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Python -IITM
WEEK 1 - 1-14 LEC:
PRINT
Numbers are treated as numbers only when put without apostrophe/speech marks

Strings require either single or double quotes

Uses only round brackets ()

Uses comma to separate strings/variables

print("Hello world")
print('Hello world', 'Hello mom', 'Hello nietzsche')
print(10)

VARIABLES

💡 Use well defined names for variables instead of a/b/c etc.

Input commands

print("Enter a number")
num=int(input())
print(num)

age=int(input("Enter your age:"))

del - Used to delete a variable

x = 10
del x
print(x)
#shows error x not defined

DATA TYPES 1
int - Integer

float - Decimal number

str - String- basically any letter or group of letters

Python -IITM 1
 list -

Self explanatory

uses square bracket [ ]

uses comma to separate list items

indexing starts from 0 and not 1

negative indexing starts from -1 for the last element

list = [10,'Amaan', 6.8]

print(l[0]) #prints 10
print(l[2]) #prints 6.8 and not Amaaan
print(type(l[20])) #prints <class 'str'>

r= int(input("Enter the radius:"))

print(type(r))
#prints <class 'int'>

DATA TYPES 2
bool - Boolean - Takes either true or false as input. T of true and F of false must always be capital

b1 = True
b2 = False

Converting data types:

a = float(9)
b = int(2.4)
c = int('11')

print(a, type(a)) #prints 9.0 <class 'float'>

print(b, type(b)) #prints 2 <class 'int'>
print(c, type(c)) #prints 11 <class 'int'>

a = bool(100)
b = bool(-10.9)
c = bool(0)
d = bool('') #empty string

print(a, type(a)) #prints True <class 'bool>

print(b, type(b)) #prints True <class 'bool>
print(c, type(c)) #prints False <class 'bool>
print(d, type(d)) #prints False <class 'bool>

OPERATORS AND EXPRESSIONS

💡 Follows BODMAS

MATHEMATICAL

+ - Sum/Union for lists

- - Subtract

/ - Returns Float Quotient

print(7/3)
#prints 2.333333333333335

Python -IITM 2
 * - Multiplication

// - Floor Division - Returns Integer Quotient

print(7//3)
#prints 2

% - Modulus - Remainder

print(7%3)
#prints 1

** - Exponential

RELATIONAL

< , > , >= , <= - Self Explanatory

== - Compares the two operands and returns the value as either True or False

print(5==50)
#prints False
print(5==5)
#prints True

!= - Not Equals to

print(5!=50)
#prints True
print(5!=5)
#prints False

LOGICAL

and , or , not - Logic gates. Returns either True or False as value

STRINGS

💡 Strings are treated like a list. Their letters are indexed just like lists. Starting from 0.

s = 'coffee'
t = 'bread'
print(s[1:3]) #1:3 - goes from 1 to 2
#prints of
print(s[1:5]) #1:5 - goes from 1 to 4
#prints offe

s='coffee'
t='bread'
print(s+t)
#prints coffeebread

💡 we can use only + and * operators on strings and not - and /

s = 'good'
print(s[0]*5)
#prints ggggg

Python -IITM 3
 print('apple' > 'one')
#prints False because a comes before o. it compares every letter of the string

print('abce'> 'abcd')
#prints True

s='huioiklopopopojhue'
print(len(s)) #prints length of the string
#prints 18

WEEK 2 - 15-25 LEC:

Comment - Starts with # . Isn’t read by computer.

#this is a comment and it isnt read by the computer

Short hand operator

+= -

count = count + 1

count += 1 #should be read as count is equal to count + 1

-= , *= , /= - Self explanatory

Special operator
in - In operator - used to find some specific value in a string or variable or list, etc.

print('alpha' in 'A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and underscores')
#prints True as the string contains the word alpha
print('alpha' in 'A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character')
#prints False as the string doesn't contain the word alpha

Chaining operator
When two or more relational operators are used together.

x = 5
print(10<x<15)
#prints False as 5 is smaller than 10. Basically it acts like an OR logic gate. both statements need to be true to get the outp

Escape characters
\ - Back slash

print('It's a beautiful day')

#returns error
print('It\'s a beautiful day')
#prints It's a beautiful day
print("We are from "IIT" Madras")
#returns error
print("We are from \"IIT\" Madras")
#prints We are from "IIT" Madras

\t - Used to add tab space. Can be used repetitively. Ex - \t\t\t , etc

print('My name is Fulkit. \t I am from Rijnob'

#prints My name is Fulkit. I am from Rijnob

Python -IITM 4
 \n - New line in the same print command

print('I am not here. \n This isnt happening')

#prints I am not here
# This isnt happening

Quotes
‘’’ ‘’’ - Multi line string

z='''Amaan
AM
AP'''
print(z)
#prints Amaan
#AM
#AP

‘’’ ‘’’ - Multi line comment

'''comment1
comment2
comment3'''

String Methods
Code x = ‘pytHoN
Method Description Output
sTrIng mEthOds’
converts a string
lower() print(x.lower()) python string methods
into lower case

converts a string
upper() print(x.upper()) PYTHON STRING METHODS
into upper case

converts the first

capitalize() character to upper print(x.capitalize()) Python string methods
case

converts the first

title() letter of each word print(x.title()) Python String Methods
to upper case
swaps upper to
lower and lower to
swapcase() print(x.swapcase()) PYThOn StRiNG MeTHoDs
upper case in the
string

Method Description Code Output

Returns True if all characters in the x=’python’ print(x.islower()) True

islower()
string are lower case x=’Python’ print(x.islower()) False
Returns True if all characters in the
isupper() x=’PYTHON’ print(x.isupper()) True
string are upper case
x=’PYTHoN’ print(x.isupper()) False
Returns True if the string follows
istitle() x=’Python String Methods’
the rule of a title print(x.istitle())
True
x=’Python string methods’
print(x.istitle())
False

Method Description Code Output

Returns True if all characters in the x=’123’ print(x.isdigit()) True

isdigit()
string are digit x=’123abc’ print(x.isdigit()) False

Python -IITM 5
 Method Description Code Output

Returns True if all characters in the x=’abc’ print(x.isalpha()) True

isalpha()
string are in alphabets x=’abc123’ print(x.isalpha()) False
Returns True if all characters in the
isalnum() x=’abc123’ print(x.isalnum()) True
string are alpha-numeric
x=’abc123@*#$’ print(x.isalnum()) False

Code x=’——Python
Method Description Output
——’
strip() Returns a trimmed version of the string print(x.strip(’-’)) Python
lstrip() Returns a left trim version of the string print(x.lstrip(’-’)) Python——
rstrip() Returns a right trim version fo the string print(x.rstrip(’-’)) ——Python

Method Description Code x=’Python’ Output

Returns True if the string starts with the print(x.startswith(’P’) True

startswith()
specified value print(x.startswith(’p’) False
Returns True if the string ends with the
endswith() print(x.endswith(’n’) True
specified value
print(x.endswith(’N’) False

Method Description Code x=’Python

Output
String Methods’
Returns the number of times a specified
count()
value occurs in a string print(x.count(’t’)) 3

