1

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

(AUTONOMOUS )
Dundigal, Hyderabad - 500 043

L ECTURE N OTES :

E NGINEERING P HYSICS (AHSC03)

Drafted by :
Dr. Shankaraiah (IARE 10874)

D EPARTMENT O F P HYSICS
I NSTITUTE OF A ERONAUTICAL E NGINEERING
December 30, 2022
Contents

Contents i

List of Figures iv

1 QUANTUM MECHANICS 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Wave and Particle duality of radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 de- Broglie Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Davisson and Germer’s Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Schrödinger’s time independent wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Physical significance of wave function ψ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7 Particle in infinite square potential well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2 INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 15

2.1 Introduction to Electron Theory of Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 The classical free electron theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 The quantum free electron theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Band theory of solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Electron in a periodic potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6 Bloch’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.7 The Kronig-Penny Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.8 Origin of Energy band formation in solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.9 Classification of materials into conductors, semiconductors and insulators . . . . 24
2.9.1 Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.9.2 Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.9.3 Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.10 Intrinsic semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.10.1 Electron concentration in intrinsic semiconductor in conduction band (n) 30
2.10.2 Hole concentration in intrinsic semiconductor in valence band (p) . . . . 32
2.10.3 Fermi Energy Level in Intrinsic Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.10.4 Intrinsic carrier concentration (ni ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.10.5 Extrinsic or Impure Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.10.6 N-Type Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.10.7 Variation of Fermi Level EF with respect to temperature in N-type . . . . 38
2.10.8 Variation of Fermi Level EF with respect to donor concentration in N-type 39

i
Contents ii

2.10.9 Carrier concentration in N-Type semiconductor & Density of electrons in

CB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.10.10 Density of electrons in CB in extrinsic semiconductor: . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.10.11 P-Type semiconductor: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.10.12 Variation of Fermi level EF with respect to temperature in P- type semi-
conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.10.13 Variation of Fermi level with respect to acceptor concentration: . . . . . 42
2.10.14 Carrier concentration in P-Type semiconductor & Density of holes in VB 43
2.10.15 Density of Holes in VB in extrinsic semiconductor: . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.10.16 Hall Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.10.17 Applications ofHall Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

3 LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 50

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2 Characteristics of Laser Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3 Spontaneous and stimulated emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4 Population inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.5 Metastable state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6 Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.7 Lasing action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.8 Ruby Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.9 Helium-Neon gas laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.10 Applications of Lasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.10.1 In Communications : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.10.2 Industrial Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.10.3 Medical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.10.4 Military Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.10.5 In Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.10.6 In Thermonuclear fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.10.7 In Scientific Research: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.11 Fiber optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.12 Construction of Optical Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.13 Principle of Optical Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.14 Acceptance Angle and Acceptance Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.15 Numerical Aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.16 Classification optical fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.16.1 Difference between single mode fibers and multi mode fibers . . . . . . . 67
3.16.2 Step index fibers and graded index fiber -transmission of signals in them . 69
3.17 Fiber optic communication system : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.18 Applications of optical fibers: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4 LIGHT AND OPTICS 74

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.1.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.2 Principle of Superposition of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Contents iii

4.3 Young’s Double slit Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

4.4 Newton’s Rings: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.5 Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.5.1 Differences between Interference and Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.5.2 Types of Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.6 Fraunhofer’s Diffraction at single slit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.7 Fraunhofer Diffraction by a double slit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.8 Fraunhofer Diffraction due to N-slits (Diffraction Grating) . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

5 HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 94

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.2 Simple Harmonic motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.2.1 Simple Harmonic Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.2.2 Few definitions of simple harmonic motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.2.3 Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.3 Damped Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.3.1 Equation of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.4 Force Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.4.1 Equation of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.5 Transverse waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.5.1 Wave equation and velocity of transverse waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.6 Longitudinal waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.6.1 Wave equation and velocity of longitudinal waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.7 Harmonics and overtones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.8 Reflection and Transmission of waves at a boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
List of Figures

1.1 Davisson and Germer’s experimental arrangement for verification of matter waves 6
1.2 Variation of Galvanometer current with variation of angle θ between incident
beam and beam entering the cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Infinite potential well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Ground state and first two excited states of an electron in a potential well: a) the
electron wave functions and b) the corresponding probability density functions.
The energies of these three states are shown on the right. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.1 Potential fields of (a) single atom, (b) a diatomic molecule and (c) crystal . . . . 18
2.2 Potential energy model used by Kronig and Penny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Energy versus momentum curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 (a) periodic positive ion cores inside metallic crystals. b) One dimensional periodic
potential in crystal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5 One dimensional periodic potential assumed by Kronig and Penny . . . . . . . . 22
2.6 Plot of the left hand side of Eq. 2.11 as a function of αa for p = 3π/2. . . . . . . 23
2.7 Splitting of energy levels due to interatomic interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.8 With decrease of interatomic spacing overlapping of energy bands take place . . 25
2.9 Valence and conduction bands of insulator separated by large band gap . . . . . . 26
2.10 Valence and conduction bands of semiconductor separated by small band gap . . 26
2.11 Metals having (a) partially filled valence band and (b) overlap of completely filled
valence band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.12 Intrinsic silicon crystal at T = 0K (a) 2-D representation of intrinsic silicon crystal
(b) Energy band diagram of intrinsic semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.13 Silicon crystal at temperature above 0K (a) Due to thermal energy breaking of
Covalent bonds take place (b) Energy band representation . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.14 (Left) Energy band diagram of silicon at T = 0K (Right) Energy band diagram of
silicon at T > 0K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.15 (Left) Energy band diagram of silicon at T = 0K (Right) Energy band diagram of
silicon at T > 0K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.16 Variation of Fermi level with temperature in an intrinsic semiconductor . . . . . 36
2.17 (a)Representation of N Type Silicon at T = 0K (b) Energy Band Diagram at T = 0K 38
2.18 Variation of Fermi Level w.r.t Temperature in N Type Semiconductor . . . . . . . 39
2.19 Variation of Fermi Level with different donor concentrations in a N Type Semi-
conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.20 (a)Representation of P Type Silicon at T = 0K (b) Energy Band Diagram at T = 0K 42
2.21 Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature in P Type Semiconductor . . . . . . . 43

iv
List of Figures v

2.22 Variation of Fermi Level with different acceptor concentrations in a P Type Semi-
conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.23 Energy Band Diagrams of (a) Intrinsic Semiconductor (b) N-Type (c) P-Type
Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.24 A Semiconductor applied to current and magnetic field perpendicularly in Hall Effect 46

3.1 (a) Absorption (b)Spontaneous Emission (c) Stimulative Emission . . . . . . . . 52

3.2 Schematic Diagram of ruby Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3 Energy Level Diagram of ruby Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4 He-Ne Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.5 Energy Level Diagram of He-Ne Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.6 Structure of Optical Fiber cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.7 Total Internal Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.8 Acceptance Angle and Acceptance Cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.9 Types of Optical fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.10 Block diagram of Optical Fiber Communication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4.1 Reflection of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4.2 Refraction of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.3 Total Internal Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.4 Formation of wavefront . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.5 Principle of superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.6 Interference in water-Ripple tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.7 Young’s double slit Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.8 Young’s double slit Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.9 Young’s Intensity Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.10 Determination of fringewidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.11 Experimental setup of Newton’s Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.12 Newton rings under reflected light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.13 Calculation of Diameter of Newton’s Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.14 Singleslit Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.15 Single slit Diffraction-Intensity Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.16 Double Slit Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.17 Double Slit Diffraction-Intensity Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.18 Diffraction Grating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.19 Diffraction Grating-Oblique Incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.20 Diffraction Grating-Spectral Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

5.1 Mass-Spring system under simple harmonic motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

5.2 variation of potential and kinetic energies with respect to displacement . . . . . . 102
5.3 Displacement as a function of time under over damped condition. . . . . . . . . . 104
5.4 Comparison of displacements under over damping and critical damping conditions. 106
5.5 Oscillations with under damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.6 Comparison of displacememts under three different conditions . . . . . . . . . . 107
List of Figures vi

5.7 Amplitude of a harmonic oscillator as a function of the frequency of the driving

force. The curves represent the same oscillator with the same natural frequency but
with different amounts of damping. Resonance occurs when the driving frequency
equals the natural frequency, and the greatest response is for the least amount of
damping. The narrowest response is also for the least damping. . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.8 Formation of crests and troughs in a transverse wave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.9 Dynamics of a short segment of string: The only forces acting on the ends of the
string are tension forces ’T’ by neglecting gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.10 Longitudinal waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.11 Longitudinal waves in a bar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.12 Harmonics and overtones in a string. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.13 Reflections and transmissions of waves at a boundary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Chapter 1

QUANTUM MECHANICS

Course Outcomes
After successful completion of this module, students should be able to:
CO 1 Solve the particle in an infinite potential well using the Shrodinger’s Apply
machinery of wave mechanics and de-Broglie’s wave-particle duality.

1.1 Introduction

At the end of nineteenth century, physicists had every reason to regard the Newtonian laws gov-
erning the motion of material bodies and Maxwell’s laws of electromagnetism, as fundamental
laws of physics. They believed that there should be some limitation on the validity of these laws
which constitute classical mechanics. To understand the submicroscopic world of the atom and
its constituents, it become necessary to introduce new ideas and concepts which led to which led
to the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics. That had an immediate and spectacular
success in the explanation of the experimental observations.

Quantum mechanics is the science of the submicroscopic. It explains the behavior of matter and
its interactions with energy on the scale of atoms and its constituents.

1
Chapter 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS 2

1.2 Wave and Particle duality of radiation

A particle has mass, it is located at some definite point, it can move from one place to another, it
gives energy when slowed down or stopped. Thus, the particle is specified by

• Mass m

• Velocity v

• Momentum p and

• Energy E

A wave is spread out over a relatively large region of space , it cannot be said to be located just
here and there, it is hard to think of mass being associated with a wave. Actually a wave is nothing
but a rather spread out disturbance. A wave is specified by its

• Frequency

• Wavelength,

• Phase of wave velocity,

• Amplitude and

• Intensity

Light behaves in some aspects like particles and in other aspects like waves. Quantum mechanics
shows that light, along with all other forms of electromagnetic radiation, comes in discrete units,
called photons, and predicts its energies, colors, and spectral intensities. A single photon is a
quantum, or smallest observable amount, of the electromagnetic field because a partial photon has
never been observed. Considering the above facts, it appears difficult to accept the conflicting
ideas that radiation has a dual nature, i.e., radiation is a wave which is spread out over space and
also a particle which is localized at a point in space. However, this acceptance is essential because
radiation sometimes behaves as a wave and at other times as a particle as explained below:
Chapter 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS 3

1. Radiations including visible light, infra-red, ultraviolet, X-rays, etc. behave as waves in
experiments based on interference, diffraction, etc. This is due to the fact that these phe-
nomena require the presence of two waves at the same position at the same time. Obviously,
it is difficult for the two particles to occupy the same position at the same time. Thus, we
conclude that radiations behave like wave.

