1

MACHINE DESIGN-I
B.Tech 5th Semester Curriculum under ASTU
AEC, Mechanical Department
Instructor: Debottam Bhowmik, PMRF Scholar, IIT Guwahati
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About Instructor
• Name: Mr Debottam Bhowmik • Additional Information
• Class 10th : From KV Maligaon, June 2011 Passed out,
1st Division. • Qualified GATE 3 times.
• Class 12th: From KV Maligaon, May 2013 Passed out,
1st Division • Published 3 UGC Journal
• B.Tech: From Assam Science and Technology and 3 International
University, July 2017 Passed out, 1st Class. Conference papers.
• M.Tech: From Delhi Technological University, June
2022 Passed out, 1st Class. • Got selected for MS(R)
• PhD: Pursuing from IIT Guwahati, Since July 2022 program at IIT Guwahati in
onwards, Got selected for PMRF (Oct 2023) July 2019.
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Module 1: BASICS OF MACHINE DESIGN

Outline
• Introduction
• General considerations and procedure for designing
• Types of Loads
• Design stress and factor of safety
• Stress concentration
• Selection of materials
• Codes for design-BIS codes
• Modes of Failure
• Failure theories
• Fits and Tolerance
 4

INTRODUCTION
• Machine Design is defined as the use of scientific principles, technical information and
imagination in developing a mechanical system to perform specific function with maximum
economy and efficiency.
Market Survey

• Basic procedure of Machine Design:

Define Specification
of Product

Study & Selective

Proper Mechanism

Prepare General
Layout

Design Individual
Components

Prepare Assembly
& Detail Drawing
 5

DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

• The basic procedure of the design of machine elements consists of following steps
Specify function of
elements

Determine forces
acting on the element

Select suitable material

for the material

Determine the failure

mode of the element

Determine geometric
dimensions of element

Check design for

critical points

Prepare the working

drawing of element
 6

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DESIGNING

 Type of load and stresses caused by the load: The load, on a machine component, may act
in several ways due to which the internal stresses are set up.

 Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine: The successful operation of any machine
depends largely upon the simplest arrangement of the parts which will give the motion
required.

 Selection of materials: It is essential that a designer should have a thorough knowledge of

the properties of the materials and their behavior under working conditions.

 Form and size of the parts: The form and size are based on judgment. The smallest
practicable cross-section may be used, but it may be checked that the stresses induced in the
designed cross-section are reasonably safe
 7

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DESIGNING

 Convenient and economical features: In designing, the operating features of the machine
should be carefully studied. The economical operation of a machine which is to be used for
production, or for the processing of material should be studied.

 Use of standard parts: The use of standard parts is closely related to cost, because the cost
of standard or stock parts is only a fraction of the cost of similar parts made to order.

 Safety of operation: Some machines are dangerous to operate, especially those which are
speeded up to insure production at a maximum rate.

 Workshop facilities: A design engineer should be familiar with the limitations of his
employer’s workshop, in order to avoid the necessity of having work done in someother
workshop
 8

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DESIGNING

 Number of machines to be manufactured: If only a few articles are to be made, extra
expenses are not justified unless the machine is large or of some special design.

 Cost of construction: The cost of construction of an article is the most important

consideration involved in design. In some cases, it is quite possible that the high cost of an
article may immediately bar it from further considerations.

 Assembling: Every machine or structure must be assembled as a unit before it can function.
Large units must often be assembled in the shop, tested and then taken to be transported to
their place of service
 9

GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR DESIGNING

• Recognition of need: First of all, make a complete statement of the problem, indicating the
need, aim or purpose for which the machine is to be designed.

• Synthesis (Mechanisms): Select the possible mechanism or group of mechanisms which will
give the desired motion.

• Analysis of forces: Find the forces acting on each member of the machine and the energy
transmitted by each member.

• Material selection: Select the material best suited for each member of the machine.

• Design of elements (Size and Stresses): Find the size of each member of the machine by
considering the force acting on the member and the permissible stresses for the material
used.
 10

GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR DESIGNING

• Modification: Modify the size of the member to agree with the past experience and judgment
to facilitate manufacture. The modification may also be necessary by consideration of
manufacturing to reduce overall cost.

• Detailed drawing: Draw the detailed drawing of each component and the assembly of the
machine with complete specification for the manufacturing processes suggested.

• Production: The component, as per the drawing, is manufactured in the workshop.

