Unit 1 Introduction

Introduction to Machine Design

Machine design is defined as the use of scientific principles, technical information, and
imagination in the description of a machine or a mechanical system to perform specific
functions with maximum economy and efficiency.
It is the creation of new and better machines and improving the existing ones. A new or better
machine is one which is more economical in the overall cost of production and operation. The
process of design is a long and time consuming one.
From the study of existing ideas, a new idea must be developed. The idea is then studied
keeping in mind its commercial success and given shape and form in the form of drawings. In
the preparation of these drawings, care must be taken of the availability of resources in money,
in men and in materials required for the successful completion of the new idea into an actual
reality.

General Considerations in Machine Design

Following are the general considerations in designing a machine component:
 Type of load and stresses caused by the load.
 Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine.
 Selection of materials.
 Form and size of the parts.
 Frictional resistance and lubrication.
 Convenient and economical features
 Use of standard parts.
 Safety of Operation
 Workshop facilities
 Number of machines to be manufactured.
 Cost of construction

 Assembly

General Procedure in Machine Design

In the machine component design, there is no rigid rule. The problem may be attempted in
several ways. However, the general procedure to solve a design problem is as follows:
 Fig.1. General Machine Design Procedure
1. Recognition of need. First, make a complete statement of the problem, indicating the need,
aim or purpose for which the machine is to be designed. This also involves conducting the
research to identify similar problems that have been addressed, and exploring potential design
approaches.

2. Synthesis (Mechanisms). Select the possible mechanism or group of mechanisms which

will give the desired motion.

3. Analysis of forces. Find the forces acting on each member of the machine and the energy
transmitted by each member.

4. Material selection. Select the material best suited for each member of the machine.

5. Design of elements (Size and Stresses). Find the size of each member of the machine by
considering the force acting on the member and the permissible stresses for the material used.
It should be kept in mind that each member should not deflect or deform than the permissible
limit.
6. Modification. Modify the size of the members to agree with the past experience and
judgment to facilitate manufacture. The modification may also be necessary by consideration
of manufacturing to reduce overall cost.

7. Detailed drawing. Draw the detailed drawing of each component and the assembly of the
machine with complete specification for the manufacturing processes suggested.

8. Production. The component, as per the drawing, is manufactured in the workshop.

The flow chart for the general procedure in machine design is shown in Fig.

Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes

The selection of proper material, for engineering purposes, is one of the most difficult problems
for the designer. The best material is one which serves the desired objective at the minimum
cost. The following factors should be considered while selecting the material:
1. Availability of the materials,
2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service, and
3. The cost of the materials.

Mechanical Properties of Materials

The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with the ability of the
material to resist mechanical forces and load. These mechanical properties of the metal
include strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, brittleness, malleability, toughness,
resilience, creep and hardness. We shall now discuss these properties as follows:

1. Strength. It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without
breaking or yielding. The internal resistance offered by a part to an externally applied force is
called stress.

2. Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus of
elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
3. Elasticity. It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation
when the external forces are removed. This property is desirable for materials used in tools
and machines. It may be noted that steel is more elastic than rubber.

4. Plasticity. It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load
permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forgings, in stamping images on
coins and in ornamental work.

5. Ductility. It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic. The ductility
is usually measured by the terms, percentage elongation and percentage reduction in area.
The ductile material commonly used in engineering practice (in order of diminishing
ductility) are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead.

6. Brittleness. It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of

breaking a material with little permanent distortion. Brittle materials when subjected to tensile
loads snap off without giving any sensible elongation. Cast iron is a brittle material.

7. Malleability. It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or

hammered into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be
so strong. The malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice (in order of
diminishing malleability) are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium.

8. Toughness. It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated. It is measured by
the amount of energy that a unit volume of the material has absorbed after being stressed upto
the point of fracture. This property is desirable in parts subjected to shock and impact loads.

9. Machinability. It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case with which a
material can be cut. The machinability of a material can be measured in a number of ways
such as comparing the tool life for cutting different materials or thrust required to remove the
material at some given rate or the energy required to remove a unit volume of the material. It
may be noted that brass can be easily machined than steel.
10. Resilience. It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact
loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within elastic limit.
This property is essential for spring materials.

11. Creep. When a part is subjected to constant stress at high temperature for a long period of
time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This property is
considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers, and turbines.

12. Fatigue. When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the
yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as *fatigue. The failure is
caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are usually fine and of microscopic
size. This property is considered in designing shafts, connecting rods, springs, gears, etc.