2. Planck’s quantum theory was successful in explaining black body radiation, the photo elec-
tric effect, the Compton Effect, etc. and had clearly established that the radiant energy, in its
interaction with matter, behaves as though it consists of corpuscles. Here radiation interacts
with matter in the form of photon or quanta. Thus, we conclude that radiations behave like
particle.

1.3 de- Broglie Hypothesis

In quantum mechanics, matter is believed to behave both like a particle and a wave at the sub-
microscopic level. The particle behavior of matter is obvious. When you look at a table, you think
of it like a solid, stationary piece of matter with a fixed location. At this macroscopic scale, this
holds true. But when we zoom into the subatomic level, things begin to get more complicated, and
matter doesn’t always exhibit the particle behavior that we expect.

This non-particle behavior of matter was first proposed in 1923, by Louis de Broglie, a French
physicist. In his PhD thesis, he proposed that particles also have wave-like properties. Although
he did not have the ability to test this hypothesis at the time, he derived an equation to prove it
using Einstein’s famous mass-energy relation and the Planck equation. These waves associated
with particles are named de- Broglie waves or matter waves.

Expression for de- Broglie wavelength

The expression of the wavelength associated with a material particle can be derived on the anal-
ogy of radiation as follows: Considering the plank’s theory of radiation, the energy of photon
(quantum) is

hc
E = hν = (1.1)
λ
Chapter 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS 4

Where c is is the velocity of light in vacuum and λ is its wave length. According to Einstein energy
– mass relation
E = mc2 (1.2)

Thderefore
h h
λ= = (1.3)
mc p

where p = mc is the momentum associated with the photon.

If we consider the case of material particle of mass m and moving with a velocity v ,i.e momentum
mv, then the wave length associated with this particle ( in analogy to wave length associated with
photon ) is given by
h h
λ= = (1.4)
mv p

Different expressions for de-Broglie wavelength

(a) If E is the kinetic energy of the material particle then

1 1
E = mv2 = (m2 v2 )/m = p2 /2m (1.5)
2 2
√
⇒ p2 = 2mE or p = 2mE (1.6)

√
Therefore, de-Broglie wave length λ = h/ 2mE

(b) When a charged particle carrying a charge ‘q’ is accelerated by potential difference V, then
its kinetic energy K .E is given by E = qV . Hence the de-Broglie wavelength associated
with this particle is
p
λ = h/ 2mqV (1.7)

For an electron q = 1.602 × 10−19 , Mass m = 9.1 × 10 − 31 kg

6.626 × 10−34
∴λ = √
2 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 1.602 × 10−19 ×V
r
150
=
V
12.26
= √ Å (1.8)
V
Chapter 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS 5

Properties of Matter Waves

(a) Lighter is the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.

(b) Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.

(c) When v = 0, then λ = ∞ , i.e. wave becomes indeterminate and if v = ∞ then λ = 0. This
shows that matter waves are generated only when material particles are in motion.

(d) Matter waves are produced whether the particles are charged particles or not (λ = h/mv is
independent of charge). i.e., matter waves are not electromagnetic waves but they are a new
kind of waves.

(e) It can be shown that the matter waves can travel faster than light i.e. the velocity of matter
waves can be greater than the velocity of light.

(f) No single phenomenon exhibits both particle nature and wave nature simultaneously.

Distinction between matter waves and electromagnetic waves

S.No Matter Waves Electromagnetic Waves

1 Matter waves are associated with Electromagnetic waves are
moving particles (charged or un- produced only by accelerated
charged) charged particles.
2 Wavelength depends on the mass Wavelength depends on the en-
of the particle and its velocity, ergy of photon
λ = h/mv
3 Matter waves can travel with a Travel with velocity of light c =
velocity greater than the velocity 3 × 108 m/s
of light.
4 Matter wave is not electromag- Electric field and magnetic field
netic wave. oscillate perpendicular to each
other.
5 Matter wave require medium for Electromagnetic waves are
propagation, i.e, they cannot produced only by accelerated
travel through vacuum. charged particles.
Chapter 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS 6

1.4 Davisson and Germer’s Experiment

The first experimental evidence of matter waves was given by two American physicists, Davisson
and Germer in 1927. The experimental arrangement is shown in figure.

The apparatus consists of an electron gun G where the electrons are produced. When the filament
of electron gun is heated to dull red electrons are emitted due to thermionic emissions. Now, the
electrons are accelerated in the electric field of known potential difference. These electrons are
collimated by suitable slits to obtain a fine beam which is then directed to fall on a large single
crystal of nickel, known as target T which is rotated about an angle along the direction of the beam
is detected by an electron detector (Faraday cylinder) which is connected to a galvanometer. The
Faraday cylinder ‘c’ can move on a circular graduated scale s between 29 ◦ C to 90 ◦ C to receive
the scattered electrons.

F IGURE 1.1: Davisson and Germer’s experimental arrangement for verification of matter waves

First of all, the accelerating potential V is given a low value and the crystal is set at any orbital
azimuth (θ ). Now the Faraday cylinder is moved to various positions on the scale’s’ and gal-
vanometer current is measured for each position. A graph is plotted between galvanometer current
against angle θ between incident beam and beam entering the cylinder 1.2. The observations are
repeated for different acceleration potentials.
Chapter 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS 7

F IGURE 1.2: Variation of Galvanometer current with variation of angle θ between incident beam
and beam entering the cylinder

It is observed that a ‘bump’ begins to appear in the curve for 44 volts. Following points are
observed.

(a) With increasing potential, the bump moves upwards.

(b) The bump becomes most prominent in the curve for 54 volts at θ = 50◦ .

(c) At higher potentials, the bumps gradually disappear.

The bump in its most prominent state verifies the existence of electron waves. According to de-
Broglie, the wavelength associated with electron accelerated through a potential V is given by

12.26
λ = √ Å
V

Hence, the wavelength associated with an electron accelerated through 54 volt is

12.26
λ= √ = 1.67Å (1.9)
54

From X-ray analysis, it is known that a nickel crystal acts as a plane diffraction grating with
space d = 0.91 Å. According to experiment, we have diffracted electron beam at θ = 50◦ . The
Chapter 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS 8

corresponding angle of incidence relative to the family of Bragg plane

θ ′ = (180 − 50)/54 = 65◦

Using Bragg’s equation (taking n=1), we have

λ = 2d sin θ

= 2 × 0.91 × sin 65 Å

= 1.65 Å (1.10)

This is in good agreement with the wavelength computed from de-Broglie hypothesis (Eq. 1.9)
and hence, confirms the de-Broglie concept of matter waves.

1.5 Schrödinger’s time independent wave equation

Schrödinger developed a differential equation whose solutions yield the possible wave functions
that can be associated with a particle in a given situation. This equation is popularly known as
Schrodinger equation. The equation tells us how the wave function changes as a result of forces
acting on the particle. One of its forms can be derived by simply incorporating the de-Broglie
wavelength expression into the classical wave equation.

If a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity v is associated with a group of waves, let ψ be the
wave function of the particle. Also let us consider a simple form of progressing wave represented
by the equation
ψ(x) = ψ0 sin(ωt − kx) (1.11)

where ψ0 is amplitude. On partially differentiating Eqn 1.11 with respect to x, we get

∂ψ
= −kψ0 cos(ωt − kx)
∂x
Chapter 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS 9

If we repeat partial differentiation with respect to x,

∂ 2ψ
= −k2 ψ0 sin(ωt − kx)
∂ x2
∂ 2ψ
= −k2 ψ
∂ x2
∂ 2ψ
+ k2 ψ = 0 (1.12)
∂ x2

Since k = 2π/λ ,
∂ 2 ψ 4π 2
+ 2 ψ =0 (1.13)
∂ x2 λ

Eq. 1.12 or Eq.1.13 is the differential form of the classical wave equation. Now, incorporating de-
Broglie wavelength expression λ = h/mv in to Eq. 1.13, we get

∂ 2 ψ 4π 2 m2 v2
+ ψ = 0
∂ x2 h2
∂ 2 ψ m2 v2
+ 2 ψ = 0 (1.14)
∂ x2 h̄

where h̄ = h/2π. The total energy E of the particle is the sum of its kinetic energy K and potential
energy V i.e., E = K +V . But K = 1/2mv2 .

∴ E = 1/2mv2 +V

1/2mv2 = E −V

m2 v2 = 2m(E −V ) (1.15)

By substituting Eq. 1.15 in Eq. 1.14, we get

∂ 2 ψ 2m(E −V )
+ ψ =0 (1.16)
∂ x2 h̄2

This is called time independent Schrödinger wave equation in If we extend the Eq. 1.16 to three
dimensional space, the wave equation will be,

∂ 2 ψ ∂ 2 ψ ∂ 2 ψ 2m(E −V )
+ 2 + 2 + ψ =0 (1.17)
∂ x2 ∂y ∂z h̄2
Chapter 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS 10

Here ψ which is a function of x, y and z i.e., ψ(x, y, z). The Laplacian operator is defined as

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇2 = + + (1.18)
∂ x2 ∂ y2 ∂ z2

Hence Eq.1.17 can be written as

2m(E −V )
∇2 ψ + ψ =0 (1.19)
h̄2

Since ψ represents only stationary states i.e., time independent states here, this equation is called
Schrödinger time independent wave equation in three dimensions.

1.6 Physical significance of wave function ψ

1. The wave function ψ has no direct physical meaning. It is a complex quantity representing
the variation of matter wave.

2. It connects the practical nature and its associated wave nature statically.

3. |ψ 2 | (or ψψ ∗ if function is complex) at a point is proportional to the probability of finding

the particle at that point at any given time. The probability density at any point is represented
by |ψ 2 |.

4. If the particle is present in a volume dxdydz, then |ψ 2 |dxdydz = 1 If a particle is present

somewhere in space

Z ∞
|ψ 2 |dxdydz = 1 or
−∞
Z ∞
ψψ ∗ dxdydz = 1 (1.20)
−∞

The wave function satisfying the above condition is said to be normalized.

Chapter 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS 11

1.7 Particle in infinite square potential well

A free electron trapped in a metal or charge carriers trapped by barriers trapped by the potential
barriers of a double hetero junction can be approximated by an electron in an infinitely deep one-
dimensional potential well. Consider one – dimensional potential well of width ’a’ as shown in
fig. 1.3 Let the potential V = 0 inside well and V = ∞ outside the well. The time independent

F IGURE 1.3: Infinite potential well

Schrödinger wave equation in one dimensional case

∂ 2 ψ 2m(E −V )
+ ψ =0 (1.21)
∂ x2 h̄2

For a particle present inside the well, V = 0 and ψ = ψ(x).