Searches the string for a specified value print(x.count(’s’)) 1

index() and returns the position of where it was print(x.index(’t’)) 2
found
print(x.index(’s’)) 20
Returns a string where a specified value is
replace() x=x.replace(’S’,’s’)
replaced with a specified value x=x.replace(’M’,’m’) Python string methods
print(x)

An interesting cipher: More on strings

alpha.index(n[i]) - finds index of the ‘i’th letter of ‘ n ’ in ‘ al ’

alpha.index(n[i])+1 - increases the index of that specific letter.

we used %26 to make sure the code doesn’t break if our ‘ n ’ has z in it.

withouth %26 it’ll show index error as there’s no letter ahead of z in ‘ al ’

%26 = we are calling out reminder after we divide our index number with 26 - so if ‘z’ i.e. 26 is divided by 26 it’ll give

0 as reminder. This 0 = index 0 = ‘a’

(al[(al.index(n[i])+1)%26]) - gives us the +1 shifted letter of n

we store it in an empty string t and append it with the letters shifted +1 of our n

al='abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'
t=''
i=0
k=1
n='amaan'
#to print bnbbo - a letter shifter of my name
t+=(al[(al.index(n[i])+k)%26])
t+=(al[(al.index(n[i+1])+k)%26])
t+=(al[(al.index(n[i+2])+k)%26])
t+=(al[(al.index(n[i+3])+k)%26])
t+=(al[(al.index(n[i+4])+k)%26])

print(t)

Python -IITM 6
 https://replit.com/@weakgeek/ceaser-cipher?v=1

If statement

dob=int(input("Enter your dob:"))

currentyear=2022
age=currentyear-dob
if (age<18):
print("Sorry you can't enter")
else:
print("Welcome aboard")

if, else and elif(else-if)

marks=int(input("Enter marks obtained:"))

if(marks>=0 and marks <=100):
if (marks>=90):
print("A grade")
elif (marks>=80):
print("B grade")
elif (marks>=70):
print("C grade")
elif (marks>=60):
print("D grade")
else:
print("E grade")
else:
print("Invalid output")

print('Travel from city A to city B')

time=int(input('Enter a time:'))
longer=int(input('Define longer:'))
if (time>=longer):
price=int(input('Enter price:'))
higher=int(input('Define higher:'))
if (price>=higher):
print('Train')
else:
print('Coach')
else:
price=int(input('Enter price:'))
higher=int(input('Define higher:'))
if(price>=higher):
print('Daytime Flight')
else:
print('Red eye Flight')

Python -IITM 7
 WEEK 3 - 27-40 LEC:
While loop
It gets executed till the condition is met

It quits when the condition is met

print("When did India got its independence?")

yr=int(input())

while(yr!=1947):
print("You got it wrong. Enter once again.")
yr=int(input())
print("You got it right!")

Compute Factorial:

n=int(input("Enter the number:"))

i=1
f=1
while(i<=n):
f=f*i
i=i+1
print("Factorial is:", f)

When the first time while loop runs f=1*1 and i is incremented by 1. Hence i becomes 2.

Now the second time runs i is 2. Hence f=1*2=2. Again i is incremented and becomes 2+1 = 3.

This continues till i>n.

Practice questions on While loop

Find factorial of a given number:

Python -IITM 8
 n=int(input("Enter the number:"))
i=1
f=1
if (n>0):
while(i<=n):
f=f*i
i=i+1
print("Factorial is:", f)
else:
print("Invalid input")

Find the number of digits in a given number

n = abs(int(input("Enter the number:")))

digits = 1
while (n > 9):
n = n // 10
digits += 1
print("Number of digits are:", digits)

Reverse the given number

Python -IITM 9
 n=int(input("Enter the number:"))
num=abs(n)
sum=0
while(num>0):
r=num%10
sum=sum*10+r
num=num//10
if(n<=0):
print(sum-(2*sum))
else:
print(sum)

Firstly, the num is divided by 10 to get its remiander - % is used for that. When we divide any number by 10 to
get its remainder the remainder is always the last digit of the number. So r is the last digit of the input number
now.

sum=sum*10+r puts the last digit of the input number r as the first digit of the reverse number.

num=num//10 gives the int quotient of the initial number when divided by 10. Any number when divided by 10

gives the integer quotiet the nummber itself bar the last digit of it. i.e. 1234//10 gives 123.

The sum=sum*10+r for 1234 looks like sum=4 for the first cycle. sum=4*10+3 for the second cycle. sum=43*10+2
for the third cycle. sum=432*10+1 for the last cycle.

Find if the number is palindrome or not

Python -IITM 10
 n=int(input("Enter the number:"))
num=abs(n)
sum=0
while(num>0):
r=num%10
sum=sum*10+r
num=num//10
if(sum==n or (sum-2*sum)==n):
print('Palindrome')
else:
print('Not a palindrome')

For loop
Adding first n numbers

n=int(input("Enter the number:"))

sum=0
for i in range(n):
sum=sum+(i+1)
print(sum)

Range has 3 parameters starting, ending and step

Default step of range is 1

Default starting of range is from 0

Formatted Printing
end - Attribute for the end of a command/string, etc. Default value is \n (new line)

for x in range(10):
print(x, end = ' ')
#prints 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

sep - Separator between two strings, etc. Default value is ‘ ‘ (space)

d=10,m=5,y=2022
print("Today's date is", d,m,y, end=' ', sep='-')
#prints Today's date is 10-5-2022

formatted printing - Use to create a single string value

num=int(input("Enter the number:"))

for i in range(1,11):
print(f'{num} X {i} = {num*i}')

.format - In this method of formatting the print statement the variable are assigned indices and are later designated

after the string.

num=int(input("Enter the number:"))

for i in range(1,11):
print('{0} X {1} = {2}'.format(num,i,num*i)

String modulo operator - An old way of writing print statement. Was used by C language.

%d - integer

%f - float

num=int(input("Enter the number:"))

for i in range(1,11):
print('%d X %d = %d' % (num,i,num*i)

Python -IITM 11
 pi=22/7
print('value of Pi =%f' % (pi))
#shows only 6 digits after the point - 3.142857 because its an old method

format specifiers - Used to describe the format of the output value

pi=22/7
print(f'Va1ue of Pi = {pi:.2f}')
print('Value of Pi = {0:.2f}'.format(pi))
print('Value of Pi = %.2f %(pi))
#prints 2 value after point i.e. 3.14

print('{0:5d}'.format(1))
print('{0:5d}'.format(11))
print('{0:5d}'.format(111))
print('{0:5d}'.format(1111))
print('{0:5d}'.format(11111))

the code above specifies that the computer must use atleast 5 characters in the print statement. {0:5d}

Nested loops
P3

Python -IITM 12
 nod=int(input("Enter number of days: "))
for i in range(1,(nod+1)):
sum=0
rain=int(input("Enter the rainfall: "))
while(rain!=-1):
sum=sum+rain
rain=int(input("Enter the rainfall: "))
print('Total rainfall for {0} days is {1}'.format(i,sum))

P4

word=input("Enter the word: ")

max=0
while(word!='-1'):
count=0
for let in word:
count=count+1
if(count>max):
max=count
word=input("Enter the word: ")
print(f'The length of the longest word is {max}')

Python -IITM 13
 Break, Continue and Pass
break

Exits the loop under which it is written.