13. Hardness. It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching,
deformation, and machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to cut another metal.
The hardness is usually expressed in numbers which are dependent on the method of making
test.
Manufacturing considerations in Machine design
Knowledge of manufacturing processes is of great importance for a design engineer. The
following are the various manufacturing processes used in Mechanical Engineering.

1. Primary shaping processes. The processes used for the preliminary shaping of the
machine component are known as primary shaping processes. The common operations used
for this process are casting, forging, extruding, rolling, drawing, bending, shearing, spinning,
powder metal forming, squeezing, etc.

2. Machining processes. The processes used for giving final shape to the machine
component, according to planned dimensions, are known as machining processes. The
common operations used for this process are turning, planning, shaping, drilling, boring,
reaming, sawing, broaching, milling, grinding, hobbing, etc.

3. Surface finishing processes. The processes used to provide a good surface finish for the
machine component are known as surface finishing processes. The common operations used
for this process are polishing, buffing, honing, lapping, abrasive belt grinding, barrel
tumbling, electroplating, super finishing, sherardizing, etc.

4. Joining processes. The processes used for joining machine components are known as
joining processes. The common operations used for this process are welding, riveting,
soldering, brazing, screw fastening, pressing, sintering, etc.

5. Processes effecting change in properties. These processes are used to impart certain
specific properties to the machine components to make them suitable for particular operations
or uses. Such processes are heat treatment, hot-working, cold-working and shot peening.
Other considerations in Machine design
1. Workshop facilities.
2. Number of machines to be manufactured.
3. Cost of construction
4. Assembling
Concept of Mechanism, Machine Elements, and Machine

1. Mechanism:

A mechanism is a combination of machine elements arranged and designed to perform a specific function or
accomplish a particular task. It consists of a set of interconnected parts that work together to convert inputs
into desired outputs. Mechanisms can range from simple systems like levers or linkages to complex
arrangements found in engines or robotic arms. Mechanisms are primarily concerned with the relative
motion and force transmission between the components.

2. Machine Element:

Machine elements are individual components or parts that are designed to perform specific functions within
a mechanism or machine. These elements are typically standardized and have well-defined shapes,
dimensions, and material specifications. Examples of machine elements include gears, bearings, shafts, belts,
fasteners, and springs. Machine elements are often combined and interconnected to form a mechanism, and
they provide the necessary mechanical strength, motion transmission, support, or control required for the
overall system to function.

3. Machine:

A machine is a complete and self-contained mechanical system that comprises multiple mechanisms,
machine elements, and other components working together to perform a specific task or produce a desired
output. Unlike mechanisms or machine elements, a machine includes all the necessary parts, power sources,
control systems, and interfaces required for its intended operation. Machines can range from simple devices
like bicycles to complex systems like engines, turbines, or manufacturing equipment. Machines typically have
a well-defined purpose and are designed to provide mechanical advantage, automation, or other specific
functionalities.

Basic Requirements of Machine Elements

The basic requirements of machine elements such as strength, stiffness, rigidity, and wear resistance are crucial
considerations in the design and performance of various mechanical systems.

1. Strength:

Strength refers to the ability of a machine element to withstand applied loads without failure. It is essential
to ensure that the component can handle the forces, stresses, and strains it may experience during
operation. The strength requirement typically involves considering factors such as static and dynamic loads,
impact loads, fatigue resistance, and the material's ultimate strength.
 2. Stiffness:

Stiffness relates to the resistance of a machine element to deformation under an applied load. A stiff
component retains its shape and resists deflection or bending. Stiffness is crucial for maintaining accuracy,
stability, and precision in mechanical systems. It is particularly important in applications where dimensional
tolerances or alignment requirements are critical.

3. Rigidity:

Mechanical engineers refer to rigidity as the quality or state of resisting change in form, while stiffness is
the ratio of steady force acting on a deformable elastic medium to the resulting displacement. Rigidity is
the quality or state of being rigid, the amount of resistance with which a body opposes change of form. In
contrast, stiffness is a measure of how much force it takes to deform a body by a given amount.

Rigidity is similar to stiffness but focuses more on the resistance to deformation and deflection under load.
Rigidity ensures that a component or structure maintains its shape and position without excessive flexing or
bending. It is essential for maintaining the intended geometry, alignment, and functionality of machine
elements.

4. Wear Resistance:

Wear resistance is the ability of a machine element to resist surface damage or deterioration due to friction,
abrasion, or erosion. In many mechanical systems, components come into contact with each other, leading
to wear over time. Proper material selection, surface treatments, lubrication, and design considerations can
enhance wear resistance and extend the component's service life.