 11

TYPES OF LOAD
• The term load refers to the forces and moments that are applied to a mechanical component
or structure. These loads can be static or dynamic and can act in various directions.

Static

Variable
Load
Impact

Cyclic
 12

TYPES OF LOAD
• Static Load: It does not change in magnitude, direction or point of application with respect to
time. For example, the weight of a building's structural elements, such as beams, walls, roof
and structural flooring components.

• Variable Load: It is a load that is applied over an area. It varies in magnitude and/or
direction and/or point of application with respect to time. Example: IC engine valve spring.

• Impact Load: Impact load means the load applied by a moving object (Like a blow). The
application time of this load is negligible, as opposed to other loads which are applied
gradually or over a long period of time.

• Cyclic Load: Also known as a fatigue load, refers to a type of dynamic load that varies with
time in a repetitive or periodic manner. Cyclic loading is a common scenario in many
mechanical and structural application
 13

STRESS & STRAIN

• Stress:
When some external system of forces or loads acts on a body, the internal forces (equal and
opposite) are set up at various sections of the body, which resist the external forces. This
internal force per unit area at any section of the body is known as unit stress or simply a
stress.

𝑷
Mathematically, σ =
𝑨
Where, P: Internal resisting load acting on the body
A: Area of the cross section on which the load is acting

• In S.I. units, the stress is usually expressed in Pascal (Pa) such that 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. In actual
practice, we use bigger units of stress i.e. mega pascal (MPa) and giga pascal (GPa)
 14

STRESS & STRAIN

• Strain:
When a system of forces or loads act on a body, it undergoes some deformation. This
deformation per unit length is known as unit strain or simply a strain.

δ𝒍
Mathematically, Ɛ =
𝒍
Where, δ𝒍 : Change in length of the body
𝒍 : Original length of the body

• Strain is a unit less quantity.

 15

RELATION BETWEEN STRESS & STRAIN

• Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity (E):

Hooke's law* states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is directly
proportional to strain, i.e.
σ  Ɛ; σ=E*Ɛ
𝝈 𝑷 ∗𝒍
⇒E= =
Ɛ 𝑨 ∗ 𝜹𝒍
where E is a constant of proportionality known as Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity.

• In S.I. units, it is usually expressed in GPa i.e. GN/𝒎𝟐 or kN/𝒎𝒎𝟐 .

• Young's modulus characterizes the material's ability to return to its original shape after the
removal of a load, as long as the material has not exceeded its elastic limit. Basically it tells
about the deforming ability of the material.
 16

SHEAR STRESS & STRAIN

• Shear Stress ():

When a body is subjected to forces acting tangentially across

the resisting section, as a result of which the body tends to
shear off the section, then the stress induced is called shear
stress.

• Shear Strain (ϕ):

The corresponding strain is known as shear strain and it is

measured by the angular deformation accompanying the shear
stress.
 17

RELATION BETWEEN SHEAR STRESS & STRAIN

Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity (G):

It has been found experimentally that within the elastic limit, the shear stress is directly
proportional to shear strain, i.e.
  ϕ;  = G * ϕ

⇒ G=
ϕ
where G is a constant of proportionality known as Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity.

• In S.I. units, it is usually expressed in GPa i.e. GN/𝒎𝟐 or kN/𝒎𝒎𝟐 .

• It is a material property that quantifies a material's resistance to shear deformation.

 18

LINEAR & LATERAL STRAIN

• Due to tensile force, the length of the bar increases by
whereas the diameter decreases.

• similarly, if the bar is subjected to a compressive force, the

length of bar will decrease which will be followed by increase in
diameter.

• It is thus obvious, that every direct stress is accompanied by a

strain in its own direction which is known as linear strain and
an opposite kind of strain in every direction, at right angles to it,
is known as lateral strain.
 19

POISSON’S RATIO
• It has been found experimentally that when a body is stressed
within elastic limit, the lateral strain bears a constant ratio to the
linear strain, Mathematically,

𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
Poisson ratio (µ) =
𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

• This constant is known as Poisson's ratio and is denoted by 1/m

or μ.
 20

VOLUMETRIC STRAIN
• When a body is subjected to a system of forces, it
undergoes some changes in its dimensions. In other
words, the volume of the body is changed.