#to print username part of the input emailID

email=input("Enter the email ID: ")
for x in email:
if(x=='@'):
break
print(x)
#prints, ex:
a
a
m
i
o

continue

Skips the iteration if the condition is met.

#to print username and email service used from the input emailID
email=input("Enter the email ID: ")
for x in email:
if(x=='@'):
print('')
continue
print(x, end='')
#prints, ex:
amanaskdk
gmail.com

pass

Does nothing. Acts as a null operation. Nothing happens when it is executed.

#to print the numbers less than 10 divisible by 3 and do nothing with the numbers that aren't
for i in range(11):
if(i%3==0):
print(i)
else:
pass

WEEK 4 - 41-50 LEC:

Warmup with Lists
List is denoted by square brackets []

Common Commands:

append : adds an element to the list

l=[1,2,3,4,5]
l.append(6)
print(l)
'''Prints [1,2,3,4,5,6]'''

remove : removes an element from the list

l=[1,2,3,4,5,6]
l.remove(6)
print(l)
'''Prints [1,2,3,4,5]'''

sort : does obvious sort on a list i.e. small to big

Python -IITM 14
 l=[1,2,6,8,3,5,75,854,9]
l.sort()
print(l)
'''[1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 75, 854]'''

Lists within list:

m=[]
m.append([1,2,3])
m.append([4,5,6])
m.append([7,8,9])
print(m)
'''prints [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]]'''
print(m[0][0])
print(m[0][1])
print(m[2][2])
''''prints 1
2
3'''
#this is how we create a matrix

Birthday Paradox

import random
l=[]
for i in range(60):
l.append(random.randint(1,365))
l.sort()
print(l)
i=0
flag=0
while(i<len(l)-1):
if(l[i]==l[i+1]):
print("Repeats", l[i], l[i+1])
flag=1
pass
i=i+1
if(flag==0):
print("There is no repetition")
'''
Output example:
[10, 14, 22, 24, 25, 25, 25, 34, 58, 69, 83, 84, 88, 90, 92, 97, 100, 112, 114, 116, 120, 128, 131, 134, 154, 164, 168, 173, 17
Repeats 25 25
Repeats 25 25
Repeats 294 294'''

First we import python’s random library

Then we initialize an empty list to store our DOBs

Then we use the for loop to cycle through the random integers that randint parameter generates.

randint is used in place of random.random because the latter generates float numbers too and DOBs cant be float
numbers

Then we sort the list in which we appended the random integers.

We use the flag to make sure the while loop first checks all the numbers in the list and then displays if there was
repetition or not

We use the pass command to make sure our program enlists all the repetitive numbers/DOBs

Naive Search in a List

import random
l=[]
for i in range(10000):
l.append(random.randint(1,10000))
while(n>-1):
n=int(input("Enter a number:, type -1 to exit")
flag=0
for i in range(len(l)):
if (a==l[i]):
print("Found it!")
flag=1

Python -IITM 15
 break
if (flag==0):
print("Not found!")

We use this code to find any element in a list

The Obvious Sort

l=[1,6,2,9,241,66,854,30,5,8]
m=[]
while(len(l)>0):
min=l[0]
for i in range(len(l)):
if l[i]<min:
min=l[i]
m.append(min)
l.remove(min)
print(m)

Dot Product

l=[1,6,2,9,241,66,854,30,71]
y=[342,5,61,34,77,54,85,893,8]
sum=0
for i in range(len(l)):
sum=sum+l[i]*y[i]
print(sum)

Only works for square matrices of equal rows and columns

Matrix Addition

dim=3
r1=[1,2,3]
r2=[4,5,6]
r3=[7,8,9]
s1=[2,5,1]
s2=[9,8,5]
s3=[5,3,6]

A=[]
A.append(r1)
A.append(r2)
A.append(r3)

B=[]
B.append(s1)
B.append(s2)
B.append(s3)

print(A)
print(B)

C=[[0,0,0],[0,0,0],[0,0,0]]

for i in range(dim):
for j in range(dim):
C[i][j] = A[i][j]+B[i][j]

print(C)

This code can be automated by asking for inputs from the user of the elements and dimensions of matrices.

Matrix Multiplication

Python -IITM 16
 This is how matrix multiplication happens.

For C[3][2] we have to find the dot product of A[3][0].B[0][2] + A[3][1].B[1][2] + A[3][2].B[2][2] + A[3][3].B[3][2] + A[3]
[4].B[4][2] + A[3][5].B[5][2] + A[3][6].B[6][2]

C[i][j] is the dot product of ith row of A and jth column of B

We observe that the row of first matrix remains same and the column changes and the column of secod matrix
remains same and its row changes.

Hence we can use a loop to find the dot products and sum them up to get the product of two matrices

dim=3
r1=[1,2,3]
r2=[4,5,6]
r3=[7,8,9]
s1=[2,5,1]
s2=[9,8,5]
s3=[5,3,6]

A=[]
A.append(r1)
A.append(r2)
A.append(r3)

B=[]
B.append(s1)
B.append(s2)
B.append(s3)

print(A)
print(B)

C=[[0,0,0],[0,0,0],[0,0,0]]
for i in range(dim):
for j in range(dim):
for k in range(dim):
C[i][j]=C[i][j]+A[i][k]*B[k][j]

print(C)

WEEK 5 - 51-60 LEC:

Introduction to Functions

def add(a,b):
ans=a+b
print(ans)

Python -IITM 17
 This is a simple function to add two numbers that are inputed

def sub(a,b):
ans=a-b
print(ans)

Prints the difference of two numbers

def disc(cost,d):
ans=cos-(cost*(d/100))
print(ans)

Gives the discounted price of any product

def add(a,b):
ans=a+b
print(ans)
a=2
b=4
ans=add(a,b)+10
print(ans)

This code will throw an error as we’ve used print(ans) instead of return(ans)

def add(a,b):
ans=a+b
return(ans)
a=2
b=4
ans=add(a,b)+10
print(ans)

This would return the value of ans instead of printing ans so we can do more mathematical operations post running
of the function on ans

def discount(cost,d):
ans=cost-(cost*(d/100))
return ans
print("Enter the cost price")
x=int(input())
print("Enter the discount")
y=int(input())
print("The final discount is:", discount(x,y))

In this code we call the function by using discount(x,y) where x and y serve as cost and d of the function

More Examples of Functions

def first_element(l):
return l[0]
x=[1,2,3,4,5,6,7]
print(first_element)
'''prints 1'''

A simple function to print the first element of a list.

