the belt is given by,
𝜋 (𝑑−𝐷)2
𝐿 = 2𝐶 + 2 (𝑑 + 𝐷) + (for open belt drive)
4𝐶
𝜋 (𝑑+𝐷)2
𝐿 = 2𝐶 + 2 (𝑑 + 𝐷) + (for cross belt drive)
4𝐶

Figure 10.3 Open Belt Drive

10.7 Angle of Wrap
Angle of wrap on smaller (as ) and larger pulleys (al ) are given by,
D−d
𝛼s = 180∘ − 2sin−1 ( ) (for open belt drive)
2C
𝐷−𝑑
𝛼1 = 180∘ + 2sin−1 ( ) (for open belt drive)
2𝐶
10.8 Belt Tension: The initial tension in the belt, denoted as Ti, strategically enhances friction and
prevents slip even during inactive power transmission. Illustrated in a flat belt drive (Figure 10.3) with
a smaller pulley as the driver and a larger pulley as the driven component, the clockwise rotation of
the driver induces a tangential force on the belt, causing simultaneous tension increase on one side
and a corresponding decrease on the opposite side (dT). This tension change reflects the pulley's
exerted tangential force. The side with increased tension is termed the tight side, while the side with
decreased tension is the slack side. Understanding these tension dynamics is crucial for effective power
transmission and minimizing the risk of belt slip.

Figre 10.3 Belt Tension

Tension in tight side, 𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑖 + 𝑑𝑇

Tension in slack side, T2 = Ti − dT
T1 +T2
Therefore, Ti =
2
Ratio of tension in tight side and slack side is given by,
𝑻𝟏
= 𝒆𝝁𝜽 (for flat belt drive)
𝑻𝟐
𝑻𝟏
= 𝒆𝝁𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝜷 (for cross belt drive)
𝑻𝟐
Where, 𝜇 = coefficient of friction between belt & pulley
Θ = angle of contact
𝛽 = half of the groove angle of 𝑣-belt
When the belt operates at higher speeds, centrifugal force acts on it, which increases the tension in
the belt. This additional tension in the belt due to the centrifugal force is called centrifugal tension
and it can be proved that, centrifugal tension,

𝐓𝐜 = 𝐦𝐯 𝟐
where, 𝑚 = mass of the belt per unit length
v= velocity of the belt in (m/s)
Therefore the tensions in the tight and slack side increase by an amount equal to 𝑇𝑐 . The maximum
tension in the belt then becomes,
𝐓 = 𝐓𝟏 + 𝐓𝐜
If 𝑏 and 𝑡 are width & thickness of a flat belt and [𝜎] is the maximum allowable stress in the belt,
maximum permissible tension for it can be given by,
[𝐓] = maximum stress × cross-sectional area = [𝝈]𝐛𝐭
For belt to run safely, maximum tension in the belt should not cross the permissible limit i.e.
10.9 Power Transmitted by Belt Drive
Power transmitted by the belt is given by, 𝑷 = (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 )𝐕
T1 1
∴ P = [T1 − 𝜇𝜎 ] v = T1 v [1 − 𝜇𝜔 ]
e e
1 1
= [T − T𝑒 ]v [1 − 𝜇0 ] = (T − mv 2 )v [1 − 𝜇𝜔 ]
e e
To obtain the condition for maximum power transmission,
𝑑𝑃
=0
𝑑𝑣
𝑑 1
[(𝑇 − 𝑚2 )𝑣 (1 − 𝜇𝜃 )] = 0
𝑑𝑣 𝑒
1 𝑑
(1 − 𝑢𝜃 ) (𝑇𝑣 − 𝑚𝑣 3 ) − 0
𝑒 𝑑𝑣
𝑻
𝑻 − 𝟑𝒎𝒗𝟐 = 𝟎 or 𝒗 = √
𝟑𝒎
𝑇
𝑻 = 𝟑𝑻𝒄 or 𝑇𝑐 − =0
3

To optimize power transmission, the centrifugal tension in the belt should ideally be one-third of
𝑇
the maximum permissible tension in the belt, or the velocity of the belt must be√3𝑚.
 11. Gears and Its Terminology
11.1 Introduction:
 Gears serve as machine elements for transmitting motion and power between shafts
through the progressive engagement of teeth.
 Gear drives are positive, ensuring a constant velocity ratio, allowing them to transmit large
power at low speeds with high efficiency.
 Gears require less space compared to belt and chain drives, but manufacturing costs are
high, and precision is crucial to avoid noise and vibrations during operation.
 Accurate shaft alignment and proper lubrication are essential for gear functionality.

11.2 Types of Gears:

(a) Spur Gears:
 Teeth are parallel to the axis of rotation, suitable for parallel shafts.
 Simplest type of gears, imposing radial loads on the shafts.

Figure 11.1 Types of gear

(b) Helical Gears:
 These gears are used for parallel shafts, with teeth inclined to the axis of rotation.
 Gradual engagement of teeth during meshing reduces noise compared to spur gears.
 Develop axial thrust loads in addition to radial loads.
 Sometimes employed for transmitting motion between nonparallel shafts.
(c) Bevel Gears:
 It’s shaped like a truncated cone, used for transmitting power between intersecting shafts.
 It can have straight or spiral teeth.
(d) Worm Gears:
 Worm in the form of a threaded screw engages with a wheel.
 Shafts' axes are neither parallel nor intersecting, generally at right angles.
 Possess very high reduction ratios.
These diverse gear types cater to various applications, offering solutions for transmitting power
and motion in different orientations and conditions.

