Module 3

Introduction to
Machine Design
Syllabus
books
Text book Text book Data book
What is a machine?

MACHINE
It is a device which transmits significant force and to convert
available energy in to useful work.
The idea of machine is to transmit force and power. Eg:- Turbine,
Pump, I C engine.
What is a machine?
MACHINE
It is a device which transmits significant force and to convert
available energy in to useful work. The idea of machine is to
transmit force and power. Eg:- Turbine, Pump, I C engine.
MECHANISM
It is a device that transforms motion to some desirable pattern. The idea of mechanism is to achieve
relative motion and not to transmit force or power.
Eg:- Mini Drafter, Electric Switch, Analogue clock, Folding Chair.
STRUCTURE
A structure is a combination of rigid bodies connected by joints which do not transform motion or will
not do work. A structure may carry force in its members.
Eg:- Bench, Desk
What is Machine Design?

Machine design may be defined as the use of scientific principles,

technical information and imagination in the design of mechanical
structure, machine or a system to perform prescribed functions with
maximum economy and efficiency.
Design is an iterative process with many interactive phases so as to
produce better machines and improving the existing ones. A new or
better machine is one which is more economical in the overall cost of
production and operation.
The phases of design
Steps in Machine design
process
Steps in Machine design process
Identifying the need for the Equipment or a
Machine
• Recognizing the solution for a problem by giving a complete
statement of the problem by identifying the aim and
purpose of why the machine is needed to be designed.
• Is the machine is really required or a manual human work
will do the purpose
• Is the machine or mechanism economically viable.
Selecting the possible Mechanisms
• Synthesize the different mechanism and choose the best
mechanism for the required motions among the different
mechanisms.
• This phase may be an iterative phase or an invention phase
and is the most challenging and interesting part of the design
process.
• The designer combines separate ideas to form a complex
whole of various new and old ideas and concepts to put
forward an overall new idea or concept.
• Different soft wares are available to understand the motion
characteristics of mechanisms
Analysis of Forces

• Analyze the different system of forces in the motion of

the machine members and power transmissions
among the different machine elements.
• Analyze different kinds of application of forces and
loads on each member, whether static load or impact
load etc.
Selection of Materials
• Selection of materials mostly depend upon the
strength considerations.
• The working environment also need to be considered
while selecting the materials for design.
• Select the best-suited materials for the different
components in the machine and we should keep an
eye on the availability of the materials as well.
Design of Elements
• We should design a machine that should accept the
operation conditions as well as it should withstand for
a longer life.
• For that, we need to analyze the size and stresses
acting in different elements in the machine by
considering the forces acting on the machine
elements. we should check these stresses with the
permissible stress of each material we have used in
the making of machine elements.
Modification

• To reduce the overall cost of the productions and due

to the availability of the resources, we should make
some considerations to accommodate the changes.
we should modify the size or any other modification
needs to happen. this is the case we need to be ready
to do modification in the design.
Detailed Drawings

• We can say this is the final stage for determining what kind
of machine we are going to build.
• By making a detailed drawing, we can transfer our idea to
other people concerned.
• Drawing can be a 2D or 3D drawing or even an animated
drawing using modern soft wares.
• Once we have done with the detailing of each and every
components and assembly and subassemblies drawings, we
should proceed with the manufacturing.
Production

• As per the drawing, the components will be

manufactured in the manufacturing units. and
assembled as per the detailed drawings, here
everything will be produced and sent them to the next
step quality checking(QC). If any difference is there
then it should come back for the reproduction.
 Other Design Considerations
Strength and stiffness are very important factors that are considered in machine
design but there are a number of other considerations that the designer has to
keep in mind while designing any product. Some of the important factors
considered in design are
• Weight
• Functionality • Liability
• • Noise
Strength • Cost
• Stiffness • Shape
• Life
• Wear • Size
• Styling
• Corrosion • Safety
• Control
• Thermal Properties • Reliability
• Volume
• Surface Finish • Manufacturability
• Marketability
• Lubrication • Utility
• Remanufacturing
• Friction • Maintenance
ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND THEIR
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Engineering materials are classified as follows