∂ 2 ψ(x) 2mE
+ 2 ψ(x) = 0 (1.22)
∂ x2 h̄

Let the general solution of Eq. 1.22 be

ψ(x) = A sin(kx) + B cos(kx) (1.23)

Where A and B are constants which can be determined from boundary conditions

∞ if x < 0





V (x) = 0 if 0 ≤ x ≤ a




∞ if x > a

Chapter 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS 12

Since ψ(x) = 0 at x = 0,

0 = A sin(k × 0) + B cos(k × 0) ⇒ B = 0 (1.24)

Since ψ(x) = 0 at x = a,
0 = A sin(ka)

Which means A = 0 or sin(ka) = 0. Since both A and B cannot be zero, A ̸= 0. If A = 0, then

ψ = 0 everywhere. This means that the particle is not in the well. The only meaningful way to
satisfy the condition is

nπ
sin(ka) = 0 ⇒ ka = nπ ⇒ k = , where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
a

Thus the Eq. 1.23 simplifies to

 nπ 
ψn (x) = A sin x (1.25)
a

On differentiating the above equation with respect to x, we obtain

dψ nπ  nπ 
= A cos x
dx a a

If we differentiate the above equation, we get

d2ψ n2 π 2  nπ 
= −A sin x
dx2 a2 a
d2ψ n2 π 2  nπ 
+ A sin x = 0 (1.26)
dx2 a2 a

By comparing Eq. 1.22 and 1.26, we get

2mE n2 π 2
=
h̄2 a2
n2 h̄2 π 2
E =
2ma2
n2 h2
E = (since h̄ = h/2π) (1.27)
8ma2
Chapter 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS 13

The value of ‘A’ in Eq. 1.26 can be obtained by applying normalization condition i.e., the proba-
bility of finding the particle inside the box is unity.

Z a
|ψ(x)2 | = 1
0
Z a  nπ 
A2 sin2 x dx = 1
0 a
Z a  
2 2nπ
A 1 − cos x dx = 1
0 a
a
A2
 
a 2nπ
x− sin x = 1
2 2nπ a 0

A2
⇒ ((a − 0) − (0 − 0)) = 1
2
A2
a = 1
2
r
2
A = (1.28)
a

Therfore the normalized wave function is

r
2  nπ 
ψn (x) = sin x (1.29)
a a

The wave functions and the corresponding probabilities and energy levels of the particles are as
suggested in Figure 1.4. Notice that the number of nodes (places where the particle has zero

F IGURE 1.4: Ground state and first two excited states of an electron in a potential well: a) the
electron wave functions and b) the corresponding probability density functions. The energies of
these three states are shown on the right.
Chapter 1. QUANTUM MECHANICS 14

probability of being located) increases with increasing energy n. Also note that as the energy of
the particle becomes greater, the quantum mechanical model breaks down. As the energy levels
get closer together and overlap, it forms a continuum. This means the particle is free and can have
any energy value. At such high energies, the classical mechanical model is applied as the particle
behaves more like a continuous wave. Therefore, the particle in a box problem is an example of
Wave-Particle Duality.
Chapter 2

INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND

SEMICONDUCTORS

Course Outcomes
After successful completion of this module, students should be able to:
CO 2 Classify the solids and semiconductors by using the band gap, charge Understand
carrier concentration and Fermi level.

Introduction to Solids

2.1 Introduction to Electron Theory of Solids

The electrons in the outermost orbital of the atom which constitute the solid, determine its electri-
cal properties. On the basis of electrical properties, solid can be broadly classified into insulators,
semi conductors and conductors. The electron theory of solids (which is applicable to all solids
both metals and non metals) aims to explain the structures and properties of solids through their
electronic structure. It explains the electrical, thermal and magnetic properties of solids. The
theory has been developed in three main stages.

15
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 16

1. The classical free electron theory (CFET)

2. The quantum free electron theory (QFET)

3. The Zone theory or Band theory of solids.

2.2 The classical free electron theory

This theory was proposed to account for the electrical conduction in metals by Drude in 1900.
It was extended by H.A. Lorentz in 1909. This theory was also known as Free electron theory
of metals. Metal atoms have one or more loosely bound valence electrons. Such electrons get
detached easily even with small thermal energy. The detached electrons are neither shared nor
acquired by any of the atoms of the metal. Hence they are free and just form a common fool. The
electrostatic interaction of detached electrons with the positive ion cores and with other electrons
is assumed to be negligible. A consequence of this assumption is that the detached electrons can
move freely everywhere within the confinements of the metal piece. Hence these electrons are
called as free electrons or conduction electrons. When an electric field is applied, free electrons
will experience slow drift motion in the positive direction of the field and produce a current in the
metal.

Successes of Classical Free Electron Theory

1. It proved the validity of ohms law

2. It could give a satisfactory explanation to the mechanism of electrical current in conductors

and thermal conductivity of metals.

3. It explains optical properties of metals.

4. It derives Widemann-Franz law i.e the relation between electrical conductivity and thermal
conductivity.

Failures Classical Free Electron Theory

1. Temperature dependence of resistivity of metals could not be established correctly.

Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 17

2. Heat capacity and paramagnetic susceptibility of conduction electrons could not be ex-
plained successfully.

3. It could not predict correct values to the mean free path of electrons.

2.3 The quantum free electron theory

Sommerfeld developed this theory during 1928. He considered Drude’s assumption on the free
electrons as it is. In addition to that, he considered the applied Pauli’s exclusion principle to the
electron gas and applied Fermi-Dirac statistics in place of Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. The
results of these modifications indicated that no all free electrons would contribute to the processes
like electrical and thermal conductivities of metals. Rather only a small fraction of the free electron
gas of the metal would participate in such properties.

Successes of quantum free electron theory

1. It could explain the specific heat and paramagnetic properties.

2. It could predict the temperature dependence of the resistivity correctly.

3. It could explain the thermionic emission of metals.

Failures of quantum free electron theory

1. This model could not explain why certain solids behave as conductors and why certain others
behave as insulators.

2. The properties of the semiconductors could not be explained on the basis of this theory.

2.4 Band theory of solids

The failure of the free electron models (both classical and quantum) is due to the over simpli-
fied assumption that the interaction between a free or detached electrons and positive ion cores is
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 18

negligible. This assumption implies that the potential due to a positive ion core is zero or rather
constant throughout the crystal, as had been taken in the potential well. Which means the detached
electrons can move freely within the metal. But, in reality, the free electron-ion core interaction
cannot be neglected. As such the potential due to the positive ion cores cannot be taken as con-
stant throughout the crystal. Therefore detached electrons cannot be completely free. The actual
situation of potential in the crystal is roughly as follows: the potential field of a single positive
ion core seen by an electron is as shown in Figure 2.1. The corresponding potential due to that

F IGURE 2.1: Potential fields of (a) single atom, (b) a diatomic molecule and (c) crystal

of a diatomic molecule is as in figure (b). Extending the structure, the potential field of a crystal
defined as regular periodic arrangement of atoms would be as shown in fig (c). That is the po-
tential field now becomes a periodic function with a period ‘a’. Thus, while the actual structure
of the potential field is something like this or even more complicated; free electron model takes
just a constant potential ignoring the periodic variations. As compared to this, the potential field
assumed in free electron theory is very crude approximation. Kronig and penny had tried to rectify
this drawback by taking the periodic variation of the potential field into account. But, they did
not take the potential field of figure as it would be too complex for mathematical analysis. Rather
they have taken a rectangular periodic potential. Though, this is not an exact representation of the
potential given in Figure 2.2, this is much closer to the actual situation than the previous model.
In fact this model lead to marvelous conclusions and gave clue to several of the properties of the
solids that are not explained by the previous model.
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 19

F IGURE 2.2: Potential energy model used by Kronig and Penny

2.5 Electron in a periodic potential

While the Sommerfeld theory accounts satisfactorily for electrical conductivity in most metals, it
failed to explain why other substances that also contain free electrons have virtually no conductiv-
ity and are considered to be excellent insulators. A solution to this problem is given by the zone
theory or Band theory of solids.

The effect of the periodic lattice field on the motion of the electrons leads to the zone or band
theory of solids, which is of the greatest importance for the understanding of the structure and
properties of metals, alloys and non metallic solids. According to zone theory, the electrons move
in a periodic potential provided by the lattice. The potential of the solid varies periodically with
the periodicity of space lattice and the potential energy of the electron is zero near the nuclei which
it is halfway between the adjacent nuclei which are separated by a interatomic spacing ‘a’.

This model was first postulated by Kronig and Penny. So taking this model and solving the
Schrödinger equation for this case, we can find the existence of energy gap between the allowed
values of energy of electron. So, if we use classical theory, we can get a parabola when we plot
the curve between the electron’s energy and its momentum. Since the curve is a parabola, we can
infer that the energy varies continuously. But by Kronig-Penny model, we can get a parabola with
some discontinuities in it as shown in Figure 2.3.

2.6 Bloch’s theorem

Crystalline solid consists of a lattice which is composed of a large number of ionic cores at regular
intervals and the conduction electrons move throughout the lattice. Let us consider the picture
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 20

F IGURE 2.3: Energy versus momentum curve

of the lattice in only one dimension, i.e., only an array of ionic cores along x-axis. If we plot
the potential energy of a conduction electron as a position in the lattice, the variation of potential
energy is as shown in figure. The potential is minimum at the positive ion sites and maximum
between the two ions.

F IGURE 2.4: (a) periodic positive ion cores inside metallic crystals. b) One dimensional periodic
potential in crystal.

The one dimension Schrodinger equation corresponding to this can be written as

∂ 2 ψ 2m
+ 2 (E −V ) ψ = 0 (2.1)
∂ x2 h̄

The periodic potential V (x) may be defined by means of the lattice constant ‘a’ as

V (x) = V (x + a) (2.2)

Bloch considered the solution as

ψk (x) = exp(ikx)Uk (x) (2.3)

Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 21

Eq. 2.3 is known as Bloch function. Uk (x) is periodic function with the periodicity of the crystal
lattice. The free electron wave is modulated by periodic function Uk (x) is periodic with the peri-
odicity of the crystal lattice. The free electron wave is modulated by periodic function Uk (x). For
a linear chain of atoms of length ‘L’ in one dimensional case with ‘N’ (= even) number of atoms
in the chain,
Uk (x) = Uk (x + Na) (2.4)

From Eqs. 2.3 and 2.4,

ψk (x + Na) = Uk (x + Na)e[ik(x+Na)]

= Uk (x)eikx eikNa

ψk (x + Na) = eikNa ψk (x) (2.5)

Eq. 2.5 is referred to as Bloch condition.

