CHAPTERCHAPTER-1

DESIGN CONSIDERATION OF MACHINE PARTS (INTRODUCTION)

-BY CHETAN S. JADAV

CONTENT
and various types of designs Morphology of design Design procedure Selection of materials Properties and I.S. coding of various materials Factors of safety Stress Concentration and methods of relieving stresses Types of stresses
Definition

Definitions

MACHINE + DESIGN

Whats Machine ?

Definitions
is defined as a combination of rigid and resistant bodies having definite motion and capable of performing some useful work.
Machine: It

Input (Source of power)

Kinematic Arrangement Of links

Output (useful work)

Definitions
it is a simplified model, frequently in the form of a line diagram, which will reproduce exactly the same motion that takes place in actual machine. The fundamental objective in case of mechanism is to achieve a desired motion. Structure: It is also a combination of rigid and resistant bodies, but there is no relative motion between its various parts. The purpose of structure is not to do some useful work, but to support external load.
Mechanism:

Engineering Design
It is The process of applying the various techniques and scientific principles for the purpose of designing a device, a process, or a system in sufficient detail to permit its realization

Machine design
Design deals with the creation of machinery that works safely, reliably and well It is a creation of plans for machine to perform the desired functions. Design is an innovative and highly iterative process. It is also a decision-making process. Design is a communication-intensive activity in which both words and pictures are used, and written and oral forms are employed.

Machine

Machine design

Engineering tools (such as mathematics, statistics, computers, graphics, and languages) are combined to produce a plan that, when carried out, produces a product that is functional, safe, reliable, competitive, usable, manufacturable, and marketable, regardless of who builds it or who uses it.

Essence of Machine design

Machine create motion and develop forces. Engineers Task To define and calculate those motions , forces,
and changes in energy in order to determine the sizes, shapes, and materials needed for each of the interrelated parts in machine

Definitions
design: it is defined as the use of scientific principles, technical information and imagination in the description of a machine or a mechanical system to perform specific functions
Machine

Ultimate Goal of Design

Design procedure
Need or Aim Synthesis Or Mechanism Analysis Of Forces

Modification

Design Of Elements

Material Selection

Detailed Drawing

Production

Types of designs
Adaptive

design Development design New design:

Types of designs
Rational design (maths formulae) Emparical design (emparical formulae) Industrial design (production aspect) Optimum design (best design) System design (complex mechanical system) Element design (design of part) Computer Aided Design (CAD-CAM)

Design considerations
The design of a component or system may be influenced by a number of requirements. If a requirement affects design, it is called a design consideration. For example, if the ability to carry large loads without failure is important, we say that strength is a design consideration. Most product development projects involve a number of design considerations: - Strength/stress - Wear - Corrosion - Safety - Reliability - Friction - Usability/utility - Cost - Weight - Life - Noise - Shape - Size - Thermal properties - Lubrication - Marketability - Maintenance - Liability - Scrapping/recyclability - Distortion/stiffness - Processing requirements - Surface finish

- Aesthetic considerations - Volume

Selection of materials
of materials Suitability of the material conditions Cost of the material
Availability

in

the working

Properties

Strength Elasticity Plasticity Malleability Ductility Impact Strength Hardness

Properties

Toughness Brittleness Resilience Creep Fatigue

STANDARDS & CODES

A standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials, or processes intended to achieve uniformity, efficiency, and a specified quality. It places a limit on the number of items in the specifications so as to provide a reasonable inventory of tooling, sizes, shapes, and varieties. A code is a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture, and construction of something. It achieve a specified degree of safety, efficiency, and performance or quality

I.S. coding of various materials

(AA) American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA) American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)5 ASM International6 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) American Welding Society (AWS)
Aluminum Association

I.S. coding of various materials

Standards Institution (BSI) Industrial Fasteners Institute (IFI) Institution of Mechanical Engineers (I. Mech. E.) International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) International Standards Organization (ISO) National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST)8 Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
British

Stress & Strain

Stress a force per unit area

Since its difficult to directly observe stress, geologists study the effects of past stress when bed rock is exposed after uplift and erosion at the Earths surface The principal directions of stress can be determined by our observations