• The ratio of the change in volume to the original volume

is known as volumetric strain. Mathematically, volumetric
strain,
εv = δV/ V

• Volumetric strain of a rectangular body subjected to three

mutually perpendicular forces is given by
εv = εx + εy + εz

where εx, εy and εz are the strains in the directions x-axis, y-

axis and z-axis respectively
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BULK MODULUS
• When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular stresses, of equal intensity, then the
ratio of the direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is known as bulk
modulus.

• Mathematically, bulk modulus,

𝝈
K = Direct stress/Volumetric strain = 𝜹𝒗
( )
𝒗
 22

RELATION BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTANTS

• The four elastic constants (E, G, µ, K) are correlated among each other by following sets of
equations:

9 𝐾𝐺
• E = 3K (1-2µ); E = 2G (1+ µ); µ =
6𝐾+3𝐺

• Thus, the number of independent elastic constants for isotropic material is 2.

 23

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Q1: A coil chain of a crane required to carry a maximum load of 50 kN, is shown in figure below.
Find the diameter of the link stock, if the permissible tensile stress in the link material is not to
exceed 75 MPa. [ Ans: 29.13 mm]

Q2: A cast iron link, as shown in Fig. below, is required to transmit a steady tensile load of 45 kN.
Find the tensile stress induced in the link material at sections A-A and B-B. [Ans: 50 Mpa & 64.3
Mpa]
 24

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
• Q3: The piston rod of a steam engine is 50 mm in diameter and 600 mm long. The diameter of
the piston is 400 mm and the maximum steam pressure is 0.9 N/mm2. Find the compression of
the piston rod if the Young's modulus for the material of the piston rod is 210 kN/𝑚𝑚2 . [Ans:
0.165 mm]

• Q4: A pull of 80 kN is transmitted from a bar X to the bar Y through a pin as shown in Fig. below.
If the maximum permissible tensile stress in the bars is 100 N/𝑚𝑚2 and the permissible shear
stress in the pin is 80 N/mm2, find the diameter of bars and of the pin. [ Ans: 32 mm; 25.2 mm]
 25

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
• Q5: A mild steel rod supports a tensile load of 50 kN. If the stress in the rod is limited to 100 MPa,
find the size of the rod when the cross-section is 1. circular, 2. square, and 3. rectangular with
width = 3 × thickness. [ Ans: 25.23, 22.4, (12.9, 38.7)]

• Q6: A square tie bar 20 mm × 20 mm in section carries a load. It is attached to a bracket by

means of 6 bolts. Calculate the diameter of the bolt if the maximum stress in the tie bar is 150
N/mm2 and in the bolts is 75 N/𝑚𝑚2 . [ Ans: 13 mm]

• Q7: A bar of 2 m length, 20 mm breadth and 15 mm thickness is subjected to a tensile load of 30

kN. Find the final volume of the bar, if the Poisson’s ratio is 0.25 and Young's modulus is 200
GN/𝑚2 . [Ans: 600150 𝑚𝑚3 ]
 26

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
1. Proportional limit: From the diagram that from
point O to A is a straight line, which represents that
the stress is proportional to strain.

• It is thus obvious, that Hooke's law holds good up

to point A and it is known as proportional limit.

• The material has elastic properties up to the point

A-B. This point is known as elastic limit.

2. Yield Points : If the material is stressed beyond

point B, the plastic stage will reach.
Stress-Strain curve for ductile materials
• At point B, the material yields before the load and
there is an appreciable strain without any
increase in stress, load drops at C after yielding
 27

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
• At C, the specimen regains some strength and
higher values of stresses are required for higher
strains.

• The stress or load increases until pt. D. At D, the

stress, which attains its maximum value is known as
ultimate stress.

• After the specimen has reached the ultimate stress,

a neck is formed, which decreases the cross-
sectional area of the specimen.

• The stress is, therefore, reduced until the specimen

Stress-Strain curve for ductile materials
breaks away at point E. The stress corresponding to
point F is known as breaking stress.
 28

NUMERICAL PROBLEM
• Q8: A mild steel rod of 12 mm diameter was tested for tensile strength with the
gauge length of 60 mm. Following observations were recorded : Final length = 80
mm; Final diameter = 7 mm; Yield load = 3.4 kN and Ultimate load = 6.1 kN.

Calculate : 1. yield stress, [Ans: 30.1 Mpa, 54Mpa, 66%, 25%]

2. ultimate tensile stress,
3. percentage reduction in area,
4. percentage elongation.
 29

WORKING STRESS
• When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress lower than the maximum or
ultimate stress at which failure of the material takes place.