Now,

ψk (x + Na)ψk∗ (x + Na) = ψk (x)eikNa ψk∗ (x)e−ikNa

= ψk (x)ψk∗ (x)e0

ψk (x + Na)ψk∗ (x + Na) = ψk (x)ψk∗ (x) (2.6)

This means that the electron is not located around any particular atom and the probability of finding
the electron is same throughout the crystal.

2.7 The Kronig-Penny Model

The periodic potential assumed by Kronig and Penny is shown in Figure 2.5. i.e., a series of
rectangular wells of width ‘a’ and are placed at a separation of b. In the regions where 0 < x < a,
the potential energy is zero and in regions such as −b < x < 0, the potential energy is V0 . The
main features of the model and its predictions can be explained qualitatively.
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 22

F IGURE 2.5: One dimensional periodic potential assumed by Kronig and Penny

Main features of the model

A. Schrödinger equation

The dynamical behavior of electrons in the Kronig-Penny model is represented by the following
Schrödinger equation,

∂ 2 ψ 2m
+ 2 Eψ = 0 for 0 < x < a (2.7)
∂ x2 h̄
∂ 2 ψ 2m
+ 2 (E −V0 )) ψ = 0 for − b < x < 0 (2.8)
∂ x2 h̄

Let us assume that total energy ‘E’ of the electron under consideration is less than V0 . Further, let
2mE 2m(V0 −E)
us substitute α 2 = h̄2
and β 2 = h̄2
, where α and β are real quantities. Now Eq. 2.7 and
2.8 become

∂ 2ψ
+ α 2 Eψ = 0 for 0 < x < a (2.9)
∂ x2
∂ 2ψ
+ β 2 (E −V0 )) ψ = 0 for − b < x < 0 (2.10)
∂ x2

These equations can be solved with the help of Bloch theorem. The final solution of Eqs. 2.9 and
2.10 is given in the form of the following condition.

(P/αa)sin αa + cos αa = cos ka (2.11)

mb
where P = h̄2
(V0 − E)a is scattering power of the potential barrier and V0 is barrier strength. That
means, Eqs. 2.9 and 2.10 will have solutions only when Eq. 2.11 is satisfied.
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 23

B. Graph of αa versus P sin αa/αa + cos αa

For the best understanding of the meaning of Eq. 2.11, let us consider the plot of the condition
i.e., L.H.S versus αa. Since the values of cos ka on R.H.s of Eq. 2.11 lie between +1 and -1,
αa (which is a measure of energy) can take only those values for which the total left hand side
(L.H.S) value lies between -1 and +1. Other values are not allowed. This means that energy E is
restricted to lie within certain ranges which form the allowed energy bands or zones. The shaded

F IGURE 2.6: Plot of the left hand side of Eq. 2.11 as a function of αa for p = 3π/2.

and non-shaded regions on the abscissa (αa- axis) correspond to allowed and forbidden energy
regions of the energy spectrum respectively that are plotted in figure.

C. Conclusions from the graph

1. The energy spectrum consists of alternative regions of allowed and vacant bands. Forbidden
band implies that the energy levels that lie in this region are not occupied by the electrons.

2. The allowed (shaded) bands are narrowest for low values of energy and become broader as
energy increases, the not allowed (forbidden) bands becomes narrower.

3. a) For P = 0 (i.e. on the extreme left), the whole energy spectrum is quasi-continuous.
That is all allowed bands are joined together forming an almost continuum.

b) However, the width of a particular allowed band decreases with increase in the value
of P. As P → ∞, the allowed energy bands compress into simple energy levels and
thus result in a line spectrum.
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 24

2.8 Origin of Energy band formation in solids

In an isolated atom, the electrons are tightly bound and have discrete, sharp energy levels [Fig-
ure]. When two identical atoms are brought closer, the outermost orbits of these atoms overlap and
interact. When the wave functions of the electrons of the different atoms begin to overlap consid-
erably, the energy levels split into two If more atoms are bought together, more levels are formed
and for a solid of N atoms, each of the energy levels of an atom splits into N levels of energy
[Figure]. The levels are so close together that they form an almost continuous band. The width of

F IGURE 2.7: Splitting of energy levels due to interatomic interaction

this band depends on the degree of overlap of the electrons of adjacent atoms and is largest for the
outermost atomic electrons. In a solid, many atoms are brought together that the split energy levels
form a set of energy bands of very closely spaced levels with forbidden energy gaps between them.
Overlapping of these atoms occurs for smaller equilibrium spacing r0 . The band corresponding
to outermost orbit is called conduction band and the next band is called valence band. The gap
between these two allowed bands is called forbidden energy gap or band gap. According to the
width of the gap between the bands and band occupation by electrons all solids can be classified
broadly into three groups namely, conductors, semiconductors and insulators.

2.9 Classification of materials into conductors, semiconductors and

insulators

On the basis of band theory, solids can be broadly classified into three categories, viz, insulators,
semiconductors and conductors. Their band structures can be as shown in figure.
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 25

F IGURE 2.8: With decrease of interatomic spacing overlapping of energy bands take place

2.9.1 Insulators

1. In case of insulators, the forbidden gap is very wide. Due to this fact electrons cannot jump
from valence band to conduction band (Figure 2.9).

2. They have completely filled valence band and completely empty conduction band.

3. The resistivity of insulators is very high.

4. Insulators are bad conductors of electricity.

2.9.2 Semiconductors

1. In semiconductors, the band gap is very small (Figure 2.10) (0.7 eV for germanium and
1.1 eV for silicon).

2. At 0 K, these are no electrons in the conduction band and the valence band is completely
filled. As the temperature increases, electrons from the valence band jump into conduction
band.

3. The resistivity varies from 10−14 to 107 Ω − m.

Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 26

F IGURE 2.9: Valence and conduction bands of insulator separated by large band gap

4. They have electrical properties between those of insulators and conductors.

F IGURE 2.10: Valence and conduction bands of semiconductor separated by small band gap

2.9.3 Conductors

1. In case of conductors, there is no forbidden gap and the valence band conduction band
overlaps each other (Figure 2.11).

2. Plenty of free electrons are available for electrical conduction.

Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 27

3. They posses very low resistivity and very high conductivity values.

4. Metals like copper, iron etc. are best examples of conductors.

F IGURE 2.11: Metals having (a) partially filled valence band and (b) overlap of completely filled
valence band
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 28

Introduction to Semiconductors

2.10 Intrinsic semiconductor

Pure germanium or silicon called an intrinsic semiconductor. Each atom possesses four valence
electrons in outer most orbits. At T = 0K a 2-D representation of the crystal of silicon & band
diagram is shown in the Figure 2.12
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 29

F IGURE 2.12: Intrinsic silicon crystal at T = 0K (a) 2-D representation of intrinsic silicon crystal
(b) Energy band diagram of intrinsic semiconductor

Explanation: At 0K, all the valence electrons of silicon atoms are in covalent bonds and their
energies constitute a band of energies called valance band (VB). So at 0K, VB is completely filled
& conduction band (CB) is empty.

If we rise temperature (T > 0K), some of the electrons which are in covalent bonds break the bonds
become free and move from VB to CB. The energy required should be greater than the energy gap
of a semiconductor (E > Eg ). The electron vacancy or deficiency created in VB is called holes.
This is shown in the figure 2.13.

F IGURE 2.13: Silicon crystal at temperature above 0K (a) Due to thermal energy breaking of
Covalent bonds take place (b) Energy band representation
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 30

2.10.1 Electron concentration in intrinsic semiconductor in conduction band (n)

Definition: The number of free electrons per unit volume of the conduction band of a given
intrinsic semiconductor is called electron concentration, represented by ‘n’.

F IGURE 2.14: (Left) Energy band diagram of silicon at T = 0K (Right) Energy band diagram of
silicon at T > 0K

Derivation: Let the no. of free electrons per unit volume of the semiconductor having energies
EandE + dE in CB is represented by n(E)dE. It is obtained by multiplying the density of energy
states (No. of energy states per unit volume) ZC (E)d(E) and Fermi – Dirac distribution function
for the Probability of occupation of electrons FC (E). Therefore

n(E)dE = [ZC (E)d(E)][FC (E)] (2.12)

The total no. of electrons in CB per unit volume between the energies EC to Ect is given by
integrating Eq. (2.12) with limits EC to Ect .

Z Ect
n= n(E)dE (2.13)
EC

The above equation can be written as

Z ∞ Z E ct
n = n(E)dE + n(E)dE
EC ∞
Z ∞ Z ∞
n = n(E)dE − n(E)dE (2.14)
EC Ect
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 31

In Eq. 2.14 the second term vanishes (disappears) since, above Ect electrons do not present. Hence
Eq. 2.14 becomes

Z ∞
n = n(E)dE
EC
Z ∞
n = (ZC (E)dE) × FC (E) (2.15)
EC

The Fermi distribution function is given by

1
FC (E) =   (2.16)
1 + exp E−E
kB T
F

Here E > EF , i.e., exp (E − EF )/(KB T ) >> 1 Hence 2.16 can be rewritten as

1
FC (E) =  
E−EF
exp kB T
 
EF − E
⇒ FC (E) = exp (2.17)
kB T

Also the density of states ZC (E)dE is given by

3/2
8m∗e

π
ZC (E)dE = E 1/2 dE (2.18)
2 h2

Here E > EC . Since EC is the minimum energy state in CB, Eq. 2.18 changes to

3/2
8m∗e

π
ZC (E)dE = (E − EC )1/2 dE (2.19)
2 h2

By substituting Eqs. 2.17 and 2.19 in Eq. 2.14, we get

Z ∞  ∗ 3/2  
π 8me EF − E 1/2
n = (E − EC ) exp dE
EC 2 h2 kB T

π 8m∗e 3/2 ∞
  Z  
1/2 EF − E
n = (E − EC ) exp dE (2.20)
2 h2 EC kB T
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 32

Let ε = E − EC , then dε = dE, since EC is a constant. The limits of ε will be 0 to ∞. Now Eq.
2.20 can be written as
3/2 Z
8m∗e
 