A function can take list as an input.

def list_min(l):
mini=l[0]
y=0
for i in range(len(l)):
if (l[i]<mini):
mini=l[i]
return mini

Python -IITM 18
 l=[12,23,53,74,21,97,8,374]
print(list_min(l))

Prints the minimum element of a list

def list_maxi(l):
maxi=l[0]
for i in range(len(l)):
if (l[i]>maxi):
maxi=l[i]
return maxi

l=[1,24,53,74,94,37,32,]
print(list_maxi(l))

Prints the maximum element of a list

def list_apppendbefore(l,z):
newl=[]
for i in range(len(z)):
newl.append(z[i])
for i in range(len(l)):
newl.append(l[i])
return newl

l=[1,24,532,61]
z=[9,54,7,23,62,74]

print(list_apppendbefore(l,z))

Appends a list before another in a new list

def list_apppend(l,z):
newl=[]
for i in range(len(l)):
newl.append(l[i])
for i in range(len(z)):
newl.append(z[i])
return newl

l=[1,24,532,61]
z=[9,54,7,23,62,74]

print(list_apppend(l,z))

Appends a list after another in a new list

def list_avg(l):
sum=0
for i in range(len(l)):
sum=sum+l[i]
ans=sum/len(l)
return ans

l=[1,2,533,63,72,84]
print(list_avg(l))

Prints the avg of a list

Sorting using Functions

def obvious_sort(l):
m=[]
while(len(l)>0):
mini=l[0]
for i in range(len(l)):
if (l[i]<mini):
mini=l[i]
m.append(mini)
l.remove(mini)
return m

Python -IITM 19
 l=[24,632,7824,843,923,64,98,247,342,678,356]
print(obvious_sort(l))

Performs obvious sort using a function

def list_min(l):
mini=l[0]
y=0
for i in range(len(l)):
if (l[i]<mini):
mini=l[i]
return mini

def obvious_sort(l):
x=[]
while(len(l)>0):
mini=list_min(l)
x.append(mini)
l.remove(mini)
return l

l=[24,632,7824,843,923,64,98,247,342,678,356]
print(obvious_sort(l))

Modular way of programming.

Functions can be used to break your code into simpler chunks.

Matrix Multiplication using Functions

#initialize c to zero
#i need to consider two matrices A and B
#i need to find the dot product of two lists
#i need to pick ith row and jth column in a matrix

def ini_mat(dim):
C=[]
for i in range(dim):
C.append([])
for i in range(dim):
for j in range(dim):
C[i].append(0)
return C

def dot_pro(u,v):
dim=len(u)
ans=0
for i in range(dim):
ans=ans+(u[i]*v[i])
return ans

def row(M,i):
dim=len(M)
l=[]
for k in range(dim):
l.append(M[i][k])
return l

def column(M,j):
dim=len(M)
l=[]
for k in range(dim):
l.append(M[k][j])
return l

def mat_mul(A,B):
dim=len(A)
C=ini_mat(dim)
for i in range(dim):
for j in range(dim):
C[i][j]= dot_pro(row(A,i), column(B,j))
return C

A=[[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]]
B=[[1,2,1],[3,1,7],[6,2,3]]

print(mat_mul(A,B))

We’ve created a modular code to find the product of two square matrices using functions.

Python -IITM 20
 Theoretical Introduction to Recursion

Recursion - An Illustration

def sum(n):
if (n==1):
return 1
else:
return n+sum(n-1)

print(sum(10))

Recursion - Repetition of functions by running the function inside of itself.

The above code gives the sum of the nth numbers.

Python lets you call the same function within the function.

#we are assuming the interest is 10% in this code

def comp(p,n):
if (n==1):
return p*(1.1)
#1.1 = (1+10/100)
else:
return comp(p,n-1)*1.1

print(comp(2000,3))

Calculates value after compound interest of 10%

We used (n-1 ) instead of (n) in the else statement because f(3) =f(2)*1.1

def fact(n):
if (n==1):
return 1
else:
return fact(n-1)*n

print(fact(5))

Calculates the factorial using recursion

Python -IITM 21
 Types of Function Arguments
def - function definition.

function call - this is the place where we are actually executing the defined function.

arguments - the values which we pass along with the function call

def add(c,a,b): #def-function definition

return(a+b-c) #function call
print(add(a=30,b=20,c=40)) #these are called keyword arguments
print(add(30,20,40)) #these are called positional arguments

def add(c,a=20,b=30):
return(a+b-c)
print(add(40)) #these are called default arguments
print(add(40,10)) #10 replaces the default value of parameter a from 20 to 10
print(add(40,10,15) # replaces tha default value of a and b by 10 and 15 respectively.

def add(c,a=20,b=30):
return(a+b-c)
print(add(40,a=50)) #this is a combination of default,positional and keyword arguments

Scope of Variables

def myfunc1(x):
x=x*2
print("Value of x in function", x)

x=5
print("Value of x before function call",x) #5
myfunc1(x)
print("Value of x after function call",x) #10

Value of function comes out to be 5 and not 10 (as we expected) this is because of call by value and scope of
variable.

Call by value:

Whenever we call a function along with an argument we are not actually passing this variable x to this function.

What we are actually doing is, only passing the value of that variable to this function.

Scope of variable:

The variable inside the function is called a local variable while the variable outside the function is called global
variable.

def myfunc():
global x
x=x*2
print("Value of x in function", x)

x=5
print("Value of x before function call",x) #5
myfunc()
print("Value of x after function call",x*3) #30

This way we can use gloval variable inside the function instead of creating a local variable that takes in the value
of the global variable.

This code prints:

Value of x before function call 5

Value of x in function 10

Value of x after function call 30

Types of functions

Python -IITM 22
 #Inbuilt functions
print(),input(),len()

#Library functions
math.log(),math.sqrt(),random.random(),random.randrange()
calender.calendar(),calendar.month()

#String methods (functions)

''.upper(),"".lower(),strip(),count(),index(),replace()

#User defined functions

def square(x):
sqr=x**2
return sqr

Tutorial on functions
Find number of different types of letters in a string

def num_of_chars():
global x
return len(x)

def num_of_words():
global x
j=1
for i in range(len(x)):
if (x[i]==' '):
j=j+1
return j

def num_of_lowercase():
global x
k=0
alpha=['a','b','c','d','e','f','g','h','i','j','k','l','m','n','o','p','q','r','s','t','u','v','w','x','y','z']
for i in range(len(x)):
for j in range(len(alpha)):
if(x[i]==alpha[j]):
k=k+1
return k

def num_of_uppercase():
global x
k=0
alpha=['A','B','C','D','E','F','G','H','I','J','K','L','M','N','O','P','Q','R','S','T','U','V','W','X','Y','Z']
for i in range(len(x)):
for j in range(len(alpha)):
if(x[i]==alpha[j]):
k=k+1
return k

x=input("Enter the sentence: ")

print("Total number of uppercase letters are:", num_of_uppercase())
print("Total number of lowercase letters are: ", num_of_lowercase())
print("Total number of characters are: ", num_of_chars())
print("Total number of words are: ", num_of_words())

Python -IITM 23
 This is my code.

def upper(s):
upper=0
for c in s:
if(c.isupper()):
upper+=1
return(upper)

def lower(s):
lower=0
for c in s:
if(c.islower()):
lower+=1
return(lower)

def characters(s):
chars=0
for c in s:
chars+=1
return(chars)

def words(s):
words=1
for c in s:
if(c==' '):
words+=1
return(words)

sentence=input('Enter the sentence: ')

uLetters = upper(sentence)
print(f'\nTotal number of upper case characters: {uLetters}')
lLetters = lower(sentence)
print(f'\nTotal number of lower case letters are: {lLetters}')
chars = characters(sentence)
print(f'\nTotal number of characters: {chars}')
words = words(sentence)
print(f'\nTotal number of words: {words}')llll ll

This is instructor’s code.

x = input("Enter the sentence: ")

def num_of_chars():
global x
return len(x)

def num_of_words():
global x
return len(x.split())

def num_of_lowercase():
global x
return sum(1 for c in x if c.islower())

def num_of_uppercase():
global x
return sum(1 for c in x if c.isupper())

print("Total number of characters:", num_of_chars())

print("Total number of words:", num_of_words())
print("Total number of lowercase letters:", num_of_lowercase())
print("Total number of uppercase letters:", num_of_uppercase())

This is chatgpt’s code.