Strain the change in size (volume) and/or shape, in response to stress

Stress & Strain

Factors of safety
Structural members or machines must be designed such that the working stresses are less than the ultimate strength of the material.
FS Factor of safety FS

u ultimate stress all allowable stress

Factor of safety considerations: uncertainty in material properties uncertainty of loadings uncertainty of analyses number of loading cycles types of failure maintenance requirements and deterioration effects importance of member to structures integrity risk to life and property influence on machine function

Youngs Modulus
s=Ee
Very stiff material plastic (typical ceramic) fracture (typical metal)

stress

yield

elastic

Very ductile, less stiff material (typical polymer) strain

Stress Concentration
In almost engineering components and machine have to incorporate design features which introduce changes in thin cross-section. Changes in cross section causes localized stress concentrations and severity depends on the geometry of the discontinuity and nature of the material. Stress concentration factor, Kt = Smax/Sav Smax, maximum stress at discontinuity Sav, nominal stress. Kt, value depends only on geometry of the part.

Methods of relieving stresses

Guidelines for design. Abrupt changes in cross-section should be avoided. Fillet radii or stress-relieving groove should be provided. (see Fig. 11.3(d)) Slot and grooves should be provided with generous run-out radii and with fillet radii in all corners. (see Fig. 11.3(b)) Stress relieving grooves or undercut should be provided at the end of threads and splines. (see Fig. 11.3(c)) Sharp internal corners and external edges should be avoided Weakening features like bolt and oil holes, identification marks, and part number should not be located in highly stressed areas. Weakening features should be staggered to avoid the addition of their stress concentration effects, (see Fig. 11.3(d))

Types of stresses
stress Compressive stress Shear stress Bending stress Bearing stress Crushing stress Eccentric axial stresses Principle stresses Residual stresses
Tensile

Tensile stress
A tensional stress is caused by forces pulling away from one another in opposite directions.
Tensional stress is produced at divergent plate boundaries and results in a stretching or extensional strain.

Tensile stress
Axial forces on a two force member result in only normal stresses on a plane cut perpendicular to the member axis. Transverse forces on bolts and pins result in only shear stresses on the plane perpendicular to bolt or pin axis. Will show that either axial or transverse forces may produce both normal and shear stresses with respect to a plane other than one cut perpendicular to the member axis.

Compressive Stress
A compressive stress is caused by forces pushing together, or squeezing from opposite directions.
Compressive stress is common along convergent plate boundaries Typically results in rocks being deformed by a shortening strain; either by bending and/or folding.

shear stress
A shear stress is due to forces parallel to one another by in opposite directions along a discrete surface, such as a fault.
A shear stress results in a shear strain parallel to the direction of the stresses. Shear stresses are notable along transform plate boundaries and actively moving faults.

shear stress
Single Shear Double Shear

ave

P F A A

ave

P F A 2A

Bearing stress
Bolts, rivets, and pins create stresses on the points of contact or bearing surfaces of the members they connect. The resultant of the force distribution on the surface is equal and opposite to the force exerted on the pin.

P P b A td

DESIGN ASPECTLoading Condition ASPECT

Static loading load is applied gradually and remains applied throughout parts life. Repeated loading applied and removed several times (repetitive) during life. Fail by fatigue at stress lower than yield strength. Higher design factor is needed. Impact require large design factor. (i) sudden load causes stresses much higher than computed. (ii) require part to absorb energy of the impact. Static loading but at high T consider creep, microstructural changes, oxidation & corrosion & influence of method of fabrication on creep.

Designing For Static Strength

Static strength Ability to resist short-term steady load at moderate T. Measured in terms as yield strength, UTS, compressive strength & hardness. Aimed at avoiding yielding of the component and / or fracture. Component must be strong enough to support the load & may require stiffness to ensure deflections do not exceed certain limits. Stiffness , important to avoid misalignment and maintain dimensional accuracy. Elasticity (Youngs M) important when designing struts, columns & thinwalled cylinders subjected to compressive axial loading where failure can take place by buckling.