π EF − (ε + EC )
∞
1/2
n = (ε) exp dε
2 h2 ε kB T

π 8m∗e 3/2
   Z ∞  
EF − EC 1/2 −ε
n = exp (ε) exp dε (2.21)
2 h2 kB T ε kB T

But   √
−ε
Z ∞
1/2 π
(ε) exp dε = (kB T )3/2 (2.22)
ε kB T 2

By substituting Eq. 2.22 in Eq. 2.21, we get

3/2 √
8m∗e
 
π EF − EC π
n = exp (kB T )3/2
2 h2 kB T 2

1 8πm∗e kB T 3/2
   
EF − EC
= exp
4 h2 kB T

8 2πm∗e kB T 3/2
   
EF − EC
= exp
4 h2 kB T

2πm∗e kB T 3/2
   
EF − EC
n = 2 exp (2.23)
h2 kB T
"  #
2πm∗e kB T 3/2
  
EF − EC
n = NC exp ∵ NC = 2 (2.24)
kB T h2

where 3/2
2πm∗e kB T

NC = 2 (2.25)
h2

2.10.2 Hole concentration in intrinsic semiconductor in valence band (p)

Definition: The number of holes per unit volume of the valence band of a given intrinsic semicon-
ductor is called hole concentration, represented by ‘p’.
Derivation: Let the no. of holes per unit volume of the semiconductor having energies EandE +
dE in VB is represented by p(E)dE. It is obtained by multiplying the density of energy states
(No. of energy states per unit volume) Zv (E)d(E) and Fermi – Dirac distribution function for the
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 33

F IGURE 2.15: (Left) Energy band diagram of silicon at T = 0K (Right) Energy band diagram of
silicon at T > 0K

Probability of occupation of holes Fh (E). Therefore

p(E)dE = [Zv (E)d(E)][Fh (E)] (2.26)

The total no. of holes in VB per unit volume between the energies Evb to Ev is given by integrating
Eq. (2.26) with limits Evb to Ev .
Z Ev
p= p(E)dE (2.27)
Evb

The above equation can be written as

Z −∞ Z Ev
p = p(E)dE + p(E)dE
Evb −∞
Z Evb Z Ev
p = − p(E)dE + p(E)dE (2.28)
−∞ −∞

In Eq. 2.28 the first term vanishes (disappears) since, below Evb holes are not present. Hence Eq.
2.28 becomes

Z Ev
p = p(E)dE
−∞
Z Ev
p = (Zv (E)dE) × Fh (E) (2.29)
−∞
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 34

The Fermi distribution function is given by

 
E−EF
exp kB T
Fh (E) =   (2.30)
E−EF
1 + exp kB T

Here E > EF , i.e., exp (EF − E)/(KB T ) >> 1 Hence 2.30 can be rewritten as

1
Fh (E) =  
EF −E
exp kB T
 
E − EF
⇒ Fh (E) = exp (2.31)
kB T

Also the density of states Zv (E)dE is given by

3/2
8m∗p

π
Zv (E)dE = E 1/2 dE (2.32)
2 h2

Here E < Ev . Since Ev is the maximum energy state in VB, Eq. 2.32 changes to

3/2
8m∗p

π
Zv (E)dE = (Ev − E)1/2 dE (2.33)
2 h2

By substituting Eqs. 2.31 and 2.33 in Eq. 2.29, we get

Z Ev  ∗ 3/2
π 8m p
 
E − EF 1/2
p = (Ev − E) exp dE
−∞ 2 h2 kB T
3/2 Z E
π 8m∗p
  
v
1/2 E − EF
p = (Ev − E) exp dE (2.34)
2 h2 −∞ kB T

Let ε = Ev − E, then dε = −dE, since Ev is a constant. The limits of ε will be ∞ to 0. Now Eq.
2.34 can be written as
3/2 Z
8m∗p 0
  
π (Ev − ε) − EF )
1/2
p = (ε) exp dε
2 h2 ε=∞ kB T
3/2
π 8m∗p
  Z ∞  
EV − EF 1/2 −ε
p = exp (ε) exp dε (2.35)
2 h2 kB T ε=0 kB T

But   √
−ε
Z ∞
π
(ε)1/2 exp dε = (kB T )3/2 (2.36)
ε kB T 2
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 35

By substituting Eq. 2.36 in Eq. 2.35, we get

3/2 √
8m∗p
 
π EV − EF π
p = exp (kB T )3/2
2 h2 kB T 2
3/2
1 8πm∗p kB T
  
EV − EF
= exp
4 h2 kB T
3/2
8 2πm∗p kB T
  
EV − EF
= exp
4 h2 kB T

2πm∗p kB T 3/2
   
EV − EF
p = 2 exp (2.37)
h2 kB T
"  #
2πm∗p kB T 3/2
  
EV − EF
p = NV exp ∵ NV = 2 (2.38)
kB T h2

2.10.3 Fermi Energy Level in Intrinsic Semiconductor

At temperature T, the electron concentration ’n’ is equal to hole concentration ’p’ in intrinsic
semiconductor, i.e.,
n= p

3/2
2πm∗p kB T
3/2
2πm∗e kB T
     
EF − EC EV − EF
2 exp = 2 exp
h2 kB T h2 kB T

on simplifying we get,
   
EF − EC EV − EF
m∗e 3/2 exp ∗ 3/2
= m p exp
kB T kB T
 
exp EFkB−E
T
C
m∗p 3/2
  =
exp EVk−E F m∗e 3/2
BT

m∗p 3/2
 
EF − EC + EF − Ev
exp =
kB T m∗e 3/2

m∗p 3/2
 
2EF (EC + Ev )
exp − =
kB T kB T m∗e 3/2
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 36

Taking Logarithm on both sides we get,

 ∗
2EF (EC + Ev ) 3 mp
− = ln ∗
kB T kB T 2 me
(EC + Ev ) 3 m∗p
 
2EF
= +
kB T kB T ln m∗e
 ∗
(EC + Ev ) 3 mp
EF = + kB T ln ∗
2 4 me

Let T = 0K, then

(EC + Ev )
EF =
2

This means EF lies in the middle between Ec &Ev of the energy Gap ′ Eg′ As the temperature
increases the electrons move from VB to CB.Also the Fermi level slightly rises upwards towards
CB. Hence
 ∗
(EC + Ev ) 3 mp
EF = + kB T ln ∗
2 4 me

F IGURE 2.16: Variation of Fermi level with temperature in an intrinsic semiconductor

Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 37

2.10.4 Intrinsic carrier concentration (ni )

Definition: The no. of free electrons and holes per unit volume of the intrinsic semiconductor is
called intrinsic carrier concentration (ni ) remains constant.

n = p = ni

(np) = (ni )(ni )

(ni )2 = np (2.39)

Substitute electron and hole concentrations n and p in equation 2.39,

2πm∗e kB T 3/2 2πm∗p kB T 3/2

       
2 EF − EC EV − EF
(ni ) = 2 exp ×2 exp
h2 kB T h2 kB T

2πkB T 3 ∗ ∗ 3/2
   
EF − EC − EF + Ev
(ni )2 = 4 (m m
e p ) (exp
h2 kB T

2πkB T 3 ∗ ∗ 3/2
   
−Eg
(ni )2 = 4 (me m p ) (exp
h2 kB T

Since (Ec − Ev )= Eg

 3/2  
2πkB T 3 −Eg
(ni ) = 2 (m∗e m∗p ) 4 (exp
h2 2kB T

If m∗e =m∗p = m∗ , the above equation becomes,

2πkB T 3/2 ∗ 3
   
−Eg
(ni ) = 2 (m ) 2 (exp
h2 2kB T

2πm∗ kB T 3/2
   
−Eg
(ni ) = 2 (exp
h2 2kB T

Let
3/2
2πm∗ kB

2 =C
h2

Then
 
3/2 −Eg
(ni ) = CT exp
2kB T
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 38

2.10.5 Extrinsic or Impure Semiconductor

Introduction: The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor can be increased by adding small

amounts of impurity atoms, such as III rd or Vth group atoms. The conductivity of silica is
increased by 1000 times on adding 10 parts of boron per million part of silicon. The process of
adding impurities is called doping and the impurity added is called dopant.

2.10.6 N-Type Semiconductor

In a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor, when Pentavalent impurity like Phosphorous atom consisting
of five valance electrons is doped, and then concentration of electrons increases than holes. Hence
the given semiconductor formed is called N – type semiconductor. This is shown in the FIGURE
2.17. By adding donor impurities, the free electrons generated or donated, form an energy level
called as ’Donor energy level’ i.e. ED is shown in the figure below. In the figure (b) EF is Fermi

F IGURE 2.17: (a)Representation of N Type Silicon at T = 0K (b) Energy Band Diagram at

T = 0K

EC +ED
energy level is in between EC & ED at T = 0K. Hence EF = 2 .

The donor level ‘ED ’ is near to EF consisting of free electrons. But CB is empty.

2.10.7 Variation of Fermi Level EF with respect to temperature in N-type

As temperature increases the electrons in the Donor level ED moves into CB leaving holes. Also
The Fermi level slightly shifts upwards towards CB. If further increase of temperature is done, the
hole concentration also increases with respect to electron concentration. Hence it reaches again
the concentration of n = p i.e., an intrinsic semiconductor. At last the Fermi level drops in the
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 39

middle of the energy gap (or) Forbidden band gap, indicating a pure semiconductor that is towards
Ei . This happens only for very high temperatures as shown in the figure 2.18 below.

F IGURE 2.18: Variation of Fermi Level w.r.t Temperature in N Type Semiconductor

2.10.8 Variation of Fermi Level EF with respect to donor concentration in N-type

As the donor concentration increases the Fermi level decreases (lowers) as in case of intrinsic
semiconductor Ei. This is shown in the figure below:

F IGURE 2.19: Variation of Fermi Level with different donor concentrations in a N Type Semi-
conductor
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 40

2.10.9 Carrier concentration in N-Type semiconductor & Density of electrons in

CB

Let ND be the donor concentration (no. of donor atoms per unit volume).
Let it be written as
 
−(EF − ED )
= ND exp (2.40)
kB T

The density of electrons in CB in pure semiconductor is given by

3/2
2πm∗e kB T
  
EF − EC
2 exp (2.41)
h2 kB T

At very low temperatures the no. of electrons in CB must be equal to the no. of donor atoms per
unit volume. Hence equating equations 2.40 & 2.41 we get

3/2
2πm∗e kB T
    
EF − EC −(EF − ED )
2 exp = ND exp
h2 kB T kB T
 
exp (EFkB−E
T
C)
ND
  = 3/2
exp −(EkFB−E D)
 ∗
T 2 2πmhe2kB T
 
(EF − EC + EF − ED ) ND
exp = 3/2
kB T 
2πm∗e kB T
2 h2
 
2EF − (EC + ED ) ND
exp = 3/2
kB T 
2πm∗e kB T
2 h2
Taking logarithms on both sides we get
2EF − (EC + ED ) ND
= ln  3/2
kB T 2πm∗e kB T
2 h2

ND
2EF − (EC + ED ) = kB T ln  3/2
∗
2 2πmhe2kB T

(EC + ED ) kB T ND
EF = + ln  3/2 (2.42)
2 2 2πm∗e kB T
2 h2
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 41