11.3 Gear terminology

 Pitch Surface: Imaginary cylinder surfaces that roll together without slipping, providing the
same motion as actual gears.
 Pitch Circle: Intersection of the pitch surface and a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
 Pitch Circle Diameter: Diameter of the pitch circle.
 Pitch Point: Tangent point where the pitch circles of two mating gears meet.
 Base Circle: Circle generating the tooth profile curve.
 Addendum Circle: Circle bounding the outer ends of the teeth.
 Dedendum Circle: Circle bounding the inner ends of the teeth.
 Addendum: Radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum circle or the height
of the tooth above the pitch circle.
 Dedendum: Radial distance between the pitch circle and the dedendum circle or the depth
of the tooth below the pitch circle.
 Clearance: The amount by which dedendum of a gear exceeds the addendum of the mating
gear.
 Backlash: The amount by which the width of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of the
mating tooth.
 Circular Pitch: Distance between two similar points on adjacent teeth measured along the
pitch circle. Given by a formula involving pitch circle diameter (d) and the number of teeth
(Z).
 Diametral Pitch: Number of teeth per unit length of the pitch circle diameter. Given by a
specific formula.
 Module: Ratio of pitch circle diameter to the number of teeth, calculated by a designated
formula.

Figure 11.2 Gear Terminology

11.4 Gear Profiles: Involute and Cycloidal
 Fundamental Law of Gearing: The Fundamental Law of Gearing states that the common
normal to the tooth profile at the point of contact should always pass through the pitch point.
This principle ensures proper engagement and smooth operation of gears.

 Involute Curve:
 The involute is the curve traced by a point on a line that rolls on a circle without slipping.
 Involute teeth have a profile made of a single curve, simplifying the manufacturing process.
 The pressure angle remains constant, contributing to the consistent performance of involute
gears.

 Cycloidal Curve:
 The cycloid is a curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle rolling without slipping
on a fixed straight line.
 Cycloidal teeth have an epicycloid curve as their profile above the pitch circle and a
hypercycloid curve below the pitch circle.
 However, the combination of these two curves makes the accurate manufacturing of cycloid
teeth challenging.
 The pressure angle in cycloidal teeth doesn't remain constant, presenting a drawback.

 Epicycloid and Hypercycloid:

 An epicycloid is the curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle rolling without
slipping on the outside of a fixed circle.
 A hypercycloid is the curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle rolling without
slipping on the inside of a fixed circle.

 Advantages and Disadvantages:

Involute Teeth:
 Made of a single curve, simplifying manufacturing.
 Constant pressure angle for consistent performance.
 Widely used due to ease of production and reliable operation.
Cycloidal Teeth:
 Profile involves a combination of curves, making manufacturing more complex.
 Pressure angle varies, affecting performance.
 Cycloidal gears have become obsolete due to these disadvantages.
 12. Pressure Vessel
12.1 Pressure Vessels: A pressure vessel is a container designed to hold gases or liquids at a
pressure substantially different from the ambient pressure. These vessels are used in various
industries for storing, processing, and transporting fluids under pressure. The design, construction,
and operation of pressure vessels are governed by engineering standards and codes to ensure safety.
12.2 Types of Pressure Vessels
Pressure vessel are mainly of two type:
(i) Thin shells
If the thickness of the wall of the shell is less than 1/10 to 1/15 of its diameter, then shell is
called thin shells.
𝐷𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡< to
10 15
Applications: Thin-walled vessels are common in everyday applications, such as pipes and tubes,
where the wall thickness is small compared to the overall dimensions.
Point to remember:
For thin shell, it is assumed that the normal stresses, which may be either tensile or compressive
are uniformly distributed through the thickness of wall.

(ii) Thick Shells

If the thickness of the wall of the shell is greater than 1/10 to 1/ 15 of its diameter, then shell is
called thick shells.
𝐷𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡> to
10 15
Applications: Thick-walled vessels are used in situations where the wall thickness is comparable to
or larger than the vessel's radius. Examples include certain types of pressure vessels used in heavy
industries like chemical processing and petrochemical plants.

12.3 Nature of stress in thin cylindrical shell subjected to internal pressure

(i) Hoop stress /circumferential stress will be tensile in nature.
(ii) Longitudinal stress/axial stress will be tensile in nature.
(iii) Radial stress will be compressive in nature.
Points to remember:
Radial compressive stress varies from a value at the inner surface equal to pressure ' 𝑃 ' to the
atmospheric pressure at the outside surface.
add If internal pressure in thin cylinders is low, the radial stress is negligible compared with
axial stress and hoop stress. This radial stress is neglected.
12.4 Analysis of thin cylinder

Figure 12.1 Failure of Thin Cylindrical Shell along the Figure 31.2 Hoop Stress in Thin Cylindrical Shell
Longitudinal Axis

Longitudinal Stress
 pd
𝜎L =
4t
Hoop Stress
pd
𝜎h =
2t
Longitudinal Strain
pd
𝜖L = (1 − 24)
4t𝐸
Hoop Strain
pd
𝜖h = (2 − 𝜇)
4t𝐸
Here,
𝑝 = Pressure of fluid
𝑡 = Thickness of cylinder
𝑑 = Inside diameter
𝜇 = Poisson's ratio

Figure 12.1 Failure of Thin Cylindrical Shell Figure 31.2 Longitudinal Stress in Thin
along the Transverse Section Cylindrical Shell