• This stress is known as the working stress or design stress. It is also known as safe or
allowable stress.

• Note : By failure it is not meant actual breaking of the material. Some machine parts are said
to fail when they have plastic deformation set in them, and they no more perform their
function satisfactory.
 30

FACTOR OF SAFETY
• It is defined, as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress.

𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔

Mathematically, Factor of Safety (FOS) =
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔

• For brittle material, failure stress → ultimate stress

• For ductile material, failure stress → yield stress

• Note: The above relations for factor of safety are for static loading
 31

SELECTION OF F.O.S
• Before selecting a proper factor of safety, a design engineer should consider the following
points :

• The reliability of the properties of the material and change of these properties during
service
• The reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these results to actual
machine parts
• The reliability of applied load
• The certainty as to exact mode of failure
• The extent of loss of property if failure occurs
 32

STRESS CONCENTRATION
• Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its
cross-section, the simple stress distribution no longer holds
good and the neighbourhood of the discontinuity is different.

• This irregularity in the stress distribution caused by abrupt

changes of form is called stress concentration.

• Fig. show that the stress in the right and left hand sides will be
uniform but in the region where the cross section is changing, a
re-distribution of the force within the member must take place.

• The material near the edges is stressed considerably higher

than the average value.
 33

SELECTION OF MATERIAL
• The selection of a proper material, for engineering purposes depends on following factor:

• Availability of the materials,

• Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service
• The cost of the materials.

• The important properties, which determine the utility of the material are physical, chemical
and mechanical properties.
 34

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• The mechanical properties are those one which are associated with the ability of the material
to resist mechanical forces and load.

• These mechanical properties of the metal include:

• Strength
• Stiffness
• Elasticity
• Plasticity
• Ductility
• Brittleness
• Toughness
• Resilience
• Creep
• Hardness
 35

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Strength: It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without breaking
or yielding.

• Stiffness: It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus of
elasticity is the measure of stiffness.

• Elasticity: It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when
the external forces are removed. This property is desirable for materials used in tools and
machines.

• Plasticity: It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load
permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forging operation.
 36

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Ductility: It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the application of
a tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic.

• Brittleness: It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of breaking

of a material with little permanent distortion.

• Toughness: It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated.

• Resilience: It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact
loads. This property is essential for spring materials.
 37

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Creep: When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period of
time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. It is considered in case of
design of boilers, turbines etc.

• Fatigue: When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield
point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue.

• Hardness: It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching,

deformation and machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to cut another metal.
 38

PRINCIPLE STRESSES & STRAINS

• At any point in a strained material, there are three planes, mutually perpendicular to each other.

• These planes carry direct stresses only and no shear stress.

• It may be noted that out of these three direct stresses, one will be maximum and the other will be
minimum.

• These perpendicular planes which have no shear stress are known as principal planes and the
direct stresses along these planes are known as principal stresses.

• The planes on which the maximum shear stress act are known as planes of maximum shear.
 39

PRINCIPLE STRESS AND STRAIN

• Member subjected to two mutually perpendicular direct stress and shear stress

• Considering the force equilibrium in x-direction we may write

• This may be reduced to

• Similarly, force equilibrium in y-direction gives

n
 40

PRINCIPLE STRESS AND STRAIN

• To find maxima of the stresses in the oblique plane

• This gives,

• Putting tan2 in 1st equation of normal stresses

• In the same way, condition for maximum shear stress is obtained from

n
 41

PRINCIPLE STRESS AND STRAIN

• This gives

• One important thing to note here is that values of tan2θ2 is negative reciprocal of tan2θ1 and thus θ1 and θ2
are 45˚ apart.

• This means that principal planes and planes of maximum shear stresses are 45˚ apart.
 42

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Q9: A hollow shaft of 40 mm outer diameter and 25 mm inner diameter is subjected to a twisting moment
of 120 N-m, simultaneously, it is subjected to an axial thrust of 10 kN and a bending moment of 80 N-m.
Calculate the maximum compressive and shear stresses. [Ans: 28.07 Mpa, 11.27 Mpa]

Q10: A shaft, as shown in figure, is subjected to a bending load of 3 kN, pure torque of 1000 N-m and an
axial pulling force of 15 kN. Calculate the stresses at A and B.