Case I: At T = 0K

(EC + ED )
EF =
2
(2.43)

Case II: At T > 0K

(EC + ED ) KB T ND
EF = + ln  3/2 (2.44)
2 2 ∗
2 2πmhe2kB T

2.10.10 Density of electrons in CB in extrinsic semiconductor:

Here consider Eq. 2.41

3/2
2πm∗e kB T
  
EF − EC
n=2 exp (2.45)
h2 kB T

When we substitute the value of EF from Eq. 2.42 in above equation, we get nextrinsic N−Type

 (E
C +ED )

3/2 2 + KB2T ln[ 
ND
2πm∗
3/2 ] − EC
e kB T
2πm∗e kB T

 2 2 
h
n(extrinsicN−Type) = 2 exp  
h2  kB T 

We know that exp(a + b) = exp(a) × exp(b)

Also exp(ln x) = x
3/2 1
2πm∗e kB T

(ED − EC ) (ND ) 2
n(extrinsicN−Type) = 2 exp
h2 2KB T 1 ∗ 3/4
(2) 2 []2πmhe2 kB T ]
3/4
2πm∗e kB T

1 (ED − EC )
n(extrinsicN−Type) = (2ND ) 2 2 exp
h2 2kB T

2.10.11 P-Type semiconductor:

P – Type semiconductor is formed by doping with trivalent impurity atoms (acceptor) like III rd
group atoms i.e. Aluminum, Gallium, and Indium etc to a pure semiconductor like Ge or Si. As the
acceptor trivalent atoms has only three valance electrons & Germanium , Silicon has four valence
electrons; holes or vacancy is created for each acceptor dopant atom. Hence holes are majority
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 42

and electrons are minority. It is shown in the figure a below. Also an acceptor energy level EA
is formed near VB consisting of holes, as shown in the figure below. As temperature increases

F IGURE 2.20: (a)Representation of P Type Silicon at T = 0K (b) Energy Band Diagram at

T = 0K

T > 0K the electrons in VB which are in covalent bonds break the bonds become free and move
from VB to acceptor energy level EA .

2.10.12 Variation of Fermi level EF with respect to temperature in P- type semicon-

ductor

As temperature increases the Fermi level EF slightly drops towards VB. For further increase of
high temperatures the electron concentration also increases with respect to hole concentration.
Hence a condition is reached such that n = p i.e. it becomes an intrinsic or pure semiconductor.
Hence the Fermi level increases and reaches to intrinsic level Ei as in case of pure semiconductor.
This is shown in the figure below

2.10.13 Variation of Fermi level with respect to acceptor concentration:

Also as the acceptor concentration increases we find that Fermi level EF reaches (increases) to-
wards intrinsic level Ei as in case of pure or intrinsic semiconductor. This is shown in the figure
below
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 43

F IGURE 2.21: Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature in P Type Semiconductor

F IGURE 2.22: Variation of Fermi Level with different acceptor concentrations in a P Type Semi-
conductor

2.10.14 Carrier concentration in P-Type semiconductor & Density of holes in VB

Let NA be the acceptor concentration (no. of acceptor atoms per unit volume).
Let it be written as
 
−(EA − EF )
= NA exp (2.46)
kB T

The density of holes in VB in pure semiconductor is given by

3/2
2πm∗p kB T
  
(EV − EF )
2 exp (2.47)
h2 kB T
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 44

At very low temperatures the no. of holes in VB must be equal to the no. of acceptor atoms per
unit volume. Hence equating equations 2.46 & 2.47 we get

3/2
2πm∗p kB T
    
−EF + EV (EF − EA )
2 exp = NA exp
h2 kB T kB T
 
exp (−EkFB+ET
V)
NA
  =  ∗ 3/2
(EF −EA ) 2πmP kB T
exp kB T 2 h2
 
(−EF + EV − EF + EA ) NA
exp = 3/2
kB T 
2πm∗P kB T
2 h2
 
−2EF + (EV + EA ) NA
exp = 3/2
kB T 
2πm∗P kB T
2 h2

Taking logarithms on both sides we get

−2EF + (EV + EA ) NA
= ln 
kB T 2πm∗P kB T 3/2

2 h2

NA
−2EF + (EV + EA ) = kB T ln 
2πm∗P kB T 3/2

2 h2

(EV + EA ) KB T NA
EF = − ln  (2.48)
2 2 2πm∗P kB T 3/2

2 h2

Case I: At T = 0K

(EV + EA )
EF = (2.49)
2

Case II: At T > 0K

(EV + EA ) kB T NA
EF = + ln  (2.50)
2 2 2πm∗P kB T 3/2

2 h2
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 45

2.10.15 Density of Holes in VB in extrinsic semiconductor:

Here consider equation 2.37

3/2
2πm∗p kB T
  
−(EF − EV )
2 exp (2.51)
h2 kB T

Substitute the value of EF from equation 2.48in above equation, then we get nextrinsic P−Type
    
2πm∗p kB T 3/2
 
3/2 [−(E + E )/2] + (k T /2) ln N / 2 + E
2πm∗p kB T V A B A h2 V
 
 
n(extrinsicp−Type) = 2 exp  
h2  kB T 

We know that exp(a + b) = exp(a) × exp(b)

Also exp(log x) = x

3/2 1
2πm∗p kB T

(EV − EA ) (NA ) 2
n(extrinsicP−Type) = 2 exp (2.52)
h2 2KB T 1 []2πm∗p kB T ] 3/4
(2) 2 h2
3/4
2πm∗p kB T

1 −(EA − EV )
n(extrinsicP−Type) = (2NA ) 22 exp
h2 2KB T

F IGURE 2.23: Energy Band Diagrams of (a) Intrinsic Semiconductor (b) N-Type (c) P-Type
Semiconductors
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 46

2.10.16 Hall Effect

Determination of Hall coefficientRH , Hall voltage VH & Applications of Hall Effect

Definition:
If a piece of semiconductor carrying a current ‘I’ is placed in a transverse or perpendicular mag-
netic field, then an Electric field EH is generated in perpendicular to both ‘I’ and ‘B’. Hence
production of Hall electric field EH and generation of Hall voltage VH by applying current ‘I’ &
‘B’ in perpendicular directions is called Hall Effect.
Derivation of RH ,VH & EH :
Assume an N – type semiconductor. Let ‘I’ be the current passed along X- axis. Let ‘B’ the mag-
netic field applied along ‘Z’ axis. Due to current ‘I’, due to the flow of electrons, the force acting
on electrons is in opposite direction to the direction of conventional current. Due to the magnetic
field ‘B’ there is a down ward force act on each electron given by Bev. This makes the electrons
deviated in a down ward direction along Z – axis. This causes a negative charge to accumulate
on the bottom face. Hence FB = Bev Where ‘e’ = charge of electron, v = velocity of electron. A

F IGURE 2.24: A Semiconductor applied to current and magnetic field perpendicularly in Hall
Effect

potential difference is formed from top to bottom of the specimen. The potential difference causes
a field EH to flow along negative Y- axis. Due to EH along negative Y- direction a force of eEH
acts in upward direction along positive Y- axis.
Hence FE = e EH
Under equilibrium condition
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 47

Upward force due to EH = Downward force due to B.

FB = FE

eEH = BeV
EH
V = (2.53)
B

If J is the current density then J = nev

J
V = (2.54)
ne

Equating equations 2.53 & 2.54

EH J
=
B ne
JB
EH =
ne
−1
EH = BJ
ne
−1
RH = ( f orelectrons)
ne

1
RH = ( f orholes)
pe

Hence

EH = RH BJ

EH
RH = (2.55)
BJ

where n=electron density,P=hole Density,EH = Hall electric Field,RH = Hall coefficient,B= Mag-
netic Field,J= Current Density.
Experimental Determination of RH Consider equation(1.49)
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 48

EH
RH =
BJ

Let VH be the voltage across the sample of thickness ’t’

V = Ed

VH = EH Xb

VH
EH = (2.56)
b

If ’b’ is the width of the sample semiconductor,Area ’A’ thickness’t’

Area = breadth X thickness
A=bxt
we know that current Density

I
J =
A

I
J = (2.57)
bt

Substituting equations (1.50) &(1.51) in (1.49) we get

VH
b
RH =
B btI

Hall Coefficient

VH × t
RH = (2.58)
B×I
Chapter 2. INTRODUCTION TO SOLIDS AND SEMICONDUCTORS 49

where VH = Hall Voltage,b = breadth of semiconductor, B = magnetic Field, I = Current due to

flow of electrons.

RH BI
VH = (2.59)
t

2.10.17 Applications ofHall Effect

1. For determination of type of given semiconductor. For N-type, Hall coefficient RH = nega-
tive; For P-type, Hall coefficient RH = Positive.

2. To determine carrier concentration ‘n’ and ‘p’ ; that is n = p

1
n= p=
RH e

3. Determination of mobility of charge carriers

σ = neµ

4. For measurement of magnetic flux density ‘B’ & Hall voltage.

5. To determine the sign of charge carriers, whether the conductivity is due to electrons or
holes.
Chapter 3

LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS

Course Outcomes

After successful completion of this module, students should be able to:

CO 3 Compare the concepts of LASER and normal light in terms of mech- Understand
anism and working principles for applications in various fields and sci-
entific practices.
CO 4 Explain functionality of components in optical fiber communication Understand
system by using the basics of signal propagation, attenuation and dis-
persion.

3.1 Introduction

LASER stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. It is different from
conventional light (such as tube light or electric bulb), there is no coordination among different
atoms emitting radiation. Laser is a device that emits light (electromagnetic radiation) through a
process is called stimulated emission.

50
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 51

3.2 Characteristics of Laser Light

1. Coherence: Coherence is one of the unique properties of laser light. It arises from the
stimulated emission process. Since a common stimulus triggers the emission events which
provide the amplified light, the emitted photons are in step and have a definite phase relation
to each other. This coherence is described interms of temporal and spatial coherence.

2. Monochromaticity: A laser beam is more or less in single wave length. I.e. the line width
of laser beams is extremely narrow. The wavelengths spread of conventional light sources
is usually 1 in 106, where as in case of laser light it will be 1 in 105.I.e. if the frequency
of radiation is 1015Hz., then the width of line will be 1 Hz. So, laser radiation is said
to be highly monochromatic. The degree of non-monochromaticity has been expressed as
ξ = (dλ /λ ) = dv/v,
where dλ or dv is the variation in wavelength or variation in frequency of radiation.

3. Directionality: Laser beam is highly directional because laser emits light only in one direc-
tion. It can travel very long distances without divergence. The directionality of a laser beam
has been expressed interms of divergence. Suppose r1 and r2 are the radii of laser beam at
distances D1 and D2 from a laser, and then we have.
Divergence, δ θ = (r1 − r2 )/(D2 − D1 ) The divergence for a laser beam is 0.01mille radian
where as incase of search light it is 0.5 radian.