Ratio of Hoop Strain to Longitudinal Strain

𝜖ℎ 2−𝜇
=
𝜖L 1 − 2𝜇
Volumetric Strain (𝝐𝐯 ) of Cylinder
pd
𝜖v = (5 − 4𝜇)
4t𝐸
Points to remember:
 If fluid is compressible, volumetric strain will be
pd p
𝜖𝑣 = (5 − 4𝜇) +
4t𝐸 K
k = Bulk modulus of fluid
P =Pressure of fluid
𝜎 Minimum thickness of cylinder required for a given pressure ' P ' and diameter ' d ' is
𝑝𝑑
𝑡≥
2𝜎
12.5 Analysis of thin sphere
 Hoop stress/longitudinal stress
𝑝𝑑
𝜎𝐿 = 𝜎ℎ =
4𝑡
 Hoop strain/longitudinal strain
𝑝𝑑
𝜖𝐿 = 𝜖ℎ = (1 − 𝜇)
4𝑡𝐸
 Volumetric strain of sphere
3𝑝𝑑
𝜖𝑣 = (1 − 𝜇)
4𝑡𝐸
Points to remember:
Thickness ratio for cylindrical shell (t c ) and sphere (t s ), for same strain in both side.
𝑡𝑐 2 − 𝜇
=
𝑡𝑠 1 − 𝜇
Thickness ratio for cylindrical shell (t c ) and sphere(t s ), for same maximum stress in both side.
𝑡𝑐
=2
𝑡𝑠
 Wire winding is done for strenghting thin shell. Compounding and Auto frottage is done for
thick shell cylinders.

12.6 Analysis of Thick Cylinders/Lame's Theorem

 Lame's assumption
(i) Material of shell is homogeneous.
(ii) Plane section of cylinder, perpendicular to longitudinal axis remains plane under pressure.
 Subjected to internal pressure
𝑃[𝑅02 +𝑅𝑖2 ]
(i) At 𝑥 = 𝑅𝑖 𝜎ℎ = 𝑅02 −𝑅𝑖2

2𝑃𝑅 2
(ii) At 𝑥 = 𝑅0 , 𝜎ℎ = 𝑅2 −𝑅𝑖 2
0 𝑖
 13. Power Screw

12.1 Power Screw: A power screw is a mechanical device designed to convert rotary motion
into linear motion while efficiently transmitting power. It consists of two essential components: the
screw and the nut, with a mechanism to hold them in place.

12.2 Components of a Power Screw:

 Screw: The primary component that undergoes rotary motion.
 Nut: The counterpart to the screw, facilitating linear motion.
 Holding Mechanism: Ensures the stability of the screw and nut in their respective positions.

12.3 Applications of Power Screw:

 Lifting Loads: Power screws, such as those in screw jacks, are utilized to raise heavy loads
efficiently.
 Machining Operations: The lead screw of a lathe provides accurate motion for machining
operations.
 Workpiece Clamping: Power screws, as seen in vices, are employed to securely clamp
workpieces.
 Material Testing: Universal testing machines use power screws to load specimens for various
tests.

12.4 Advantages of Power Screw

 Large Load Carrying Capacity: Power screws can handle substantial loads.
 Compact Construction: The overall dimensions are small, contributing to a compact design.
 Mechanical Advantage: Despite their size, power screws provide a significant mechanical
advantage, allowing the lifting of heavy loads with relatively small efforts.
 Precise Linear Motion: Power screws offer highly accurate and precise linear motion.

12.5 Disadvantages of Power Screw

 Poor Efficiency: The efficiency of power screws can be as low as 40%.
 High Friction: Friction in the threads can lead to rapid wear over time.

Additional Points to Consider

 Material Choice: Square thread-nuts are typically made of softer materials to enhance
performance.
 Wear Compensation: In trapezoidal threads, split-type nuts are employed to compensate for
wear.
Applications and Efficiency
 In power transmission applications requiring high efficiency, lead screws and presses are
commonly used.
 For self-locking purposes, applications like screw jacks, clamps, and vices are preferred.
 V-threads are not suitable for power screws due to high friction.
 Threads with smaller angles, such as trapezoidal threads, are favoured for power
transmission applications.

12.6 Types of Threads in Power Screws

1. Square Thread (Used in Screw Jacks, Presses, and Clamping Devices): The profile of a square
thread is characterized by a square-shaped thread form. The flanks of the threads are
perpendicular to the axis of the screw, creating a square cross-section.
 Efficiency: Square threads exhibit higher efficiency in power transmission.
 Radial Pressure: No radial pressure or side thrust is exerted on the nut, leading to an
extended nut life.
 Manufacturing: Manufacturing is challenging, usually requiring turning on a lathe with a
single-point cutting tool.
 Load Carrying Capacity: Square threads have reduced thickness at the core diameter, limiting
their load-carrying capacity.
 Wear Compensation: Wear is compensated by utilizing a nut made of a soft material.

2. Trapezoidal Thread: Trapezoidal threads have a trapezoid-shaped profile. The flanks are inclined
at a specific angle to the axis, typically 30 degrees.
 Efficiency: Trapezoidal threads generally have lower efficiency compared to square threads.
 Side Thrust: Side thrust is present in trapezoidal threads.
 Manufacturing: Easy to manufacture using a thread milling machine with a multi-point
cutting tool, resulting in cost-effectiveness.
 Strength: Trapezoidal threads have more thread thickness at the core diameter, enhancing
strength.
 Wear Compensation: Axial wear on the surface can be compensated by using a split-type
nut.