Find area and perimeter of circle and rectangle

Python -IITM 24
 pi=22/7
def circle_area(x):
return pi*(x**2)

def circle_peri(x):
return 2*pi*x

def rect_area(x,y):
return x*y

def rect_peri(x,y):
return 2*(x+y)

def circle_cal(x):
if (x=='area'):
rad=float(input("Enter the radius:\n "))
print("The area of the circle is",circle_area(rad), "sq. units")
elif(x=='perimeter'):
rad=float(input("Enter the radius: \n"))
print("The perimeter of the circle is", circle_peri(rad))

def rect_cal(x):
if (x=='area'):
length=float(input("Enter length of the rectangle:\n "))
breadth=float(input("Enter the breadth of the rectangle:\n "))
print("The area of the rectangle is",rect_area(length,breadth),"sq. units")
elif (x=='perimeter'):
length=float(input("Enter lenght of the rectangle: "))
breadth=float(input("Enter the breadth of the rectangle: "))
print("The perimeter of the rectangle is",rect_peri(length,breadth))

polygon=''
calcu=''
while(polygon!='exit'):
print("\nPOLYGONS\n \nEnter'circle' for circle\nEnter 'rectangle' for rectangle\nEnter 'exit' to exit\n")
polygon=input("Choose the polygon type or exit: \n")
if(polygon=='circle'):
while(calcu!='exit'):
x=input("Enter 'area' to calculate area \n\n Enter 'perimeter' to calculate perimeter \n \n")
circle_cal(x)
break
elif(polygon=='rectangle'):
while(calcu!='exit'):
x=input("Enter 'area' to calculate area \n \n Enter 'perimeter' to calculate perimeter \n\n ")
rect_cal(x)
break

This is a menu driven program. The while loop acts as a menu.

Find if the input coordinates form a triangle

Python -IITM 25
 def tri_check(a,b,c,d,e,f):
area=0
s1=abs(((c-a)**2)+((d-b))**2)**(0.5)
s2=abs(((e-c)**2)+((f-d)**2))**(0.5)
s3=abs(((e-a)**2)+((f-b)**2))**(0.5)
s=abs((s1+s2+s3)/2)
area=(s*(s-s1)*(s-s2)*(s-s3))**(0.5)
if (area==0):
print("Not a triangle")
elif(area!=0):
print("Triangle")

def coords():
a=float(input("Enter a1: \n"))
b=float(input("Enter a2: \n"))
c=float(input("Enter b1: \n"))
d=float(input("Enter b2: \n"))
e=float(input("Enter c1: \n"))
f=float(input("Enter c2: \n"))
return tri_check(a,b,c,d,e,f)

coords()

This is my code.

import math

def slope(xi,yi,xj,yj):
if(xi==xj):
return(math.inf)
else:
return((yj-yi)/(xj-xi))

x1=float(input("Enter x coordinate of 1st point: "))

y1=float(input("Enter y coordinate of 1st point: "))
x2=float(input("Enter x coordinate of 2nd point: "))
y2=float(input("Enter y coordinate of 2nd point: "))
x3=float(input("Enter x coordinate of 3rd point: "))
y3=float(input("Enter y coordinate of 3rd point: "))
s1=slope(x1,y1,x2,y2)
print(f'\nSlope of the line connecting points ({x1},{y1}) and ({x2},{y2})=',s1)
s2=slope(x2,y2,x3,y3)
print(f'\nSlope of the line connecting points ({x2},{y2}) and ({x3},{y3})=',s2)
if (s1!=s2):
print('\nTriangle')
else:
print('\nNot a triangle')

This is instructor’s code.

WEEK 6 - 61-67 LEC:

Lists and Sets

Python -IITM 26
 Set - No repetition allowed. Denoted by { }

in - Checks for values in a list, set, dictionary

y={1,2,3,4,5,73,325,63,23,15,85,79,98}
type(y)
set
79 in y
True
78 in y
False

List Set

Uses less memory Uses more memory than a list

Is indexed Isn’t indexed

Naive search takes a lot of time Naive search doesn’t take a lot of time

Each individual element can be referred. Elements can’t be referred.

import sys
l=list(range(100))
s=set(range(100))
print(sys.getsizeof(l)) #856
print(sys.getsizeof(s)) #8408
print(l[1]) #1
print(s[1]) #throws error - 'set' object is not subscriptable

Dictionaries

d={}
d['sud']=989898
d['am']=99108
d[123]='amaan'

print(d)

malgudi=['It', 'was', 'Monday', 'morning' , 'Swaminathan', 'was', 'reluctant', 'to', 'open', 'his', 'eyes', 'he', 'considered',
print(len(malgudi))
s=set(malgudi)
print(len(s))

d={}

for x in s:
d[x]=0 #this stores every word in set s as keys and assigns the value 0 to them
#like this - d=['It'=0,'was'=0...]
for x in malgudi:
d[x]=d[x]+1 #this adds +1 to the value of the keywords (words of the sentence) every time they are iterated

print(d)

max=0
answer_word=''
d={}

for x in s:
d[x]=0

for x in malgudi:
d[x]=d[x]+1
if (d[x]>max):
max=d[x] #this stores the value of most occurred word in max
answer_word=x #this stores the keyword (word of the sentence) of the most occurred word

print(max,'-',answer_word)

We’ve created a program to check the occurrence of words in a given sentence using dictionaries.

Tuples
() - used for tuples.

Python -IITM 27
 Tuples are immutable (i.e. can’t be edited).

Uses less space than a list.

import string
s=string.ascii_letters
a='My name is aNtOnY %12 g0nse1v1e2 @176 0^^'
b=list(a)
alpha = tuple(list(s))
r=[]
for p in b:
if p in alpha:
r.append(p)
print(r) #this prints only the letters of our inpu sentence and removes everything else

More on lists

l1=[1,2,3]
l2=[10,20,30]
l12=l1+l2
l21=l2+l1
print(l12,l21) #prints [1,2,3,10,20,30] [10,20,30,1,2,3]

l1=[0,0,0,0,0]
l2=[0]*5
print(l1,l2) #both give same output
l3=[1,2,3]*5
print(l3) #prints [1,2,3,1,2,3,1,2,3,1,2,3,1,2,3]

l1=[1,2,3]
l2=[1,2,3]
l3=[1,3,2]
print(l1==l2) #prints True
print(l2==l3) #prints False
print(l2<l3) #prints True

print([1,2]<[2,1]) #prints True

print([1]<[1,2,3]) #prints True
print([2,3]<[3]) #prints True
print([]<[1]) #prints True

l=[1,2,4]
print(l) #prints [1,2,4]
l[2]=3
print(l) #prints [1,2,3]

l1=[1,2,3]
l2=l1
l1[0]=100
print(l1,l2) #prints [100,2,3] [100,2,3]

