Fundamentals of Machine Design

Design is essentially a decision-making process.

Design is to formulate a plan to satisfy a particular need , create

something with a physical reality.

Design of a chair - factors need to be considered:

(a) The purpose (easy chair, an office chair or to accompany a
dining table)
(b) Chair for a grown up person or a child.
(c) Material for the chair, its strength and cost need to be
determined.
(d) Finally, the aesthetics of the designed chair.
Conversion of heat to mechanical energy in a piston cylinder arrangement.

Robot gripper – Rack &Pinion

Machine as a combination of resisting bodies with successfully constrained relative motions

which is used to transform other forms of energy into mechanical energy or transmit and
modify available energy to do some useful work

(a) Hand winch (b) Small press operated by a power screw..

Designing these mechanisms would involve firstly designing these elements
and then assembling them in order.
Types of design
Adaptive design
- standard products or systems adopted for a new application.
-Conveyor belts, control system of machines and mechanisms or haulage systems are some of the
examples where existing design systems are adapted for a particular use.
Developmental design - new model of a car
New design
- entirely new one but based on existing scientific principles.
- requires creative thinking to solve a problem.
- designing a small vehicle for transportation of men and material on board
a ship or in a desert
- research
Types of design

1)Adaptive design

Minor alteration or modification

Types of design Cont…

2) Development Design
Improvement of existing dsg( New matl,
Mfg.)
Types of design Cont…

3) New Design

Entirely a new product

Types of design based on methods

Rational design
- Based on determining the stresses and strains of components and thereby deciding their
dimensions.
Empirical design
- Based on empirical formulae which in turn is based on experience and experiments.
For example, tighten a nut on a bolt the force exerted or the stresses induced cannot be
determined exactly but experience shows that the tightening force may be given by
P=284d where, d is the bolt diameter in mm and P is the applied force in kg.
Industrial design
- Based on industrial considerations and norms viz. market survey, external look,
production facilities, low cost, use of existing standard products.
Factors to be considered in machine design
- common sense approach to solving a problem. Some of these factors are as follows:
(a) What device or mechanism to be used?
- This would decide the relative arrangement of the constituent elements.
(b) Material
(c) Forces on the elements (Energy transmission by a machine member, Dead weight,
Inertial forces, Thermal effects, Frictional forces, Static load, Dynamic load)
(d) Size, shape and space requirements. The final weight of the product is also a major
concern.
(e) The method of manufacturing the components and their assembly.
(f) How will it operate?
(g) Reliability and safety aspects
(h) Inspectibility
(i) Maintenance, cost and aesthetics of the designed product.
Design Considerations in context to Product Quality

• Functionality • Friction
• Strength/Stress • Weight
• Distortion/deflection/stiffness • Life
• Wear • Noise
• Corrosion • Styling
• Safety
• Shape
• Reliability
• Manufacturability
• Size
• Utility • Control
• Cost • Thermal properties
• Surface
 Review Questions

Q.1: Define machine design.

Q.2: What is an adaptive design?
Q.3: Suggest briefly the steps to be followed by a designer.
Q.4: Discuss ‘factor of safety ‘ in view of the reliability in machine design.
 Classification of Engineering Materials

The engineering materials are mainly classified as :

1. Metals and their alloys, such as iron, steel,copper, aluminium, etc.
2. Non-metals, such as glass, rubber, plastic, etc.

The metals may be further classified as :

(a)Ferrous metals, and
(b)Non-ferrous metals.

ferrous metals - iron as their main constituent, such as cast iron,wrought iron and steel.
non-ferrous metals - metal other than iron as their main constituent,such as copper,
aluminium, brass, tin, zinc, etc.

Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes

1. Availability of the materials,
2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service, and
3. The cost of the materials.
 Mechanical properties of materials
 Strength

- resist the external loads without failure(fracture or yielding).

- Ultimate strength for brittle materials

- Yield point stress for ductile materials.