Square Thread Acme Thread Buttress Thread

3. Acme Thread (Used in Power Transmission Screws, Lead Screws): Acme threads are identical
to trapezoidal threads in all aspects, except the thread angle is 29° instead of 30°. Their
advantages and disadvantages align with those of trapezoidal threads.

4. Buttress Thread (Used in Vices): A Buttress Thread is a type of screw thread characterized by
one side having a steep, almost perpendicular, angle while the other side features a sloping or
tapered shape.
 Application: Buttress threads are used in vices, combining the advantages of both square and
trapezoidal threads.
 Axial Force: They are employed where a heavy axial force acts along the screw axis in one
direction only.
 Advantages:
i. Higher efficiency compared with trapezoidal threads.
ii. Manufactured using a thread milling machine.
iii. Stronger than both square and trapezoidal threads.
 Disadvantages:
i. Can transmit power and motion only in one direction.
Point to Remember:
Buttress threads are ideally suited for connecting tubular components, such as barrel housing in
anti-aircraft guns.

12.7 Torque Required to Raise & Lower the Load in Power Screws
Power screws play a crucial role in converting applied torque into axial force, enabling them to lift
or lower loads. Understanding the torque requirements is essential for designing and analysing these
systems. Here, we delve into the factors influencing the torque needed for raising and lowering
loads.
Parameters:
p: Pitch of the screw
dm: Mean diameter of the screw
α: Helix angle
L: Lead of the screw between the screw and nut
P: Effort applied at the circumference of the screw to lift the load
W: Load to be lifted
μ: Coefficient of friction
Inclined Plane Analogy:
A screw thread can be likened to an inclined plane wrapped around a
cylinder, forming a helix. The relative motion between the nut and the screw, against the external
load, is analogous to the movement of a weight on an inclined plane.
Force Diagrams:
For Raising Load For Lowering Load

Analysis:
This relationship is expressed by the equation:
 The torque required to raise/lower the load is given by,
Pd Wd
For Raising Load Tr = 2m = 2 m tan(𝜑 + 𝛼)
Pdm Wdm
For Lowering Load 𝑇𝑙 = = tan(𝜑 − 𝛼)
2 2

12.8 Condition for Self-Locking and over-hauling in Power Screws

In the context of power screws, self-locking is a critical consideration to prevent unintended descent or
"overhauling" of the load. The condition for a power screw to be self-locking is determined by the
relationship between the helix angle (ϕ) and the angle of friction (α).
Torque Equation for Lowering Load:
Wdm
Tl = tan(𝜑 − 𝛼)
2
𝟏
1. If 𝝋 > 𝜶 or 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝋 > 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜶 or 𝝁 > 𝝅𝐝 or 𝝁𝝅𝐝𝐦 > 𝐥
𝐦

 In this scenario, a positive torque is required to lower the load (𝜑 > 𝛼, T>0).
 The load cannot descend on its own without the application of external torque.
 Screws exhibiting this characteristic are referred to as "self-locking" screws.

𝟏
2. If 𝝋 < 𝜶 or 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝋 < 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜶 or 𝝁 < 𝝅𝐝 or 𝝁𝝅𝐝𝐦 < 𝐥
𝐦

 In this case, the torque required to lower the load (T) becomes negative.
 Negative torque implies that the load can descend without the need for external torque.
 This condition is known as "overhauling" of the screw.
 Overhauling is undesired, especially in applications like screw jacks, as it may lead to
accidents.

12.8 Efficiency of a Square Screw Thread

If load W moves from the lowest point to the highest point along the inclined plane. Then the output
and input work is given by,
Work output = W. L
Work input = P. 𝜋dm
The efficiency of the screw is given by,
work output W. L W tan 𝛼
𝜂= = = tan 𝛼 =
work input P𝜋dm P tan(𝜑 + 𝛼)
 13. Bearing

13.1 Introduction to Bearings: In the realm of mechanical systems, the interplay of various machine
elements inevitably leads to relative motion, resulting in power loss due to friction and wear on
contacting surfaces. Bearings emerge as pivotal machine components, facilitating controlled relative
motion between two elements while transmitting loads with minimal friction. Consider a transmission
shaft and its housing; here, bearings strategically placed at support points mitigate power losses by
reducing friction between the shaft and housing, effectively transferring loads.

13.2 Classification of Bearings:

1. Depending upon Direction of Load:
i. Radial Bearings: Support loads perpendicular to the shaft axis.
ii. Thrust Bearings: Support loads parallel to the axis of the shaft.

Radial Bearings Thrust Bearings

2. Depending upon Nature of Contact:

i. Sliding Contact Bearings:
 Mechanism: Sliding occurs between moving and fixed elements.
 Lubrication: Sliding surfaces are separated by a lubricating oil film.
 Applications: Engine crankshaft bearings, centrifugal pumps, turbines, large electric
motors, concrete mixers, rope conveyors, etc.

Sliding Contact Bearings Rolling Contact Bearings

ii. Rolling Contact Bearings:

 Mechanism: Rolling elements (balls or rollers) introduced between surfaces with relative
motion.
 Friction: Characterized by rolling friction, known as antifriction bearings.
 Applications: Automobile axles, gearboxes, machine tool spindles, small electric motors,
crane hooks, etc.

13.3 Comparison of Sliding and Rolling Contact Bearings:

 Sliding Contact Bearings:
 High starting friction due to metal-to-metal contact.
 Gradual friction reduction with increasing speed.
 High starting torque and lubricant consumption.
 Insensitive to impacts, operates at high speeds, infinite service life.
  Rolling Contact Bearings:
 Virtually zero friction during pure rolling.
 Low starting torque and lubricant consumption.
 Sensitive to shocks, limited maximum speed and service life.
 Used in driving units due to low starting torque, ease of maintenance, and standardized
replacement.