Types of loads(axial, bending, torsion and combined)

When considering the design and analysis of machine elements, it is important to take into account the magnitude,
direction, and type of loads that the components will experience. The loads can be categorized into several types,
including axial, bending, torsion, and combinations.

Axial Load:

Axial loads act along the axis of a machine element, causing compression or tension. These loads are directed either
toward or away from the axis and can result from forces acting parallel to the longitudinal axis of the component.
 Bending Load:

Bending loads result in the deformation of a machine element due to the application of moments or forces that cause
curvature or deflection. Bending loads act perpendicular to the axis of the component, causing tension on one side
and compression on the other. A common example is a beam subjected to a load at its midpoint, leading to bending
stresses along its length.

Torsion Load:

Torsion loads are twisting forces that act on a machine element around its longitudinal axis. These loads cause shear
stresses within the component, and the deformation is proportional to the applied torque. Examples of torsion loads
include a shaft transmitting rotational power or a bolt being tightened with a wrench.

Combination of Loads:

Machine elements often experience a combination of different types of loads simultaneously. For instance, a shaft
may encounter both axial and torsion loads, or a beam may undergo bending and axial loading. In such cases, the
designer must consider the combined effects of the various loads to ensure the component's strength and structural
integrity.
 Strain:

Strain is a measure of the deformation or elongation that occurs in a material when subjected to external forces or
loads. It quantifies the change in shape or size relative to the original dimensions of the material. Strain is typically
expressed as a dimensionless quantity or a ratio.

Strain (ε) = (Change in length or dimension) / (Original length or dimensions)

Sign Convention: Positive strain indicates elongation or expansion, while negative strain represents contraction or
compression.

Stress:

Stress is the internal resistance or force experienced by a material per unit area when subjected to external forces or
loads. It represents the distribution of forces within a material and is expressed in units of force per unit area (e.g.,
N/m² or Pa).

Stress (σ) = Force (F) / Area (A)

Sign Convention: Stress has the same sign as the applied force, indicating tension (+) or compression (-) in the
material.

Elasticity:

Elasticity refers to the property of a material to return to its original shape or size once the external forces causing
deformation are removed. It is characterized by the material's ability to undergo reversible deformation without
permanent damage.

Hooke's Law is commonly used to describe the linear elasticity of materials within their elastic limit:

Stress (σ) = Young's Modulus (E) × Strain (ε)

Factor of Safety:

The factor of safety is a design parameter used to ensure that a component or structure can handle loads safely
without failure. It is the ratio of the maximum allowable stress or load to the actual applied stress or load on the
material.

Factor of Safety = Allowable Stress / Applied Stress

Sign Convention: The factor of safety is a positive, dimensionless value greater than 1. A factor of safety less than 1
indicates an unsafe design, while a value greater than 1 signifies a margin of safety.

Modulus of Elasticity (Young's Modulus):

The modulus of elasticity, denoted by E, measures a material's stiffness or resistance to elastic deformation when
subjected to an applied force or load. It quantifies the relationship between stress (force per unit area) and strain
(deformation) within the elastic range of the material.

E = Stress / Strain
In other words, Young's modulus is the ratio of stress to strain and represents the slope of the stress-strain curve in the
elastic region

Significance:

 Young's modulus indicates the material's ability to resist deformation and return to its original shape after
the applied force is removed.
 It helps engineers determine the deflection, stiffness, and elastic behavior of a material or structure
under various loading conditions.
 The higher the value of Young's modulus, the stiffer the material.

Modulus of Rigidity (Shear Modulus):

The modulus of rigidity, denoted by G, measures a material's resistance to shear deformation. It quantifies the
relationship between shear stress (force per unit area parallel to the applied force) and shear strain (angular
deformation) in the elastic range.

G = Shear Stress / Shear Strain

The shear modulus represents the ratio of shear stress to shear strain and determines the material's ability to
withstand shear forces without permanent deformation.

Significance:

 The modulus of rigidity is essential for analyzing materials and structures subjected to torsional or shearing
loads.
 It characterizes a material's resistance to shearing and its torsional stiffness.
 Similar to Young's modulus, a higher shear modulus indicates a stiffer material in terms of shear
resistance.