Q11: A propeller shaft for a launch transmits 75 KW at 150 rpm and is subjected to a maximum bending
moment of 1KN-m and an axial thrust of 70 KN. Find the shaft diameter based on maximum principal
stress if the shear strength of the shaft material is limited to 100 MPa. [Ans: 63.4 mm]
 43

MODES OF FAILURE
• When a machine element is subjected to a complex stress system, it is important to predict the
mode of failure so that the design methodology may be based on a particular failure criterion.

• Theories of failure are essentially a set of failure criteria developed for the ease of design.

• In machine design, an element is said to have failed if it ceases to perform its function. There are
basically two types of mechanical failure:

 Yielding: This is due to excessive inelastic deformation rendering the machine part unsuitable to
perform its function. This mostly occurs in ductile materials.

 Fracture: In this case the component tears apart in two or more parts. This mostly occurs in
brittle materials.
 44

THEORIES OF FAILURE
• The principal theories of failure for a member subjected to bi-axial stress are as follows:

 Maximum principal (or normal) stress theory (also known as Rankine’s theory)
 Maximum shear stress theory (also known as Guest’s or Tresca’s theory)
 Maximum principal (or normal) strain theory (also known as Saint Venant theory)
 Maximum strain energy theory (also known as Haigh’s theory)
 Maximum distortion energy theory (also known as Hencky and Von Mises theory)
 45

MAXIMUM PRINCIPLE STRESS THEORY (RANKINE’S THEORY)

• According to this theory, the failure occurs at a point in a member when the maximum
principal or normal stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting strength of the
material in a simple tension test.

• Since the limiting strength for ductile materials is yield point stress and for brittle materials the
limiting strength is ultimate stress, then accordingly the maximum principal or normal stress (σn)
in a bi-axial stress system is given by

𝝈𝒚𝒕
𝝈𝒏 = ..... ( For Ductile material)
𝑭𝑶𝑺

𝝈𝒖𝒕
𝝈𝒏 = ...... (For Brittle material)
𝑭𝑶𝑺

• This theory is mostly used for designing members of brittle materials.

 46

MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS THEORY (TRESCA’S THEORY)

• According to this theory, the failure occurs at a point in a member when the maximum shear
stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches a value equal to the shear stress at yield point in
a simple tension test.

• Mathematically
𝒚𝒕
𝒎𝒂𝒙 = .... (i)
𝑭𝑶𝑺

• Since the shear stress at yield point in a simple tension test is equal to one-half the yield
stress in tension, therefore the equation (i) may be written as

𝝈𝒚𝒕
𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟐 ∗ 𝑭𝑶𝑺

• This theory is mostly used for designing members of ductile materials.

 47

MAXIMUM PRINCIPLE STRAIN THEORY (ST. VENANT’S THEORY)

• According to this theory, the occurs at a point in a member when the maximum principal (or
normal) strain in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting value of strain (i.e. strain at
yield point) as determined from a simple tensile test.

• The maximum principal (or normal) strain in a bi-axial stress system is given by

𝝈𝒏𝟏 µ. 𝝈𝒏𝟐
Ɛ𝒎𝒂𝒙 = −
𝑬 𝑬

Or

𝝈𝒚𝒕
Ɛ𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝑬 ∗ 𝑭𝑶𝑺

• This theory is not used, in general, because it only gives reliable results in particular cases.
 48

MAXIMUM STRAIN ENERGY THEORY (HAIGH’S THEORY)

• According to this theory, the failure occurs at a point in a member when the strain energy
per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting strain energy (i.e. strain
energy at the yield point ) per unit volume as determined from simple tension test.

• The strain energy per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system is given by

𝟏
𝑼𝟏 = [ 𝝈𝒏𝟏 𝟐 + 𝝈𝒏𝟐 𝟐 − 𝟐µ ∗ 𝝈𝒏𝟏 ∗ 𝝈𝒏𝟐 ]
𝟐𝑬

• The limiting strain energy per unit volume for yielding as determined from simple tension test is
given by

𝟏 𝝈𝒚𝒕 𝟐
𝑼𝟐 = ( )
𝟐𝑬 𝑭𝑶𝑺
 49

MAXIMUM STRAIN ENERGY THEORY (HAIGH’S THEORY)