13.4 Rolling Contact Bearings:

In rolling contact bearings, the elements facilitate rolling
contact and consist of four main parts:

 Outer Race: Stationary component fitted in the

housing.
 Inner Race: Rotates with the shaft, mounted on it.
 Balls/Rollers: Rolling elements positioned between the
races.
 Retainers: Maintain uniform spacing between balls or
rollers.

Various types of rolling contact bearings, showcased in Figure below, include:

a) Single Row Deep Groove Ball Bearing: The most common type of rolling contact bearing, capable
of withstanding both axial and radial loads. Under radial loads, contact occurs along a vertical
line. Slight displacement of rings under axial loads allows the balls to roll against the side walls
of the races.
Application: Primarily used for supporting shafts in gearboxes.

b) Single Row Angular Contact Bearing: Races equipped with shoulders (higher and lower), forming
an acute angle with the bearing shaft axis at the contact points of balls. Angular contact design,
along with an elliptical contact area, makes it suitable for heavy axial loads. Often used in pairs
for bidirectional axial support.
Applications: Supporting wheel hubs, shafts of differential gear, and steering gears like rack and pinion.

c) Double Row Angular Contact Ball Bearing: A compounded unit comprising two single-row
angular contact bearings. Designed to support axial loads in opposite directions, in addition to
the radial load. Ideal for applications involving shafts with worm gears, angled spur gears, bevel
gears, etc.

d) Self-Aligning Ball Bearings: Equipped with a spherical outer race, enabling deflection of the inner
race and shaft concerning the outer race. This design compensates for deflection or
misalignment of the shaft. Radial load capacity is lower than that of a corresponding deep groove
ball bearing.
Applications: Used in scenarios where there's a possibility of shaft bending, mounting inaccuracies,
misalignment, such as transmissions, agricultural machinery, and conveying machinery.

e) Cylindrical Roller Bearings: Cylindrical rollers establish a line contact with the races, enabling the
bearing to support larger radial loads compared to a ball bearing of similar size. However, its axial
load-carrying capacity is limited, requiring accurate alignment. Races are equipped with flanges
to guide the rollers.
Applications: Commonly used in electric motors, gearboxes, and rail car axles.

f) Needle Roller Bearings: A specialized type of cylindrical roller bearing with smaller-diameter
rolling elements (1.5mm to 4.5mm) having a length-to-diameter ratio of 3 to 8. Efficient in taking
high radial loads and withstanding fluctuating loads. Not suitable for axial loading and sensitive
to shaft misalignment.
Applications: Supporting connecting rods, swivel arms, rocker shafts, and spindles.

g) Taper Roller Bearings: Tapered rollers with a frustum-of-a-cone shape. Capable of taking both
radial and thrust loads. The design ensures pure rolling without slippage along the entire length
of the roller. Often used in pairs to support axial thrust in both directions. Double-row taper
roller bearings support higher radial and axial thrust in compact spaces.
Applications: Utilized for shafts with worm and bevel gears, machine tool spindles, cable pulleys, and
wheel hubs.

h) Spherical Roller Bearings: Featuring two rows of spherical rollers running on a common
cylindrical surface of the outer race. The inner race retains two rows of rollers, allowing
accommodation of misalignment between the two races. Falls under the category of self-aligning
bearings due to the compensation of misalignment and angular deflection of shafts.
Applications: Used for cable pulleys, propelling shafts, heavy wheels, and crankshafts.

i) Single Row Thrust Ball Bearing: Comprising two grooved annular disc plates with balls retained
between them. Designed exclusively for taking axial loads in one direction, with one stationary
raceway and the other attached to the rotating member. Higher friction due to sliding of balls
necessitates larger grooves to reduce contact area.
Applications: Applied in scenarios like injection pump governor linkage, steering boxes, and other
applications requiring support for thrust loads.
13.5 Selection of Bearing
Application Type of Bearing
Low/medium radial load Ball bearing
Heavy load Roller Bearing
Mis-alignment Self-aligning bearing, Spherical roller bearing
Medium thrust Thrust ball bearing
Heavy thrust Cylindrical thrust bearing
Load in either direction Double acting thrust bearing
Deep groove bearing, angular contact bearing,
Radial and Thrust load both
Spherical-roller bearing
High speed Deep groove bearing, angular contact bearing
Rigidity Double row cylindrical bearing, taper roller bearing
Less Noise Deep groove ball bearing

13.6 Static Load Carrying Capacity

 Static Load
It is defined as the load acting on the bearing when the shaft is stationary.
 Static load carrying capacity
It is defined as the static load which corresponds to a total permanent deformation of ball and
races at the most heavily stressed point of contact equal the 0.0001 of the ball diameters.
13.7 Dynamic Load Carrying Capacity
It is defined as the radial load in radial bearing (Thrust load in thrust bearing) that can be carried for a
minimum life of one million revolution. It is based assumption that inner race is rotating and outer
race is stationary.