'''This happens because instead of creating a new memory location,

python simply adds another name to the same memory location created
earlier'''

'''To create a new memory location for a list there are 3 ways'''
l1=[1,2,3]
l2=list(l1)
l3=l1[:]
l4=l1.copy()
l5=l1

l2[0]=100
l3[1]=200
l4[2]=300
print(l1,l2,l3,l4)
#[1,2,3] [100,2,3] [1,200,3]

Python -IITM 28
 '''To check if python has alloted different or same memory location
we use 'is' operator'''

print(l1 is l2) #False

print(l1 is l3) #False
print(l1 is l4) #False
print(l1 is l5) #True

def add(x):
x.append(1)
return x
x=[5]
print(add(x)) #prints [5,1]
print(x) #prints [5,1]

'''If the function argument is of mutable type then it is called

by reference otherwise it is called by value'''
'''Hence in case of list it is called by reference and in case of
integer it is called by value'''

'''LIST METHODS'''
l=[1,2,3]
print(l)

l.append(4) #Takes in only 1 value #It also adds the element at the end of the list
print(l)

l.insert(2,9) #Takes in multiple values #It adds the element at the second index of the list
print(l)

l.remove(2) #removes the value 2 irrespective of the index

print(l)

l.pop(0) #removes the element at 0 index of the list

print(l)

l=[2,6,1,50,3,7,5]
l.sort() #sorts in ascending order
print(l)

l=[2,6,1,50,3,7,5]
l.reverse() #prints the list in reverse order
print(l)

More on Tuples

t = 1, 2, 3
print(t,type(t)) #prints (1,2,3) <class 'tuple'> #this is packing

x,y,z = t
print(x,y,z) #prints 1,2,3 #this is unpacking

l=[10]
print(l,type(l)) #prints [10] <class 'list'>

t=(10)
print(t,type(t)) #prints 10 <class 'int'>

'''To make the type of t=(10) tuple we've to put a comma after 10'''

t=(10,)
print(t,type(t)) #prints 10 <class 'tuple'>

t=([1,2], ['a','b']) #two lists inside a tuple

t[0] = [10,20]
print(t) #throws an error
t[0][0] = 10
print(t) #prints ([10,2], ['a','b']) #Hence we can edit a list inside a tuple
'''We can't modify tuple values but if a value inside a tuple is a list,
then we can modify the values inside that list'''
'''This particular principle is called hashable'''

Python -IITM 29
 t1=(1,2,3) #If values inside tuple are immutable it is referred as hashable
t2=([1,2,3],) #If values inside tuple are mutable it is referred as non-hashable

More of Dictionaries

d={'key':'value'}

We can use immutable data types as key. Hence, integer, float, boolean, string but not a list or dictionary.

Value has no restrictions, we can use integer, float, boolean, string, list, tuple, dictionary, etc.

Key has to be unique the value can be repeated or duplicated.

If we pass dictionary as an argument to a function, it will be passed as a reference.

d={0:0,1:1,2:4,3:9,4:16}
print(d)
for key in d:
print(key,d[key])

'''DICTIONARY METHODS'''
d={0:0,1:1,2:4,3:9,4:16}
print(d.keys()) #prints dict_keys([0,1,2,3,4])
print(d.values()) #prints dict_values([0,1,4,9,16])
print(d.items()) #prints dict_items([(0,0),(1,1),(2,4),(3,9),(4,16)])
#every element in the list is a tuple

More on Sets

st = {1,2,3,4,5,1,2,3,4,5}
print(st) #prints {1,2,3,4,5}

set doesn’t allow repetitive elements.

st = {1,2,3,4,5,1,2,3,4,5}
print(st[0])

set is an unordered entity. It has no index.

Set is mutable but every value inside it has to be immutable and hashable which means you can add values into a
set but those values have to be immutable. Hence, we cannot add a dictionary or list in a set.

'''SET METHODS'''

A={1,2,3}
B={1,2,3,4,5}
print(A.issubset(B)) #prints True
print(A.issuperset(B)) #prints False

A={1,2,3}
B={3,4,5}
C1=A.union(B)
C2=A | B
print(C1,C2)

A={1,2,3}
B={3,4,5}
C1=A.intersection(B)
C2=A&B
print(C1,C2)

A={1,2,3}
B={3,4,5}
C1=A.difference(B)
C2=A-B
print(C1,C2)

Python -IITM 30
 WEEK 7 - 68-75 LEC:
Introduction to Recursion

Same thing as F(n) = F(1)+F(n-1)

Recursion: A simple question

Python -IITM 31
 This isn’t in correct python syntax. This program checks if a list has 0 in it and if it does it returns 1 or else 0.

Python -IITM 32
 This is the logic behind the above pseudocode.

Python -IITM 33
 Revision of concepts done before.

Recursion: Find 0 in a list

def check0(l):
#if the list is empty, return False
if (len(l)==0):
return 0
if(l[0]==0):
#if the first element is zero then return 1
return 1
else:
return check0(l[1:len(l)])
#the above code simply outsources
print(check0([1,2,3,4,5,532,0,24,16,74,8]))

Sorting Recursively

def mini(l):
mini=l[0]
for x in l:
if(x<mini):
mini=x
return mini

def sort(l):
'''recursively sort the list l'''
if(l==[])or(len(l)==1):
return l
#if the list is empty, there is nothing to sort hence we return the list as it is
m=mini(l)
#m now contains the minimum most element in l
l.remove(m)
#we remove that element from l
return [m]+sort(l)

Python -IITM 34
 #we recursively sort the smaller list

l=[5,7,2,9,1,6,3]
print(sort(l))

Introduction to Binary Search

For example - Lets consider you’ve to find the word ‘serendipity’ in a dictionary. You start out with opening the middle page of the dictionary. If
it’s of a letter that comes before the letter S you can discard half of the dictionary. Repeating this method until we find our word is called
Binary Search.

Warm up for Binary Search

def obvious_search(L,k):
for x in L:
if x==k:
return 1
return 0
#code verified.
L=list(range(100000000))
import time
a=time.time()
#Measures time from an epoch to this moment.
print(obvious_search(L,9999999999))
b=time.time()
print(b-a)

When we search for a closer number to the limit of the big list it takes a considerable time for our code to find that
number and get the output.

This is obvious search. We’ll use binary search next.

Binary Search Implementation

Python -IITM 35
 import time

def binarysearch(L,k):
'''This function is an alternative fot the obvious search.
It does exactly what is ecpected from the obvious search,
but in an efficient way.
This method is popularly called the binary search'''
#We want to shrink our list.
#We will do that using a while loop.

begin = L[0]
end=(len(L)-1)

#Use a while loop to look at the list and keep halving it.
while((end-begin)>1):

#Compute the mid which is the mid point of begin to end.

mid=(begin+end)//2

#If mid is indeed k, then we return True and stop the code.
if(L[mid]==k):
return 1

'''If the middle element is greater than k,

then cut the right side and retain the left side.'''
if (L[mid]>k):
end=mid-1

'''If the middle element is less than k,

then cut the left side and retain the right side.'''
if (L[mid]<k):
begin=mid+1

'''This is outside the while loop. If we are here, it means that we

haven't found the element. Also, if we are here, it means that the
while condition is violated. Which means end-begin is less than or equal to 1.'''