• According to the theory,
𝑼𝟏 = 𝑼𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝝈𝒚𝒕 𝟐
[ 𝝈𝒏𝟏 𝟐 + 𝝈𝒏𝟐 𝟐 − 𝟐µ ∗ 𝝈𝒏𝟏 ∗ 𝝈𝒏𝟐 ] = ( )
𝟐𝑬 𝟐𝑬 𝑭𝑶𝑺

𝝈𝒚𝒕 𝟐
⇒ 𝝈𝒏𝟏 𝟐 + 𝝈𝒏𝟐 𝟐 − 𝟐µ ∗ 𝝈𝒏𝟏 ∗ 𝝈𝒏𝟐 = ( )
𝑭𝑶𝑺

• This theory may be used for ductile materials.

 50

MAXIMUM DISTORTION ENERGY THEORY (HENCKY AND VON MISES THEORY)

• According to this theory, the failure occurs at a point in a member when the distortion strain
energy (also called shear strain energy) per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system
reaches the limiting distortion energy (i.e. distortion energy at yield point) per unit volume
as determined from a simple tension test.

• Mathematically,
𝟐 𝟐
𝝈𝒚𝒕 𝟐
𝝈𝒏𝟏 + 𝝈𝒏𝟐 − 𝟐 ∗ 𝝈𝒏𝟏 ∗ 𝝈𝒏𝟐 = ( )
𝑭𝑶𝑺

• This theory is mostly used for ductile materials in place of maximum strain energy theory.
 51

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
• Q12: The load on a bolt consists of an axial pull of 10 kN together with a transverse shear force
of 5 kN. Find the diameter of bolt required according to
I. Maximum principal stress theory [ Ans: 12.4 mm]
II. Maximum shear stress theory [ Ans: 13.42 mm]
III. Maximum principal strain theory [ Ans: 12.7 mm]
IV. Maximum strain energy theory [ Ans: 12.78 mm]
V. Maximum distortion energy theory [Ans: 13.4 mm]
Take permissible tensile stress at elastic limit = 100 Mpa, poisson’s ratio = 0.3, and FOS = 1.

• Q13: A cylindrical shaft made of steel of yield strength 700 MPa is subjected to static loads
consisting of bending moment 10 kN-m and a torsional moment 30 kN-m. Determine the diameter
of the shaft using two different theories of failure, and assuming a factor of safety of 2. Take E =
210 GPa and poisson's ratio = 0.25.
 52

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
• Q14: A mild steel shaft of 50 mm diameter is subjected to a bending moment of 2000 N-m and a
torque T. If the yield point of the steel in tension is 200 MPa, find the maximum value of this
torque without causing yielding of the shaft according to 1. the maximum principal stress; 2. the
maximum shear stress; and 3. the maximum distortion strain energy theory of yielding. Take
FOS = 1. [Ans: 2118 Nm, 1426 Nm, 1647 Nm]
 53

INTERCHANGEABILITY
• The term interchangeability is normally employed for the mass production of identical items within
the prescribed limits of sizes.

• There will be always variation in dimension of the component when manufactured, If the
variations are within certain limits, all parts of equivalent size will be equally fit for operating in
machines and mechanisms.

• Therefore, certain variations are recognized and allowed in the sizes of the mating parts to give
the required fitting.

• In order to control the size of finished part, with due allowance for error, for interchangeable parts
is called limit system.
 54

LIMIT SYSTEM
• It may be noted that when an assembly is made of two parts: shaft and hole.

• The part which enters into the other, is known as enveloped surface (or shaft for cylindrical
part).

• The other part in which one enters is called enveloping surface (or hole for cylindrical part).

• NOTE: 1. The term shaft refers not only to the diameter of a circular shaft, but it is also used to
designate any external dimension of a part.

• 2. The term hole refers not only to the diameter of a circular hole, but it is also used to designate
any internal dimension of a part.
 55

IMPORTANT TERMS IN LIMIT SYSTEM

1. Nominal size: It is the size of a part specified in the drawing

2. Basic size: It is the size of a part to which all limits of

variation (i.e. tolerances) are applied to arrive at final
dimensioning of the mating parts.

3. Actual size: The difference between the basic size and the
actual size should not exceed a certain limit, otherwise it will
interfere with the interchangeability of the mating parts.