13.8 Equivalent/Actual Bearing Load

The equivalent dynamic load is defined as the constant radial load in radial bearing (Thrust load in
thrust bearing), which if applied to the bearing would give same life as that which the bearing will
attain in actual condition.
Feq. = 𝑋𝑉𝐹r + YFa
Feq. = Equivalent dynamic load (N)
Fr = Radial load
Fa = Axial load
X = Radial factor
Y = Thrust factor
V = Race-rotation factor
= 1 when inner race rotates
= 1.2 when outer race rotates.
Point to remember:
 In case of pure radial load Feq. will be equal to radial load and in case of pure axial load Feq. will
be equal to axial load.
13.9 Bearing Life under Variable Load
𝐶 𝑞
𝐿 = ( ) million revolution
𝐹
Here,
𝐶 = Dynamic load capacity
F = Equivalent dynamic load
C
= Loading rate
F
Point to remember: The value of 𝑞 = 3 for ball bearing and 𝑞 = 10/3 for roller bearing.

13.10 Designation of Ball-Bearing

PQRS
Here, P = Types of bearing
Q = Indicates series
1 - Extra light 2 - Light
3-Medium 4-Heavy
R 𝑆 = When multiply by 5, it gives shaft diameter in mm.
13.11 Bearing Failure
 Abrasive Wear
Cause: Dust, Rust, Spatter.
Remedies: Oil seal, increase surface hardness, uses of high viscosity oil.
 Corrosive wear
Cause: Water, moisture, corrosive element in lubricant.
Remedies: Complete enclosure, Proper additive.
 14. Rivet Joint

14.1 RIVETED JOINT: A rivet consist of a cylindrical shank with a head at one end. This head is formed
on shank by an upsetting process. In rivet terminology, the closing head is called point. The cylindrical
portion of the rivet is called shank or body and lower portion of shank is known as tail. The rivets are
used for permanent fastening. The riveted joints are widely used for joining light metals.
 The function of rivets in a joint is to make a connection that has strength and tightness.

14.2 Type of Riveting

 When a cold rivet is used, the process is known as cold riveting and when a hot rivet is used the
process is known as hot riveting.
 The cold riveting process is used for structural joint while hot riveting is used to make leak proof
joints.
Points to remember:
 The material of the rivets must be tough and ductile. They are usually made of steel, brass,
aluminium, but when strength and fluid tight joint is the main consideration then the steel rivets
are used.
 In hot riveting, the shank of rivet is subjected to tensile stress.
 In cold riveting, shank is mainly subjected to shear stress.
 Riveted joints are used for metals with poor weldability like aluminium alloys. It is useful in case
of joint which is subjected to vibration and impact force.

14.3 Terminology of Riveted Joints

 Pitch (p):The pitch of the rivet is defined as the distance between the Centre of one rivet to the
Centre of the adjacent rivet in the same row. Usually
𝑝 = 3𝑑
Where; 𝑑 = Shank diameter the rivet
 Margin (m): The margin is the distance between the edge of the plate to the centre line of rivets
in the nearest row. Usually,
 Transverse Pitch (𝒑𝟏 ): Transverse pitch, also called back pitch or row pitch, is the distance
between two consecutive rows of rivets in the same plate. Usually,
𝑝1 = 0.8 𝑝 (for chain riveting)
= 0.6 𝑝 (for zig-zag riveting)
 Diagonal Pitch (𝒑𝒅 ): Diagonal pitch is the distance between the centre of one rivet to the centre
of the adjacent rivet located in the adjacent row.

14.4 Strength Equation for Rivet

 The strength of riveted joint is defined as the force that the joint can withstand without causing
failure.
In analysis of riveted joints, mainly three types of failure are considered. They are as follows:
(i) Shear failure of the rivet.
(ii) Tensile failure of the plate between rivets.
(iii) Crushing failure of the plate.
i. Shear Strength of Rivet
𝝅
𝑷𝒔 = 𝒅𝟐 𝝉𝒏
𝟒
Here, 𝑑 = Shank diameter of rivet
𝜏 = Permissible shear stress for rivet
 n = Number of rivet per pitch length
𝜋
𝑃𝑠 = 2 [ 𝑑 2 𝜏𝑛] [For double shear]
4

ii. Tensile Strength of Plate Between Rivets

𝑷𝒕 = (𝐩 − 𝒅). 𝒕. 𝝈𝒕
Here,
𝑃1 = Tensile resistance of plate per pitch length (𝑁)
p = Pitch of rivets (mm)
t = Thickness of plate (mm)
𝜎1 = Permissible tensile stress of plate material (N/mm2 )

iii. Crushing Strength of Plate

𝑷𝒄 = 𝐧. 𝒅. 𝒕. 𝝈𝒄
Where, 𝑃𝑐 = Crushing resistance of plate per pitch length (𝑁)
N
𝜎c = Permissible compressive stress of plate material (mm2 )

14.5 Efficiency of Joint: The efficiency of the riveted joint is defined as the
ratio of the strength of riveted joint to the strength of unriveted solid plate.
The strength of solid plate of width, equal to the pitch (𝑝) and thickness (t),
subjected to tensile stress (𝜎t ) is given by,
𝐏 = 𝒑. 𝒕. 𝝈𝒕
Therefore, the elficiency is given by,
Lowest of 𝑷𝐬 , 𝑷𝒕 , and 𝑷𝐜
𝜼=
𝐏

14.6 Caulking and Fullering: In order to make the joints leak proof or fluid tight in pressure vessels
like steam boilers, air receivers and tanks etc. a process known as caulking is employed. In this process
a narrow blunt tool called caulking tool, about 5 mm thick and 38 mm in breadth is used. The edge of
the tool is ground to an angle of 80∘ . The tools burrs down the plate in forming a metal to metal Joint.
A more satisfactory way of making the joints staunch is known as fullering which has largely super sided
caulking. In this case a fullering tool with a thickness at the end equal to that of the plate is used in such
a way that the greatest pressure due to the blows occur near the joint, giving a clean finish with less risk
of damaging the plate.
 15. Columns & Strut
15.1 Strut: Structural member subjected to axial compressive load is called strut. Common examples
of struts include push rods in valve mechanisms, piston rods within hydraulic/pneumatic cylinders,
connecting rods, and power screws.
15.2 Column: Vertical structural member fixed at both ends and subjected to axial compressive load
is called column. Examples of columns include those found in building frameworks and support
structures.
15.3 Buckling Failure : Euler's Theory
 Assumption in Euler's theory
(i) Axis of column is perfectly straight when unloaded.
(ii) Compressive load is perfectly axially applied.
(iii) Stress in structure are within elastic limit.
(iv) Flexural rigidity is same.
(v) Material is isotropic and homogeneous. column is very ling compare with cows section.