#If it is equal to 1, then there are exactly two elements.

if(L[begin]==k) or (L[end]==k):
return 1
else:
return 0

L=list(range(100*100*100))
a=time.time()
print(binarysearch(L,-1))
b=time.time()
print(b-a)

Binary Search Recursion Way

#Binary search but recursion way

def rbinarysearch(L,k,begin,end):
'''This will recursively compute binary search'''

Python -IITM 36
 '''If begin and end are the same, then we need to just
check L[begin]'''
if (begin==end):
if (L[begin]==k):
return 1
else:
return 0
'''If begin and end are consecutive, then check them
individually'''
if (end-begin==1):
if (L[begin]==k) or (L[end]==k):
return 1
else:
return 0
'''If end-begin>1'''
if (end-begin>1):
mid=(begin+end)//2
if (L[mid]>k):
#discard the right and retain the left.
end=mid-1
if (L[mid]<k):
#discard the left and retain the right.
begin=mid+1
if(L[mid]==k):
return 1
if(end-begin<0):
return 0

return rbinarysearch(L,k,begin,end)

L=list(range(10000))
k=-33
begin=L[0]
end=len(L)-1
print(rbinarysearch(L,k,begin,end))

WEEK 8 - 76-83 LEC:

Introduction to File Handling

Python -IITM 37
 Reading and Writing to a File

Here, f is a variable to which we’ve assigned the open command. 'mytext.txt' is the name of the file and 'w'

stands for write.

We then use the variable f to call the file and write in it using f.write() command.

Python -IITM 38
 '\n'

When we are done writing we close the file using f.close() .

Our text got written in the mytext.txt file.

Here, we assign the open command of our file to the variable x .

Then, we assign the read command of x file on the variable s .

print(s) prints whatever is in the mytext.txt file.

Python -IITM 39
 type(s) prints the type of the variable s which is string in this case.

x.close() closes the file.

💡 To clear the terminal use CTRL+L.

💡 'w' writes over the file. 'a' appends to the existing file.

Big text file handling

Here, we first create a new file by the name newfile.txt then we add text to it.

readline command is used to read only 1 line of the file.

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 When we reach the end of any file it is represented by '' (null character). Hence s=='' outputted True as we’ve
reached the end of the file.

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 We run this program to find a number in our text file. run command is followed by the name of the file which we
want to run. (We need to make sure the file we have to run is in the same directory as our text file.)

f=open('newfile.txt', 'r')
flag=0
s='0'
while(s!=''):
s=f.readline()
if(s!=''):
n=int(s)
if(n==10):
print("The number was found.")
flag=1
break
if (flag==0):
print("The number was not found.")

Very big files - a tip

File handling is possible irrespective of how big the file is.

Just that it will take a long time to process it.

Caesar Cipher

'''This program considers an input file and

encrypts it by using caesr cipher. By that we
mean, we shift the letters by 3 units. For
example a becomes d, b becomes e and so on..
w becomes z, x becomes a, y becomes b and z
becomes c'''

import string

def create_caesar_dictionary():
l=string.ascii_lowercase
l=list(l)
d={}
for i in range(len(l)):
d[l[i]]=l[(i+3)%26]
return d

f=open('hound of baskervilles.txt', 'r')

g=open('encrypted sherlock.txt', 'w')

d=create_caesar_dictionary()
c=f.read(1)
while (c!=''):
g.write(d[c])
c=f.read(1)

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 f.close()
g.close()

The code begins by importing the string module, which provides various useful string-related functions and
constants.

The create_caesar_dictionary() function is defined. It initializes an empty dictionary d and a list l containing all the
lowercase letters of the alphabet.

The function then iterates over the lowercase letters and assigns a new value to each letter in the dictionary d . The
new value is obtained by shifting the letter three units to the right (using the modulo operator % to wrap around to
the beginning of the alphabet if needed).

After defining the create_caesar_dictionary() function, the program opens the input file 'hound of baskervilles.txt' in
read mode using the open() function and assigns it to the file object f .

It also opens a new file 'encrypted sherlock.txt' in write mode using open() and assigns it to the file object g .

The program then calls the create_caesar_dictionary() function to create the Caesar cipher dictionary and assigns it
to the variable d .

The program enters a loop that reads one character at a time from the input file f using f.read(1) . The loop
continues until the end of the file is reached (denoted by an empty string '' ).

Inside the loop, the program writes the corresponding encrypted character for the current character to the output file
g using g.write(d[c]) .

Once the loop is finished, the program closes both the input and output files using f.close() and g.close()

respectively, ensuring that all changes are saved.

File handling, Genetic Sequences

f.seek() command is used to seek characters ahead or backwards. It isn’t efficient as it moves linearly.

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 In the following code:

First, we opened our file containing Human Genome Sequence.

Secondly, we made a string seq that will contain whole of the text of our file using seq=f.read() command.

Then, we checked if our seq contains the patterns we want to check and it returned either False or True.

💡 f.read() works fine for smaller files but takes a lot of time for bigger files. Hence we use KMP(Knuth
Morris Pratt) algorithm to find a substring in a given big string.

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 Why Pandas

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 [1:] is a string slicing operation that skips over the header fields in our csv file.

f=open('scores.csv','r')
scores=f.readlines()[1:]
max=0
for record in scores:
fields=record.split(',')
if int(fields[8])>max:
max=int(fields[8])
print(max)

The above code does what we did with 8 lines of our previous code.

print(scores) prints the scores using pandas. As we can notice, pandas add an additional index column before our
first column.

Another thing to notice is that all fields aren’t displayed.

At the bottom we can see (28 rows x 9 columns) this shows that we have 28 entries in 9 fields.

print(scores.shape) returns the shape of our table.

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 print(scores.count()) shows all the values a coulmn contains.

print(scores['total'].min()) returns the minimum value of the total column. It works in a similar fashion like the max
function.

Similarly, we can use .sum() , .mean() etc.

.sort_values() returns the sorted values in ascending order.

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 .sort_values(ascending=False) returns the sorted values in descending order.

Pandas Series, DataFrame and more

Scores.csv we used earlier is called a dataframe in pandas and every column in it is called a series.

scores.head() returns the first 5 rows from the given dataset.

Similarly scores.tail() returns the last 5 rows.

We can access entire data of a particular individual in a row by using the command print(scores[scores['name']=='name

of individual']) .

This way we can access data row-wise.

print(scores[scores['gender']=='M']['total'].max()) using this command we can get the boy with the maximum marks.

Similarly we can find the girl with the most marks too.

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 Panda provides us with a .between() command that acts as a relational operator

.shape returns a tuple containing the number of rows and columns of that dataframe.

So, shape[0] is used since we only need rows and the index of rows is 0 in the tuple.

Pandas has its own and operator and it is ‘&’.

It can be used to condtionalize our command to check two conditions from two different columns or panda series.

Python -IITM 49
 We can iterate over subjects using this code.