4. High intensity: In a laser beam lot of energy is concentrated in a small region. This concen-
tration of energy exists both spatially and spectrally, hence there is enormous intensity for
laser beam. The power range of laser is about 10-13w for gas laser and is about 109 w for
pulsed solid state laser and the diameter of the laser beam is about 1 mm. then the number
of photons coming out from a laser per second per unit area is given by

N1 = P
hνπr2
= 1022 to 1034photons/m−2 − sec By assuming hν = 10−19 Joule,Power
P = 10−3 to109 watt r = 0.5 × 10−3 meter
Based on Planck’s black body radiation, the number of photons emitted per second per unit
area by a body with temperature T is given by
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 52

Nth = (2hπC/λ 4 )(1/e(hν/kT ) − 1)dλ ≈ 1016photons/m2 .sec

By assuming T = 1000k, λ = 6000Ao

This comparison shows that laser is a highly intensive beam.

3.3 Spontaneous and stimulated emission

In lasers, the interaction between matter and light is of three different types. They are: absorption,
spontaneous emission and stimulates emission.Let E1 and E2 be ground and excited states of an
atom. The dot represents an atom. Transition between these states involves absorption and emis-
sion of a photon of energy E2 − E1 = hν12 . Where ‘h’ is Planck’s constant. Absorption: As shown
in fig 8.1(a), if a photon of energy hν12 (E2 − E1 ) collides with an atom present in the ground state
of energy E1 then the atom completely absorbs the incident photon and makes transition to excited
state E2 . Spontaneous emission:As shown in fig 8. 1. (b), an atom initially present in the excited
state makes transition voluntarily on its own. Without any aid of external stimulus or an agency to
the ground. State and emits a photon of energy hν12 (E2 − E1 ).this is called spontaneous emission.
These are incoherent.
Stimulated emission:As shown in fig8.1.(c), a photon having energy hν12 (E2 − E1 )impinges on
an atom present in the excited state and the atom is stimulated to make transition to the ground
state and gives off a photon of energy hν12 . The emitted photon is in phase with the incident
photon. These are coherent. This type of emission is known as stimulated emission.

F IGURE 3.1: (a) Absorption (b)Spontaneous Emission (c) Stimulative Emission

Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 53

Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

1. Polychromatic radiation 1. Monochromatic radiation
2. Less intensity 2. High intensity
3. Less directionality, more angular spread 3. High directionality, so less angular spread
during propagation during propagation.
4. Spatially and temporally in coherent radia- 4. Specially and temporally coherent radia-
tion tion.
5. Spontaneous emission takes place when 5. Stimulated emission takes place when a
excited atoms make a transition to lower en- photon of energy equal to hν12 (= E2 − E1 )
ergy level voluntarily without any external stimulates an excited atom to make transition
stimulation. to lower energy level.

TABLE 3.1: Differences between Spontaneous and Stimulative Emission

3.4 Population inversion

Usually in a system the number of atoms (N1 ) present in the ground state (E1 ) is larger than the
number of atoms(N2) present in the higher energy state. The process of making N2 > N1 called
population inversion. Conditions for population inversion are: The system should posses at least a
pair of energy levels(E2 > E1 ), separated by an energy of equal to the energy of a photon (hν).
There should be a continuous supply of energy to the system such that the atoms must be raised
continuously to the excited state. Population inversion can be achieved by a number of ways like
optical pumping, electrical discharge etc.

3.5 Metastable state

The excited states (particularly electronic states in laser gain media) which have a relatively long
lifetime due to slow radiative and non-radiative decay are called Metastable states.
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 54

3.6 Pumping

For maintaining a state of population inversion atoms have to be raised continuously to excited
state. It requires energy to be supplied to the system. The process of supplying energy to the
medium with a view to transfer it into state of population inversion is known as pumping.
Commonly used pumping types are:

• Optical pumping

• Electric discharge

• Atom-Atom collision

• Direct conversion

• Chemical reactions

• Injection current

3.7 Lasing action

After completion of lifetime of electrons in the Meta stable state, they fall back to the lower energy
state or ground state by releasing energy in the form of photons. This process of emission of
photons is called spontaneous emission. When this emitted photon interacts with the electron in the
Meta stable state, it forces that electron to fall back to the ground state. As a result, two photons are
emitted. This process of emission of photons is called stimulated emission. When these photons
again interacted with the electrons in the Meta stable state, they forces two Meta stable state
electrons to fall back to the ground state. As a result, four photons are emitted. Likewise, a large
number of photons are emitted. As a result, millions of photons are emitted by using small number
of photons.

3.8 Ruby Laser

Ruby Laser is a solid state pulsed, three level lasers. It consists of a cylindrical shaped ruby crystal
rod of length varying from 2 to 20cms and diameter varying 0.1 to 2cms. This end faces of the
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 55

rod are highly flat and parallel. One of the faces is highly silvered and the other face is partially
silvered so that it transmits 10 to 25% of incident light and reflects the rest so as to make the
rod-resonant cavity. Basically, ruby crystal is aluminum oxide [Al 2O3] doped with 0.05 to 0.5%
of chromium atom. These chromium atoms serve as activators. Due to presence of 0.05% of
chromium, the ruby crystal appears in pink color. The ruby crystal is placed along the axis of a
helical xenon or krypton flash lamp of high intensity.

F IGURE 3.2: Schematic Diagram of ruby Laser

Construction: Ruby (Al2O3+Cr2O3) is a crystal of Aluminum oxide in which some of Al+3 ions
are replaced by Cr +3 ions.When the doping concentration of Cr+3 is about 0.05%, the color of
the rod becomes pink. The active medium in ruby rod is Cr+3ions. In ruby laser a rod of 4cm long
and 5mm diameter is used and the ends of the rod are highly polished. Both ends are silvered such
that one end is fully reflecting and the other end is partially reflecting. The ruby rod is surrounded
by helical xenon flash lamp tube which provides the optical pumping to raise the Chromium ions
to upper energy level (rather energy band). The xenon flash lamp tube which emits intense pulses
lasts only few milliseconds and the tube consumes several thousands of joules of energy. Only a
part of this energy is used in pumping Chromium ions while the rest goes as heat to the apparatus
which should be cooled with cooling arrangements. The energy level diagram of ruby laser is
shown in fig.

Working: Ruby crystal is made up of aluminum oxide as host lattice with small percentage of
Chromium ions replacing aluminum ions in the crystal chromium acts as do pant. A do pant
actually produces lasing action while the host material sustains this action. The pumping source
for ruby material is xenon flash lamp which will be operated by some external power supply.
Chromium ions will respond to this flash light having wavelength of 5600A0. When the Cr +3ions
are excited to energy level E3 from E1 the population in E3 increases. Chromium ions stay here
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 56

for a very short time of the order of 10-8 seconds then they drop to the level E2 which is mat
stable state of life time 10-3s. Here the level E3is rather a band, which helps the pumping to be
more effective. The transitions from E3toE2 are non-radioactive in nature. During this process
heat is given to crystal lattice. Hence cooling the rod is an essential feature in this method. The
life time in mete stable state is 10 5times greater than the lifetime in E3. As the life of the state E2
is much longer, the number of ions in this state goes on increasing while ions. In this state goes on
increasing while in the ground state (E1)goes on decreasing. By this process population inversion
is achieved between the exited Meta stable state E2 and the ground state E1. When an excited ion
passes spontaneously from the metastable state E2 to the ground state E1, it emits a photon of wave
length 6943A0. This photon travels through the rod and if it is moving parallel to the axis of the
crystal, is reflected back and forth by the silvered ends until it stimulates an excited ion in E2 and
causes it to emit fresh photon in phase with the earlier photon. This stimulated transition triggers
the laser transition. This process is repeated again and again because the photons repeatedly move
along the crystal being reflected from its ends. The photons thus get multiplied. When thephoton
beam becomes sufficiently intense, such that part of it emerges through the partially silvered end
of the crystal.

F IGURE 3.3: Energy Level Diagram of ruby Laser

Drawbacks of ruby laser:

Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 57

1. The laser requires high pumping power to achieve population inversion.

2. It is a pulsed laser.

Output pulses with time.

3.9 Helium-Neon gas laser

Helium-Neon gas laser is a continuous four level gas laser. It consists of a long, narrow cylindrical
tube made up of fused quartz. The diameter of the tube will vary from 2 to 8 mm and length will
vary from 10 to 100 cm. The tube is filled with helium and neon gases in the ratio of 10:1. The
partial pressure of helium gas is 1mm of Hg and neon gas is 0.1mm of Hg so that the pressure of
the mixture of gases inside the tube is nearly 1 mm of Hg.

F IGURE 3.4: He-Ne Laser

Laser action is due to the neon atoms.Helium is used for selective pumping of neon atoms to upper
energy levels. Two electrodes are fixed near the ends of the tube to pass electric discharge through
the gas. Two optically plane mirrors are fixed at the two ends of the tube at Brewster angle nor-
mal to its axis. One of the mirrors is fully silvered so that nearly 100% reflection takes place and
the other is partially silvered so that 1% of the light incident on it will be transmitted. Optical
resources column is formed between these mirrors.
Working: When a discharge is passed through the gaseous mixture, electrons are accelerated
down the tube. These accelerated electrons collide with the helium atoms and excite them to
higher energy levels. The different energy levels of Helium atoms and Neon atoms is shown in fig.
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 58

(H)
F IGURE 3.5: Energy Level Diagram of He-Ne Laser

The helium atoms are excited to the levels F2 and F3 these levels happen to be metastable energy
states.
Energy levels and hence Helium atoms exited levels spend sufficiently large amount of time be-
fore getting de excited. As shown in the fig, some of the excited states of neon can correspond
approximately to the same energy of excited levels F2 and F3 . Thus, when Helium atoms in level
F2 and F3 collide with Neon atoms in the ground level E2 , an energy exchange takes place. This
results in the excitation of Neon atoms to the levels E4 and E6 and de excitation of Helium atoms
to the ground level (F1 ). Because of long life times of the atoms in levels F2 and F3 , this process
of energy transfer has a high probability. Thus the discharge through the gas mixture continuously
populates the neon atoms in the excited energy levels E4 and E6 . This helps to create a state of
population inversion between the levels E4 (E6 ) to the lower energy level (E3 and E5 ). The various
transitions E6 → E5 , E4 → E3 , E6 → E3 leads to the emission of wave lengths 3.39mm, 1.15 µ m
and 6328Ao . Specific frequency selection may be obtained by employing mirrors
The excited Neon atoms drop down from the level E3 to the E2 by spontaneously emitting a photon
around wavelength 6000Ao . The pressures of the two gases in the mixture are so chosen that there
is an effective transfer of energy from the Helium to the Neon atoms. Since the level E2 is a meta
stable state, there is a finite probability of the excitation of Neon, atoms from E2 to E3 leading
to population inversion, when a narrow tube is used, the neon atoms in the level E2 collide with
the walls of the tube and get excited to the level E1 . The transition from E5 to E3 may be non
radioactive. The typical power outputs of He-Ne laser lie between 1 and 50 mw of continuous
wave for inputs of 5-10W.
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 59

3.10 Applications of Lasers

Lasers find applications in various fields. They are described below.