1. Metals and alloys
Metals are further classified as:
a. Ferrous metals
b. Nonferrous metals
2. Nonmetals.
• Metal is defined as a substance which is solid at room
temperature has good mechanical properties (high strength,
toughness, ductility, etc.) along with good thermal and
electrical conductivity.
• Metals which contain iron as the main constituent are
referred to as ferrous metals. Example: Cast iron, wrought
iron, steel.
• Metals which do not contain iron as their main constituent
are referred to as non-ferrous metals.
Example: Aluminium, copper, brass, tin, etc.
• An alloy is a combination of two or more metals of which
one is the base metal
Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes

The selection of proper material(s) for a given

application is based on the following factors.
• Availability of the materials
• Suitability of the materials for the working conditions
in service
• The cost of the materials.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

Following are some of the most important mechanical properties of

engineering materials.
• Elasticity is the ability of a material to regain its original shape and
size, when the load causing the deformation is removed. Example:-
Steel, copper, aluminium, concrete, etc.
• Plasticity is the property of a material which does not regain its
original shape and size, when the load causing the deformation is
removed
• Strength is the ability of a material to withstand the action of external
forces.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
• Toughness is the property of a material which absorbs energy elastically before
failure, i.e. to withstand elastic and plastic deformation.

• Stiffness/rigidity is the ability of a material to resist elastic deformation.

• Hardness is the property of a material which resists indentation and/or
penetration, or it is the property of a material to resist plastic deformation.
• Resilience is the property of a material to absorb energy elastically.
• Ductility is the property of a material of drawing it into wires.
Example: Mild steel (MS)
• Brittleness is the property of the material by the virtue of which it breaks easily
into pieces. Example: Cast iron
• Malleability is the property of the material by the virtue of which it can be rolled
into sheets. Example: Mild steel, aluminium, etc.
• Creep refers to the slow and progressive deformation of a material with time at
constant stress.
• Fatigue refers to the behavior of a material when subjected to fluctuating or
repeated loads.
• Fracture refers to the separation of a material into two/more parts under stress.
- Ductile fracture: This occurs after extensive plastic deformation and is
characterized by slow crack propagation. (more toughness)
- Brittle fracture: This occurs by rapid propagation of a crack after a little or no
plastic deformation. (less toughness)
Stress strain diagram
• Proportional Limit (P):
Stress-strain curve is linear
up to point P and Hook’s
Law (Stress is proportional
to Strain) is obeyed in
region OP. Proportional
Limit (P) is the stress at
which the stress-strain
curve begins to deviate
from the straight line.
• Modulus of Elasticity:
It is the ratio of stress to strain up
to point P and is given by slope of
line OP.
Young’s Modulus,
E = tanθ= PX/OX = stress/strain .
• Elastic Limit: Up to point E, when the
load is removed, specimen regains its
original size and shape i.e. it remains in
the elastic stage up to point E (elastic
limit).
• The elastic limit is the maximum stress
without any permanent deformation. If
the specimen is loaded beyond this
point, plastic deformation takes place
and the material takes a permanent
set when the load is removed.
• Proportional Limit (P) and Elastic Limit
(E) are very close to each other and are
often taken to be equal.
• Yield Strength:
Point on the stress-strain
curve at which the strain begins
to increase very rapidly without a
corresponding increase in stress
is called yield point.
Yield Strength is the maximum
stress at which a marked increase
in elongation occurs without
increase in load.
• Ultimate Tensile Strength : As the
material begins to deform
plastically, it becomes stronger
due to strain hardening and
higher and higher load is required
for its deformation, leading to
increase in the stress and after
point U, it begins to fall. Ultimate
tensile strength is the maximum
stress reached in the stress-strain
curve, corresponding to point U.
• Breaking Strength: After U, the
cross-sectional area of specimen
begins to decrease rapidly and a
localized decrease in area called
‘necking’ takes place and
ultimately the fracture takes
place. F is called Fracture Point
and corresponding stress is
called Breaking Strength.
Elastic and plastic behavior of metals