It returns the number of students, male and female who scored above 85 in each subjects.

import pandas as pd
scores =pd.read_csv('scores.csv')
subject = ['mathematics', 'physics', 'chemistry']
for sub in subject:
avg=scores[sub].mean()
print('Above average in', sub)
print(scores[(scores[sub]>avg) & (scores['gender']=='M')].shape[0])
print(scores[(scores[sub]>avg) & (scores['gender']=='F')].shape[0])

.groupby groups the entries on the basis of a given parameter.

In these dictionaries the numbers are the cardno of the female and male students.

We can make use of the .groupby method to easily make the previous code.

WEEK 9 - 84-89 LEC:

Introduction to Object Oriented Programming
Everything is an object, every object has attributes and behaviour
Eg1: A person (object); name, age (attributes); singing, driving (behaviour)
attributes -> variables; behaviour ->functions

Classes and Objects

Python -IITM 50
 Here, Student is the class, roll_no , name are attributes and s0 is an object of the class Student .

We use a dot operator . to access the variables of the class in an object.

Attributes and Methods

Python -IITM 51
 Here, __init__(self, roll_no,name) is a special method or function. The self parameter stores values like s0, s1, etc.

If we have some parameters like roll_no , name which we want to initialize against some variables which are
available in the class, then we have to use a constructor with parameters, and whenever we call such a constructor,
internally python executes this particular function called init .Therefore we don’t have to explicitly call this function
like other functions.

self.name and self.roll_no are object variables which are nothing but attributes of these two objects s0 and s1 .

The variable count is owned by the class Student and is shared by objects s1 and s2 . s1 and s2 will not have
their own copy of this variable. Hence, count is a class attribute and the variables roll_no and name are object
attributes.

Python -IITM 52
 Here, the method result() acts as behaviour as discussed in the introduction of this week’s lectures.

When functions belong to a specific class then they are referred to as methods.

Inheritance and Method Overriding

Inheritance

Python -IITM 53
 Here the class Person is the parent or super class and the classes Student and Employee are children classes.

This way, we can avoid repetition and assign the common attributes to the parent class.

Method Overriding

Python -IITM 54
 This is called Method Overriding. As the class employee uses its own function/method instead of the parent class’
method.

We can divide our code and make it run this way too in replit.

Python -IITM 55
 This way we can make any variable secret by adding underscores in it. These variables are referred to as private
members.

Without the underscores in the variable it becomes accessible to all hence it’s called a public member.

Types of inheritance:
Simple Inheritance - Single parent and child class.

Hierarchical Inheritance - Multiple children classes. (Ex - Person, Employee and Student classes we worked on
previously.)

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 Multiple Inheritance - Multiple parent classes.

Multilevel Inheritance - Grandparent, parent and child classes.

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 Hybrid Inheritance - Variation of previous defined inheritances.

Introduction to Numpy library

Python -IITM 58
 Python considers all these as one dimensional lists.

whereas,

Using numpy array, python considers these as matrix with their respective dimension.

Introduction to Matplotlib library

plt.scatter() is used to make a scatter chart.

Python -IITM 59
 plt.bar() is used to create bar chart.

Similarly, .hist() is used to make histogram, .pie() for pie chart.

We can create subplots like these using plt.subplot() . This command takes in 3 attributes - row (x axis), column (y
axis) and position in the chronological order.

So to create the above subplots we used plt.subplot(2,3,1) , plt.subplot(2,3,2) , plt.subplot(2,3,3) ,

plt.subplot(2,3,4) , plt.subplot(2,3,5) , plt.subplot(2,3,6) .

WEEK 10 - 90-95 LEC:

Introduction
We’ll learn about Exception Handling and Functional Programming concepts i.e. :

Iterator

Generator

In line statements

List comprehension

Python -IITM 60
 Lambda function

Enumerator

Zip

Map

Filter

Exception handling
We use exception handling to print out meaningful error messages that may help someone encountering them solve
them.
It is considered as an industry standard.

The try: command first tries if the code under it can run without error.

If it doesn’t, the except: command runs the code under it.

This way we can handle NameError.

We can stack up multiple except commands.

Python -IITM 61
 This way we can handle the FileNotFoundError.

The last except block is for unforeseen errors apart from the above 3 errors that may arrive.

Python -IITM 62
 The finally block is always executed before termination of the program.

We can create our own exception warnings using raise Exception command.

Functional Programming (Part 1)

Iterator:

Python -IITM 63
 iter is used to iterate over any iteratable item i.e. string, list, dictionary, tuple etc.

next is used to iterate over that particular iterator if and when required.

Generator:

yield function is called generator. It generates an iterator.

Here, a is an iterator and we can iterate over the iterator using same next function.

Functional Programming (Part 2)

In line statements:

a=10 a=10
b=20 b=20

if a<b: small = a if a < b else b

small=a
else: print(small)
small=b

Python -IITM 64
 print(small)

The in line statement does the same job of an if else statement.

We can reduce the length of our code by using this everywhere possible.

a=5 a=5
while a>0: while a>0: print(a); a-=1
print(a)
a-=1

Python reads both the codes in equal time so there’s no time advantage in running either of the code over the other.

However, our code may become difficult to understand if its big and we write commands in a single line.

List Comprehension:

fruits=['mango','apple','pineapple',
'orange', 'watermelon', 'guava',
'banana', 'kiwi']

newlist=[]
for fruit in fruits:
if 'n' in fruit:
newlist.append(fruit.capitalize())

print(newlist)

fruits=['mango','apple','pineapple','orange', 'watermelon', 'guava',

'banana', 'kiwi']

newlist=[fruit.capitalize() for fruit in fruits if 'n' in fruit]

print(newlist)

Both of these code give the same output but the second code uses list comprehension.

In it we used inline for, inline if, and putting them together in a list creating a new list. This is called list
comprehension.

Functional Programming (Part 3)

Lambda Function:
Functions that are anonymous i.e. without any function name.

def add(x,y): add = lambda x,y: x+y

return x+y sub = lambda x,y: x-y
mul = lambda x,y: x*y
def sub(x,y): div = lambda x,y: x/y
return x-y
print(add(10,20))
def mul(x,y): print(sub(10,20))
return x*y print(mul(10,20))
print(div(10,20))
def div(x,y):
return x/y

print(add(10,20))
print(sub(10,20))
print(mul(10,20))
print(div(10,20))

In the second code we use lambda functions instead of common functions.

Both of the codes give the same output.

Python -IITM 65
 Advantage of using lambda functions is they reduce the length of our program.

Enumerator Function:

In this code the index values and the fruits in fruits list aren’t coupled.

The index and the name of the fruit are two different entities here.

Using the enumerate function, we’ve coupled the indexes and the name of the fruits. They’ve become a single entity.

Zip Function:

Python -IITM 66
 Using the zip function we can couple two different lists.

Instead of getting our output as list we can get it as a dictionary too by using dict instead of list before the zip
function.

Map Function:

Using the map function we can map a function with its iterators.

In this case this map function will iterate over these two lists and at the same time it will exeecute this fucntions for
every single entry inside these two lists.

Python -IITM 67
 We incremented every element in list a by 1 using map function.

Filter Function:

We created a filter here to filter out negative numbers from the list a using filter function.

Python -IITM 68