- For ductile materials, yield point stress in tension equals yield point stress in compression.
- For steel, yield point stress in shear =2/3 yield point stress in tension.
- For cast iron the strengths in tension and compression are far different.
- Weight : Strength/weight ratio is always determined

- Reliability : corrosion resistance and workability

Strength
5 factors effecting strength are tension, compression, shear, bending & torsion
 Elasticity - regain the original shape after deformation
 Plasticity - permanently retain the deformation

 Stiffness - resists deformation

(Rigidity) - important in machine tool spindle.

 Ductility - material drawn into wire by tensile force .

- large plastic deformation before rupture.
- Brittle material - small plastic deformation.
- absorbs large overloads.
- permits cold working.
- percentage of elongation >15% - ductile.
Brittleness - lack of ductility.
- cast iron is brittle.
- percentage elongation < 5% - brittle.

Malleability - interchangeable with ductility

- is compressive
- flattened or squeezed under compressive force.
- rolled into thin sheets (Gold, Aluminium).
 Resilience - capacity to absorb energy within elastic range.
- helps to resist shock and impact
- desired in springs.

 Modulus of – strain energy stored per unit volume

resilience when the stress is at the proportional limit.

 Toughness - absorb energy in plastic range.

- material can be twisted or bent under a
sudden load before rupture.
- shaded area – modulus of toughness.
 Hardness - resist indentation, wear or plastic deformation.

 Creep - at elevated temperatures materials yield

- undergo permanent deformation at a stress
lower than yield point stress.
- loss of strength ,continuous gradual elongation
of members at high temperature over a long time.
- Steam and gas turbine castings, turbine blades,
rocket engines, missile nose cones and nuclear
reactor components.

Strain - When drawing or rolling ductile materials

hardening plastic deformation takes place.
- increases yield point stress and ultimate strength.
Mechanical properties of materials ……………
Structural changes due to cold working (rolling)

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 Mechanical properties of materials ……………

Damping - damp vibrations by absorbing kinetic energy.

capacity - damping capacity of cast Iron > steel

Hardenability – ability of steel to through harden.

- improved using alloying elements like
boron,vanadium,manganese chromium and
molybdenum.

Machinability - allows operations like turning, drilling.

- less tool wear , good surface finish, less
power consumption.
- decides mass production of components.
- adding sulphur and lead improves machinability of steel, but it
reduces tensile strength.

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 Types of stresses

Stress due to axial loading

- Tensile stress
- Compressive stress
- Bearing stress

Normal Stress due to bending

Shear stress
- Direct shear
- Torsional shear

Combined stresses due to eccentric loading

Principal stresses

Buckling stress
 Review Questions

Q.1: Classify common engineering materials.

Q.2: What are the advantages of malleable cast iron over white or grey cast iron?

Q.3: A standard alloy steel used for making engineering components is 20Cr18Ni2. State

the composition of the steel.

Q.4: How are plain carbon steel designated?

Q.5: Name two important copper alloys and give their typical compositions.

Q.6: List at least five important non-metals commonly used in machine design.

Q.7: State atleast 5 important mechanical properties of materials to be considered in

machine design.

Q.8: Define resilience and discuss its implication in the choice of materials in machine

design.
 LIMITS,FITS,TOLERANCE
- A machine element after its design becomes a product by manufacturing.

- Steps involved - selection of proper material,

ensuring proper strength and
dimension to guard against failure,
a designer should have knowledge of basic manufacturing aspects.

1.Assigning proper size to a machine element

Ex: To design a shaft of diameter 40 mm.

- nominal diameter of the shaft is 40 mm, (difficult to keep the exact diameter)
- while assembling with other, the dimensions dictate the nature of assembly.
- The allowable variation in size for the mating parts is called limits
- The nature of assembly due to such variation in size is known as fits.
Zero Line – indicates nominal size
Tolerance
- difference between maximum and minimum dimensions of a component,
(difference between upper limit and lower limit)

- Based on application permissible variation of dimension is set as per available standard grades.
  - Tolerance - two types - bilateral and unilateral.
- Tolerance present on both sides of nominal size - bilateral;
- Tolerance on one side - unilateral
- Ex: Nominal diameter of shaft 50mm. Values of the tolerance are given as x and y
respectively.
- ,
- Allowance - difference of dimension between two mating parts.