Bearing Stress and Stress Concentration

Bearing or Crushing Stress

Crushing means to press or squeeze with a force that destroys or deforms or to squeeze into small fragments.
Crushing or bearing stress is defined as the compressive stress developed at the surface of contact between two
interacting members that are relatively at rest. Crushing stress can be seen in rivets, bolts when load is applied.
Crushing stress is generally expressed as:
Crushing/Bearing Stress,

Stress Concentration

Stress concentration refers to the localized increase in stress levels within a material or structure due to the presence
of geometric irregularities or features. These irregularities can include sharp corners, notches, holes, changes in cross-
sectional area, or other discontinuities in the shape of the component. Stress concentration can lead to significantly
higher stress levels compared to the nominal or applied stress, potentially resulting in premature failure of the
component. When an external load is applied to a component, the stress is distributed throughout the material.
However, at locations where there are geometric irregularities or stress concentrators, the stress tends to become
localized and intensifies. This is because the irregularities disrupt the smooth flow of stress and result in stress
concentrations. The presence of stress concentrations can have several detrimental effects on a material or structure
such as: Increased Stress, Reduced Strength, Fatigue Failure, Reduced Fatigue Life etc.
 Failures and their cause and effect (Ductile, Brittle, Fatigue, Creep)

1. Elastic and Plastic Behavior of Ductile Material

Ductile materials such as most metals (steel, aluminum, copper) exhibit significant plastic deformation before failure.
They have the ability to undergo plastic deformation without fracturing.

Elastic behavior: Ductile materials undergo elastic deformation when subjected to external forces. The relationship
between stress (σ) and strain (ε) in the elastic region follows Hooke's Law.

Plastic behavior: Once the applied stress exceeds the material's yield strength, ductile materials undergo plastic
deformation. This results in permanent deformation without fracture.

From point O to A, the ductile material obeys Hooke’s law and is elastic. However, from A to B, the material starts
showing small amount of plastic deformation. After point B, the material becomes completely plastic and will not
recover its original shape if load is applied and released.

2. Elastic and Plastic Behavior of Brittle Material

Brittle materials, such as ceramics, glass etc have limited or no plastic deformation capacity. They exhibit minimal or
negligible elastic deformation before fracturing.
Elastic behavior: Brittle materials undergo elastic deformation when subjected to external forces. However, their
elastic deformation is minimal due to their brittle nature.

Plastic behavior: Unlike ductile materials, brittle materials do not exhibit significant plastic deformation. Once the
applied stress exceeds their strength, they fail suddenly and catastrophically, without undergoing plastic deformation.

The area between Points 1 and 2 is called the elastic region. If stress is removed, the material will return to its
original length.

Point 2 is the proportional limit (PL) or elastic limit, and Point 3 is the yield strength (YS) or yield point.

The area between Points 2 and 5 is known as the plastic region because the material will not return to its original
length.

Point 4 is the point of ultimate strength and Point 5 is the fracture point at which failure of the material occurs.
 3. Fatigue:

Fatigue refers to the weakening and failure of a material or structure subjected to repeated or cyclic loading, even
when the applied stress levels are below the material's yield strength. Fatigue failure occurs due to cumulative
damage caused by cyclic stresses over time. Fatigue is particularly relevant in applications where cyclic loading is
common, such as in machinery, vehicles, and structural components.

The process until a component finally fails under repeated loading can be divided into three stages:

1. During a large number of cycles, the damage develops on the microscopic level and grows until a
macroscopic crack is formed.
2. The macroscopic crack grows for each cycle until it reaches a critical length.
3. The cracked component breaks because it can no longer sustain the peak load.

Endurance Limit (Fatigue Limit):

The endurance limit, also known as the fatigue limit, is the maximum stress level below which a material can
theoretically withstand an infinite number of stress cycles without experiencing fatigue failure. Not all materials have
a well-defined endurance limit, and it varies depending on the material type and specific conditions. For materials that
do have an endurance limit, fatigue failures typically occur below this limit.

Fatigue: Fatigue significantly reduces the fatigue strength and fatigue life of a material or structure. When considering
fatigue in the design, the factor of safety is typically increased to account for the reduced strength and ensure a
sufficient margin of safety against fatigue failure.

Endurance Limit: If a material has a well-defined endurance limit, it represents a stress level below which fatigue
failure is unlikely to occur, even after a large number of stress cycles. In such cases, the factor of safety can be lower
as the material is considered to have a higher resistance to fatigue failure.
 4. Creep
When a part is subjected to constant stress at high temperature for a long period of time, it will undergo a slow and
permanent deformation called creep. This property is considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers, and
turbines. Creep deformation occurs by grain-boundary sliding, the more grain boundary area, the easier creep
deformation will be. Creep deformation and creep strength are a grain-size sensitive property.
Creep failures are characterized by:
 bulging or blisters in the tube
 thick-edged fractures often with very little obvious ductility
 longitudinal "stress cracks"
 external or internal oxide-scale thicknesses that suggest higher-than-expected temperatures
 Intergranular voids and cracks in the microstructure

Fig: Creep Curve