Designing for simple axial loading

Component and structure made from ductile material are usually designed, so that no yield take place under static loading condition But, when the component is subjected to uniaxial stress, yielding take place When local stress reaches the yield strength of the material Critical cross-sectional area, A ; A = KtnsL YS Kt = stress concentration factor L = applied load ns = factor of safety YS = yield strength

Designing for simple axial loading

Factor of safety, ns Is applied in designing component to ensure it will satisfactory perform its intended function To get the strength of material at allowable stress. The definition, strength of material depends on the type of material and loading condition The factor of safety, ns. ns = S / Sa S = Nominal strength, Sa = Allowable strength / Design strength It is important to define which type of service condition will the material work on before calculating the ns. i. Normal working condition ii. Limit working condition

Designing for simple axial loading

Given (1) Magnitude & type of loading & (2) material condition. Determine yield & ultimate strength & % elongation of material. Decide ductile or brittle. Specify design factor (factor of safety). Compute design stress. Write equation for expected max stress. For direct normal stress, max = F/A Set max = d & solve for required cross-sectional area. Determine minimum required dimension.

Designing for Torsional Loading

Torsional loading of a component / part that tends to cause it to rotate or twist. When torque is applied, shearing stress is developed & torsional deformation occurs, resulting in an angle of twist of one end of part relative to the other. Material must have sufficient rigidity for the part to perform properly in service. Torque = T = F x d where F = applied force & d = distance from action of force to axis of the part. Power = torque x rotational speed (n in rad/s). Torsional shear stress, max = Td / 2Ip where T = applied torque, d = diameter & Ip = polar moment of inertia of the cross section.

Designing for Torsional Loading

Critical cross sectional area can be calculated, for circular shaft, 2Ip = KtnsT

max

where Kt = stress concentration factor ns = factor of safety Moment, Ip = d4 / 32 for solid circular shaft & Ip = (d04 di4) / 32 for hollow circular shaft of inner di & outer d0. ASTME code of practice ; allowable value of shear stress of 0.3 yield or 0.18 UTS. For ductile material, design shear stress = yield / 2N (steady torsion, N = 2, so d = yield / 4)

Designing for Torsional Loading

Torsional rigidity of component is usually measured by the angle of twist, , per unit length. For circular shaft, is given by, = T / GIp where G = modulus of elasticity in shear. G = E / (2(1 + )) where = Poissons ratio. Usual practice is limit the angular deflection in shafts to about 1 degree, i.e /180 rad, in length of 20 times the diameter. Stiffness of part differ depending on shape of the crosssection circular section has higher rigidity compared to other structural shapes, i.e I-beams,wide-flange beams

Designing for Bending

Beam component that carries load transversely, that is, perpendicular to its long axis. Loading normal concentrated load, inclined concentrated load, uniformly distributed load, varying distributed load & concentrated moments. Moment an action that tends to cause rotation of an object. Can be produced by a pair of parallel forces acting in opposite directions, called couple. Beam types ; simple, overhanging, cantilever, compound & continuous. Bending moments internal moments cause bending.

Designing for Bending

Relation between bending moment, max allowable stress & dimensions given by ;

Z=

nsM YS

where Z = section modulus = I/c c = distance from center of gravity of cross section to the outermost fiber/beam. I = moment of inertia of cross section with respect to neutral axis normal to direction of load. M = bending moment & YS = max allowable stress. ns = factor of safety.

Designing for Bending

When load is placed on a beam, the beam is bent and every portion of it is moved in a direction parallel to the direction of the load. The distance that a point on the beam moves/ deflection depends i. Its position in the beam ii. Type of beam iii. Type of support

Principal Stress
At any point in a strained material, there are three planes, mutually perpendicular to each other which carry direct stresses only and no shear stress. - These perpendicular planes which have no shear stress are known as principal planes and the direct stresses along these planes are known as Principal Stress. Out of these three direct stresses, one will be maximum and the other will be minimum.

Residual Stress
Residual stresses or locked-in stresses can be defined as those stresses existing within a body in the absence of external loading or thermal gradients. Residual stresses may be due to the technological process used to make the component. Manufacturing processes like casting, welding, machining, molding, heat treatment, plastic deformation during bending, rolling or forging are the most common causes of residual stress.

Thank you