• Objects deform when pushed, pulled, and twisted. Elasticity is the

measure of the amount that the object can return to its original
shape after these external forces and pressures stop. This is what
allows springs to store elastic potential energy.
• The opposite of elasticity is plasticity; when something is stretched,
and it stays stretched, the material is said to be plastic. When energy
goes into changing the shape of some material and it stays changed,
that is said to be plastic deformation. When the material goes back
to its original form, that's elastic deformation. Mechanical energy is
lost whenever an object undergoes plastic deformation.
Ductile and brittle behavior of metals
Ductile
• Ductility is a physical property of a material that is associated with the
ability to be hammered thin or stretched into wire without breaking.
The materials having this property are known as ductile materials. A
ductile material can easily be drawn into wires.
• Metals are the best examples of ductile materials. For example, gold,
silver, copper are ductile. Although aluminum is a metal, it is not
ductile. The ductility of metals can be high or low. Copper is highly
ductile and can be drawn into thin wires without breakage.
Ductile and brittle behavior of metals
Brittle
• The term brittle describes materials that are easily broken, cracked, or
snapped. Materials break when a stress is applied to them. Brittle
materials break without any deformation. Therefore, they cannot be
stretched like ductile substances.
• The breaking of brittle substances objects with a snapping sound.
When these objects are broken, the edges fit each other because
there is no deformation before breakage. Many materials such
as ceramic and glass are brittle. Even steel become brittle at low
temperatures.
Ductile and brittle behavior of metals
Stress
When a body is subjected to a load within the elastic limits, it develops an
equal and opposite resisting force within the body. This resisting force per
unit area is called stress. σ =F/A
Tensile stress: It is the stress state caused by an applied load that tends to
elongate the material in the axis of the applied load, in other words, the
stress caused by pulling the material. Due to this the length of the member
increases, while its cross-section decreases,
Compressive stress: It is the stress state caused by an applied load that acts
to reduce the length of the material (compression member) in the axis of the
applied load. In other words, the stress state caused by squeezing/pushing
the material. Due to this the length of the member decreases, while its cross-
section increases,
Shear stress : It is the stress state caused by a pair of opposing forces acting
along parallel lines of action through the material, in other words, the stress
caused by faces of the material sliding relative to one another.
Bending Stress
Bending stress is the normal stress that an object encounters when it is
subjected to a large load at a particular point that causes the object to
bend and become fatigued.

M= bending moment
y = distance from neutral axis
I – moment of inertia
Torsional Stress
Torsional stress can be defined as the shear stress that acts on a
transverse cross section which is caused by the action of a twist.
Torsional shear stress can be thought of as the shear stress produced
on a shaft due to twisting.

T = torque
R = radius
J = polar moment of inertia
Stress concentration
In actual practice it is difficult to design a machine without permitting some
changes in the cross-sections of the members.
For example: Rotating shafts are stepped to different diameters to
accommodate gears, bearings, pulleys, etc.
The shafts should have keyways machined into them for securing the gears
and pulleys.
A bolt has a head at one end and screw threads at the other end, both of
which are abrupt changes in cross-section.
Other factors include openings, cavities, cracks, grooves, incisions, corners,
protrusions, sharp edges, or engraving, as well as various surface
irregularities, such as notches, scratches, markings, and irregularities of
welded seams.
• Failure of machines and structures always initiate at sites of local
stress concentration caused by geometrical or microstructural
discontinuities. Thus, any discontinuity in a machine part alters the
stress distribution in the neighborhood of the discontinuity and the
elementary stress equations no longer holds good in the
neighborhood of the discontinuity. Such discontinuities are called
stress raisers or notches, and the regions in which they occur are
called areas of stress concentration. These stress concentrations or
stress raisers often lead to local stresses many times higher than the
stresses obtained by elementary equations.
• Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high stresses due
to abrupt changes in the cross-section of the component or the
condition where high localized stresses are produced due to abrupt
change in geometry is called stress concentration.
Stress Concentration Factor
• A stress concentration factor (Kt) is a dimensionless factor that is used
to quantify how concentrated the stress is in a mechanical part. It is
defined as the ratio of the highest stress in the part compared to a
reference stress.
• A stress concentration, also known as a stress riser, is a point in a part
where the stress is significantly greater than its surrounding area.
Stress concentrations occur as a result of irregularities in the
geometry or within the material of a component structure that cause
an interruption of the stress flow. These interruptions typically arise
from discontinuities such as holes, grooves, notches and fillets. Stress
concentrations may also be caused by accidental damage such as
nicks and scratches.
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 σ𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Kt = =
𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 σ
Stress Concentration examples