 Limitation of Euler's Formula

(i) There is always crookedness in the column and the load may not be exactly axial.
(ii) This formula does not take account the axial stress and the buckling load given by this formula
may be much more than the actual buckling load.
𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝑷𝒆 =
𝒍𝟐𝐞
𝑃𝑒 = Buckling load
𝐼min = Moment of inertia about centroidal axis
𝑙𝑒 = Effective length
Points to remember:
 It is applicable for long column
 Effect of crushing is neglected.

15.4 Euler's load for different column with different end Condition

End Condition Effective Length (le)

Both Ends Hinged L
One End Fixed, Other Free 2L
L
Both Ends Fixed
2
L
One End Fixed, Other Hinged
√2

15.5 Slenderness Ratio (S): Slenderness ratio of a compression member is defined as the ratio of its
effective length to radius of gyration.
𝑳𝒆
𝐿𝑒 = Effective length 𝑆 =
𝑲
K = Least radius of gyration
𝒍𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝑲=√
𝐀
80 ⩽ 𝑆 ⩽ 120 medium 𝑆 > 120 long
 𝑷𝒆 𝝅𝟐 𝑬
∴ Buckling stress: (𝝈𝒃 ) = =
𝑨 𝒔𝟐
15.6 Rankine's Formula
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑷𝐑 𝑷𝑪 𝑷𝐞
Rankine load = 𝐏𝐑
Crushing load = 𝐏𝐂 = 𝝈𝐜 × 𝐀
𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝒍𝐦𝐢𝐧
Buckling load = 𝑷𝒆 = 𝑳𝟐𝒆
𝑨𝝈𝒄
𝑷𝒓 =
𝑳𝒆 𝟐
𝟏 + 𝒂( )
𝒌
Here,
𝑨 = Area of column
𝝈𝒄
𝒂 = 𝟐 = Rankin's constant
𝝅 𝑬
Points to remember:
 This formula is applicable to any column.
 Effect of crushing and buckling is considered in this formula.
 16. DESIGN OF COUPLINGS
16.1 Introduction: Couplings are used to connect two rotating shafts to transmit torque from one
to the other. For example coupling is used to connect the output shaft of an electric motor to the input
shaft of a hydraulic pump.

16.2 Types of Shafts Couplings

1. Rigid Couplings
Rigid Couplings are used to connect two shafts which are perfectly aligned. These are simple and
inexpensive.
Rigid Couplings are of following types:
i. Sleeve or Muff Coupling
ii. Clamp or Split-muff or Compression Coupling
iii. Flange Coupling
2. Flexible Couplings
Flexible couplings are used to connect two shafts having lateral or angular misalignment. Flexible
elements provided in flexible coupling absorb shocks and vibrations.
Flexible Couplings are of following types:
i. Bushed pin type Coupling
ii. Universal Coupling
iii. Oldham Coupling

16.3 Sleeve or Muff Coupling

16.3.1 Introduction
 Muff coupling assembly, illustrated in Figure 16.1, involves a hollow cylinder known as the sleeve.
 The sleeve is fitted onto the ends of both the input and output shafts using a sunk key.
 Torque is transmitted from the input shaft to the sleeve through the key and then from the sleeve
to the output shaft using the same key.
 The design and manufacturing of the muff coupling are simple, but assembly and disassembly
can be challenging.
 This coupling requires more axial space and has compact radial dimensions.
 The sleeve is typically made of cast iron, with a larger safety factor of 6-8 based on its ultimate
strength.
 Standard proportions, such as an Outer diameter of the sleeve is D = 2d + 13 and Length of the
sleeve is L = 3.5d.
where d is the diameter of the shaft.
So the muff coupling has three main components: shafts, sleeve and key.

Figure 16.1 Muff Coupling

16.3.2 Design of Sleeve or Muff Coupling

 Design of Shafts
Shafts are designed on the basis of torsional shear stress induced because of the torque to be
transmitted. Shear stress induced in shaft for transmitting torque, T is given by,
𝑻𝒓
𝝉 = 𝑱 ≤ [𝝉]
Where T = Twisting moment (or torque) acting upon the shaft,
J = Polar moment of inertia of the shaft about the axis of rotation
r = Distance from neutral axis to the outer most fibre = d/2
So dimensions of the shaft can be determined from above relation for a known value of allowable shear
stress, [τ].