- Upper deviation - difference of dimension between the maximum possible size of the
component and its nominal size.

- Lower deviation - difference of dimension between the minimum possible size of the
component and its nominal size.

- Fundamental deviation - defines the location of the tolerance zone with respect to the
nominal size.

.
Fit System - when two mating parts fit with each other, the nature of fit is dependent on the
limits of tolerances and fundamental deviations of the mating parts.

The nature of assembly of two mating parts - three types of fit system,
1.Clearance Fit,
2.Transition Fit and
3.Interference Fit.

Two ways of representing a system.

- Hole basis system - dimension of the hole is considered to be the datum,

- Shaft basis system - dimension of the shaft is considered to be the datum.

- The holes are normally made by drilling, followed by reaming.

- dimension of a hole is fixed due to the nature of the tool used.
- dimension of a shaft is easily controllable by standard manufacturing processes.
- the hole basis system is much more popular
Clearance Fit - the shaft of largest possible diameter can also be fitted easily even in the hole of
smallest possible diameter.

Transition Fit - there will be a clearance between the minimum dimension of the shaft and the
minimum dimension of the hole.
- shaft dimension is maximum and the hole dimension is minimum then an overlap

will result ,creates a certain amount of tightness in the fitting of the shaft inside
the hole.
- transition fit may have either clearance or overlap in the fit.

Interference Fit - Irrespective of the tolerance level in shaft and the hole, there is always a
overlapping of the matting parts.
- Interference fit is a form of a tight fit.
Standard limit and fit system
- tolerance is denoted as IT and it has 18 grades;
- greater the number, more is the tolerance limit.
- The fundamental deviations for the hole are denoted by capital letters from A and ZC, having
altogether 25 divisions.
- the fundamental deviations for the shaft is denoted by small letters from a to zc.

18 grades: IT01 ,IT0

and IT1-1T16

Fundamental deviations
25 types: A- ZC (For holes)
a- zc (For shafts)
- choice of tolerance grade is related to the type of manufacturing process
- attainable tolerance grade for lapping process is lower compared to plain milling.
- choice of fundamental deviation largely depends on the nature of fit, running fit or tight fit etc.
- Manufacturing processes involving lower tolerance grade are generally costly.
- Designer – consider the manufacturing processes for effective and inexpensive design
Sample designation of limit and fit, 50H6/g5.

- designation means the nominal size of the hole and the shaft is 50 mm.
- H is the nature of fit for the hole basis system and its fundamental deviation is zero.
- The tolerance grade for making the hole is IT6.
- The shaft has the fit type g, for which the fundamental deviation is negative, its dimension is
lower than the nominal size, and tolerance grade is IT5.
Preferred numbers
- A designed product needs standardization.
- the sizes of the ingots available in the market have standard sizes.
- Ingots - a definite pattern - dimensions chosen from those standard available sizes.
- Motor speed, engine power of a tractor, machine tool speed and feed, all follow a definite
pattern or series.
- helps in interchangeability of products.
- sizes are put in the form of geometric progression,
- wide ranges are covered with a definite sequence.
- These numbers are called preferred numbers having common ratios as,
R5 , R10 , R20 : Speed layout in a machine tool (R10 : 1000, 1250,1600, 2000)
Common manufacturing processes
 Review Questions

Q.1: What is meant by tolerance? How many types of tolerance is

there?

Q.2: What are the types fit? Describe the differences.

Q.3: What are preferred numbers?

References

1. Design of Machine Elements,

Tata Mc Graw-Hill publishers – V.B.Bhandari

2. Fundamentals of Machine Elements – Bernard.J.Hamrock

McGraw-Hill international edition Bo Jacobson

Steven R.Schmid
3. Fundamentals of Machine Design – T.J.Prabhu
4. Mechanical Engineering Design , - J.E Shigley and C.R Mischke
McGraw Hill Publication, 5th Edition. 1989.
5. NPTEL,IIT Kharagpur