4. Limits of sizes: There are two extreme permissible sizes for

a dimension of the part. The largest permissible size for a
dimension of the part is called upper or high or maximum
limit, whereas the smallest size of the part is known as lower
or minimum limit.
 56

IMPORTANT TERMS IN LIMIT SYSTEM

5. Allowance: It is the difference between the basic dimensions of
the mating parts. The allowance may be positive or negative.

• When the shaft size is less than the hole size, then the
allowance is positive and when the shaft size is greater than
the hole size, then the allowance is negative.

6. Tolerance: It is the difference between the upper limit and

lower limit of a dimension. In other words, it is the maximum
permissible variation in a dimension.

• The tolerance may be unilateral or bilateral.

 57

FITS
• The degree of tightness or looseness between the two mating parts is known as a fit of the
parts. The nature of fit is characterized by the presence and size of clearance and interference.

• The clearance is the amount by which the actual size of the shaft is less than the actual size of
the mating hole in an assembly.

• In other words, the clearance is the difference between the sizes of the hole and the shaft
before assembly. The difference must be positive.
 58

FITS
• The interference is the amount by which the actual size of a shaft is larger than the actual
finished size of the mating hole in an assembly.

• the interference is the arithmetical difference between the sizes of the hole and the shaft,
before assembly. The difference must be negative.
 59

TYPES OF FIT
• Clearance Fit: In this type of fit, the size limits for mating parts are so selected that clearance
between them always occur.

• It may be noted that in a clearance fit, the tolerance zone of the hole is entirely above the
tolerance zone of the shaft.

• In a clearance fit, the difference between the minimum size of

the hole and the maximum size of the shaft is known as
minimum clearance

• whereas the difference between the maximum size of the hole

and minimum size of the shaft is called maximum clearance
 60

TYPES OF FIT
• Interference fit: In this type of fit, the size limits for the mating parts are so selected that
interference between them always occur.

• It may be noted that in an interference fit, the tolerance zone of the hole is entirely below the
tolerance zone of the shaft.

• In an interference fit, the difference between the maximum size of

the hole and the minimum size of the shaft is known as minimum
interference.

• whereas the difference between the minimum size of the hole and
the maximum size of the shaft is called maximum interference.
 61

TYPES OF FIT
• Transition fit: In this type of fit, the size limits for the mating parts are so selected that either a
clearance or interference may occur depending upon the actual size of the mating parts

• It may be noted that in a transition fit, the tolerance zones of hole and shaft overlap.
 62

BASIS OF LIMIT SYSTEM

1. Hole basis system: When the hole is kept as a constant member (i.e. when the lower
deviation of the hole is zero) and different fits are obtained by varying the shaft size.

2. Shaft basis system: When the shaft is kept as a constant member (i.e. when the upper
deviation of the shaft is zero) and different fits are obtained by varying the hole size.
 63

INDIAN STANDARD SYSTEM OF LIMITS AND FITS

• The standard tolerances for grades IT 5 to IT 7 are determined in terms of standard tolerance unit
(i) in microns
𝟑
𝒊 µ𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 ∗ 𝑫,
D = size or geometric mean diameter in mm.
Tol. IT 5 IT 6 IT 7 IT 8 IT 9 IT 10 IT 11 IT 12 IT 13 IT 14 IT 15 IT 16
Grade

Mag. 7i 10i 16i 25i 40i 64i 100i 160i 250i 400i 640i 1000i

• For hole, H stands for a dimension whose lower deviation refers to the basic size. The hole H for
which the lower deviation is zero is called a basic hole.

• for shafts, h stands for a dimension whose upper deviation refers to the basic size. The shaft h
for which the upper deviation is zero is called a basic shaft.
 64

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
• Q15: The dimensions of the mating parts, according to basic hole system, are given as follows :
Hole: 25.00 mm Shaft: 24.97 mm
25.02 mm 24.95 mm
Find the hole tolerance, shaft tolerance and allowance. [HT: 0.02 mm, ST: 0.02 mm, ALW: 0.03
mm]

• Q16: Calculate the tolerances, fundamental deviations and limits of sizes for the shaft
designated as 40 H8 / f7. [ HT: 0.039 mm, ST: 0.025 mm, FD: -0.050 mm, LLH: 40mm, ULH:
40.039 mm, ULS: 39.975 mm, LLS: 39.95 mm]

• Q17: A journal of nominal or basic size of 75 mm runs in a bearing with close running fit (H8/g7).
Find the limits of shaft and bearing. What is the maximum and minimum clearance?