 Sleeve Design
As discussed earlier, following relations are used to calculate the dimensions.
D = 2d + 13 L = 3.5d
Then the torsional shear stress in the sleeve is checked considering it as a hollow shaft.
𝑻𝒓
Shear stress, 𝝉 = 𝑱 ≤ [𝝉]
where, T = Twisting moment (or torque) to be transmitted
J = Polar moment of inertia about the axis of rotation
r = Distance from neutral axis to the outer most fibre = D/2

 Design of Key
Cross-section of the key is taken from the table corresponding to the shaft diameter or relations (square
key) or and (for rectangular key) are used to find the cross-section, where w is width and h is the height
of the key, L is the Length of key in each shaft,.
The keys are then checked in shear and crushing.
𝑃
Shear stress, 𝜏= ≤ [𝜏]
𝑤𝑙
𝑃
Crushing stress, 𝜎crushing = ≤ [𝜎𝑐 ]
𝑙ℎ/2

16.4 Clamp Coupling

16.4.1 Introduction
Clamp coupling is also known as split-muff coupling or compression coupling. In this coupling, sleeve or
muff is made in two halves, which are split along the plane passing through the axes of the shafts. These
two halves are clamped together with the help of bolts, which are placed in recesses made in the sleeve
halves. Dynamic balancing of clamp coupling is difficult making it unsuitable for high speed applications.
It is also unsuitable for shock loads. Assembly and dismantling is easier for this coupling. Figure 16.2
shows Clamp Coupling assembly.
A small clearance is provided between the two halves of the sleeve along the parting line and the force
due to clamping of bolts creates frictional force between the surface of the shafts and inner surface of
sleeve halves. Torque is transmitted by means of this frictional force and through the key, from the input
shaft to the sleeve and from sleeve to the output shaft. It is not possible to find out the exact percentage
of torque transmitted by friction and by the key. Therefore, for designing the bolts it is assumed that
whole of the torque is transmitted by friction and while designing the key, it is assumed that whole of
the torque is transmitted by it.
Design is similar to the design of muff coupling and an additional calculation is required for designing
the bolts.
 Figure 16.2 Clamp Coupling

16.4.2 Design
Design of Clamp Coupling is similar to the design of muff coupling and an additional calculation is
required for designing the bolts.
 Design of Shafts
Same as discussed in sleeve coupling.
 Sleeve Design
Same as discussed in Sleeve Coupling
 Design of Key
Same as discussed in Sleeve Coupling
 Design of Bolts
Bolts are designed assuming that whole of the torque is transmitted by friction between sleeve and
shafts.
Let [σt] = permissible tensile stress of bolts
dc = core diameter of bolts
n = number of bolts
Clamping force of each bolt,
𝜋
𝑃𝑏 = 𝑑𝑐2 [𝜎𝑡 ]
4

Assuming that half of the bolts apply clamping force on one shaft and half of the
bolts on the other. Clamping force on each shaft,
𝜋 𝑛
𝑁 = 𝑑𝑐2 [𝜎𝑡 ]
4 2
Frictional Torque, 𝑇𝑓 = 𝜇𝑁𝑑
where, m = coefficient of friction between shafts and sleeve.
Above two relations can be used to find the core diameter of the bolts by
equating to the total torque transmitted.
Figure 16.3 Forces acting on
Bolts

16.5 Flange Coupling

16.5.1 Introduction
Flange coupling consists of two flanges keyed to the shafts. The flanges are connected together by
means of bolts arranged on a circle concentric to shaft. Power is transmitted from driving shaft to flange
on driving shaft through key, from flange on driving shaft to the flange on driven shaft through bolts and
then to the driven shaft through key again. Projection is provided on one of the flanges and a
corresponding recess is provided in the other for proper alignment. Flange coupling is of two types –
unprotected and protected. These are shown in Figure 16.3. If in case failure of bolts occurs during the
operation, the bolts may hit the operator in case of unprotected flange coupling. To avoid this, protective
circumferential flanges are provided in the protected type flange coupling.
Flange of a protected type flange coupling has three distinct regions – inner hub, flanges and protective
circumferential flanges. Following standard proportions are used in the design of flange coupling:
 Outer diameter of hub, D=2d
 Pitch circle diameter of bolts, D1 = 3 d
 Outer diameter of flange, D2 = 4 d
 Length of the hub, L = 1.5 d
 Thickness of flange, tf = 0.5 d
 Thickness of protective circumferential flange, tp = 0.25 d
where d is the diameter of shafts to be coupled.

Figure 16.4 Flange Coupling

16.5.2 Design
 Design of Shafts
Same as discussed in sleeve coupling.
 Design of Hub
Hub is designed considering it as a hollow shaft, with inner diameter equal to diameter of shafts and
outer diameter double of that. It is checked for torsional shear stress.

Shear stress,
Where T = Twisting moment (or torque) to be transmitted
J = Polar moment of inertia about the axis of rotation
r = Distance from neutral axis to the outer most fibre = D/2
 Design of Key
In this case two separate keys are used for the two shafts. Key is designed as discussed earlier. In this
case, length of key, (length of the hub)
 Design of Flange
The flange is subjected to shear at the junction of the hub as it transmits torque through the bolts. Area
resisting shear
where, is the thickness of the flange.
If T is the torque to be transmitted, tangential force,

Shear stress,
 16.5.2.5 Design of Bolts
Due to transmission of torque, force acts perpendicular to the bolt axes and the bolts are subjected to
shear and crushing stresses. Let n be the total number of bolts.
Force acting on each bolt,
Where, D1 is the pitch circle diameter of bolts.

Area resisting shear

where, dc = core diameter of bolts

Shear stress, 𝐹𝑏
𝜏=𝜋 ≤ [𝜏]
𝑑 2
4 𝑐

Area under crushing = dc.tf

Crushing stress, 𝐹𝑏
𝜎crushing = ≤ [𝜎𝑐 ]
𝑑𝑐 𝑡𝑓