3.10.1 In Communications :

Lasers are used in optical fiber communications. In optical fiber communications, lasers are used
as light source to transmit audio, video signals and data to long distances without attention and
distortion.
The narrow angular spread of laser beam can be used for communication between earth and moon
or to satellites.
As laser radiation is not absorbed by water, so laser beam can be used in under water (inside sea)
communication networks.

3.10.2 Industrial Applications

Lasers are used in metal cutting, welding, surface treatment and hole drilling. Using lasers cutting
can be obtained to any desired shape and the curved surface is very smooth. Welding has been
carried by using laser beam.
Dissimilar metals can be welded and micro welding is done with great case.
Lasers beam is used in selective heat treatment for tempering the desired parts in automobile
industry
Lasers are widely used in electronic industry in trimming the components of ICs

3.10.3 Medical Applications

Lasers are used in medicine to improve precision work like surgery. Brain surgery is an example
of precision surgery Birthmarks, warts and discoloring of the skin can easily be removed with an
unfocussed laser. The operations are quick and heal quickly and, best of all, they are less painful
than ordinary surgery performed with a scalpel. Cosmetic surgery (removing tattoos, scars, stretch
marks, sunspots, wrinkles, birthmarks and hairs).
Laser types used in dermatology include ruby(694nm),alexandrite(755nm),pulsed diode array(810nm),
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 60

Nd:YAG(1064nm), HO:YAG(2090nm), and Er:YAG(2940nm) Eye surgery and refracting surgery.

Soft tissue surgery: Co2Er:YAGlaser.
Laser scalpel (general surgery, gynecological, urology, laparoscopic).
Dental procedures.
Photo bio modulation (i.e. laser therapy)
“No-touch” removal of tumors, especially of the brain and spinal cord.
In dentistry for caries removal, endodontic/periodontic, procedures, tooth whitening, and oral
surgery.

3.10.4 Military Applications

The various military applications are:

Death rays:By focusing high energetic laser beam for few seconds to aircraft, missile, etc can be
destroyed. So, these rays are called death rays or war weapons.
Laser gun:The vital part of energy body can be evaporated at short range by focusing highly
convergent beam from a laser gun.
LIDAR (Light detecting and ranging):In place of RADAR, we can use LIDAR to estimate the size
and shape of distant objects or war weapons. The differences between RADAR and LIDAR are
that, in case of RADAR, Radio waves are used where as incase of LIDAR light is used.

3.10.5 In Computers

By using lasers a large amount of information or data can be stored in CD-ROM or their storage
capacity can be increased. Lasers are also used in computer printers.

3.10.6 In Thermonuclear fusion

Toinitiate nuclear fusion reaction, very high temperature and pressure is required. This can be
created by concentrating large amount of laser energy in a small volume. In the fusion of deuterium
and tritium, irradiation with a high energy laser beam pulse of 1 nano second duration develops a
temperature of 10170c, this temperature is sufficient to initiate nuclear fusion reaction.
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 61

3.10.7 In Scientific Research:

In scientific, lasers are used in many ways including

A wide variety of interferometrie techniques.
Raman spectroscopy.
Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy.
Atmospheric remote sensing.
Investigating non linear optics phenomena
Holographic techniques employing lasers also contribute to a number of measurement techniques.
Laser (LADAR) technology has application in geology, seismology, remote sensing and atmo-
spheric physics.
Lasers have been used abroad spacecraft such as in the cassini-huygens mission. In astronomy
lasers have been used to create artificial laser guide stars, used as reference objects for adaptive
optics telescope.

3.11 Fiber optics

Introduction

1. An optical fiber (or fiber) is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length.

2. Fiber optics is the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and
application of optical fibers.

3. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission
over long distances and at higher band widths (data rates) than other forms of communica-
tions.

4. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and
fiber lasers. Fiber optics, though used extensively in the modern world, is a fairly simple
and old technology.
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 62

(H)
F IGURE 3.6: Structure of Optical Fiber cable

3.12 Construction of Optical Fiber

Optical fiber is a cylinder of transparent dielectric medium and designed to guide visible and in-
frared light over long distances. Optical fibers work on the principle of total internalreflection.
Optical fiber is very thin and flexible medium having a cylindrical shape consisting of three sec-
tions
The core material
The cladding material
The outer jacket
The structure of an optical is shown in figure. The fiber has a core surrounded by a cladding mate-
rial whose reflective index is slightly less than that of the core material to satisfy the condition for
total internal reflection. To protect the fiber material and also to give mechanical support there is a
protective cover called outer jacket. In order to avoid damages there will be some cushion between
cladding protective cover.

3.13 Principle of Optical Fiber

When a ray of light passes from an optically denser medium into an optically rarer medium, the
refracted ray bends away from the normal. When the angle of incidence is increased angle of
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 63

refraction also increases and a stage is reached when the refracted ray just grazes the surface of
separation of core and cladding. At this position the angle of refraction is 90 degrees. This angle of
incidence in the denser medium is called the critical angle (θc ) of the denser medium with respect
to the rarer medium and is shown in the fig. If the angle of incidence is further increased then light
is totally reflected. This is called total internal reflection. Let the reflective indices of core and
cladding materials be n1 and n2 respectively.

Total internal reflection.

When a light ray travelling from an optically denser medium into an optically rarer medium, is
incident at angle greater than the critical angle for the two media, then the ray is totally reflected
back into the medium by obeying the loss of reflection. This phenomenon is known as totally
internal reflection.

F IGURE 3.7: Total Internal Reflection

According to law of refraction,

n1 θ1 = n2 θ2

Here
θ1 = θc , θ2 = 90

n1 sin (θc ) = n2 sin (90) (3.1)

n2
sin (θc ) = (3.2)
n1
 
n2
θc = sin−1 (3.3)
n1
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 64

(H)
F IGURE 3.8: Acceptance Angle and Acceptance Cone

Eq. 3.1 is the expression for condition for total internal reflection. In case of total internal reflec-
tion, there is absolutely no absorption of light energy at the reflecting surface. Since the entire
incident light energy is returned along the reflected light it is called total internal reflection. As
there is no loss of light energy during reflection, hence optical fibers are designed to guide light
wave over very long distances.

3.14 Acceptance Angle and Acceptance Cone

Acceptance angle:It is the angle at which we have to launch the beam at its end to enable the
entire light to propagate through the core. Fig.8.12 shows longitudinal cross section of the launch
of a fiber with a ray entering it. The light is entered from a medium of refractive index n0 (for air
n0=1) into the core of refractive index n1. The ray (OA) enters with an angle of incidence to the
fiber end face i.e. the incident ray makes angle with the fiber axis which is nothing but the normal
to the end face of the core. Let a right ray OA enters the fiber at an angle to the axis of the fiber.
The end at which light enter the fiber is called the launching pad.

Path of a typical light ray launched into fiber.

Let the refractive index of the core be n1 and the refractive index of cladding be n2 . Here n1 > n2 .
The light ray reflects at an angle and strikes the core cladding interface at angle θ . If the angle θ
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 65

is greater than its critical angle θc , the light ray undergoes total internal reflection at the interface.
According to Snell’s law

n0 sin (αi ) = n1 sin (αr ) (3.4)

From the right angled triangle ABC

αr + θ = 90o (3.5)

αr = 90o − θ (3.6)

Substituting 3.6 in 3.5, we get

n0 sin (αi ) = n1 sin (90o − θ ) = n1 cos (θ ) (3.7)

 
n1
sin (αi ) = cos (θ ) (3.8)
n0

When θ = θc , αi = αm = maximum α value

 
n1
sin (αm ) = cos (θc ) (3.9)
n0

n2
From equation (1) sin (θc ) = n1

q
q n21 − n22
cos (θc ) = 1 − sin2 (θc ) = (3.10)
n1

Substitute equation (6) in equation (5)

q

n1
 n21 − n22
sin (αm ) = (3.11)
n0 n0

If the medium surrounding fiber is air, then n0 = 1

q
sin (αm ) = n21 − n22 (3.12)
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 66

This maximum angle is called the acceptance angle or the acceptance cone half angle of the fiber.
The acceptance angle may be defined as the maximum angle that a light ray can have with the axis
of the fiber and propagate through the fiber. Rotating the acceptance angle about the fiber axis (fig.)
describes the acceptance cone of the fiber. Light launched at the fiber end within this acceptance
cone alone will be accepted and propagated to the other end of the fiber by total internal reflection.
Larger acceptance angles make launching easier. Light gathering capacity of the fiber is expressed
in terms of maximum acceptance angle and is termed as “Numerical Aperture”.

3.15 Numerical Aperture

Numerical Aperture of a fiber is measure of its light gathering power. The numerical aperture (NA)
is defined as the sign of the maximum acceptance angle. Numerical aperture

q
(NA) = sin (αm ) = n21 − n22 (3.13)
p
(NA) = sin (αm ) = (n1 − n2 )(n1 + n2 ) (3.14)
p
(NA) = sin (αm ) = (n1 + n2 )n1 ∆ (3.15)

(n1 −n2 )
Where ∆ = n1 called as fractional differences in refractive indices n1 and n2 are the refractive
indices of core and cladding material respectively.
As n1 ≈ n2 , we can take n2 + n2 = 2n1
 1/2  1/2
2
Then numerical aperture = 2n1 ∆ = n1 2∆ (3.16)

Numerical aperture is a measure of amount of light that can be accepted by a fiber. From equation
(9) it is seen that numerical aperture depends only on the refractive indices of core and cladding
materials and it is independent on the fiber dimensions. Its value ranges from 0.1 to 0.5. A large
NA means that the fiber will accept large amount of light from the source.
Proof:
We shall show that the light emitted by a small defuse source situated on the fiber axis near to
one end face, only a fraction NA2 can be collected by the fiber and propagated along the fiber.
Consider a small defuse light source such as the isotropic radiator in which the power radiated per
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 67

unit solid angle in a direction θ to the normal to the surface.

I (θ ) = I0 cos (θ ) (3.17)

The total power φ0 emitted such source is obtained by integrating I (θ ) over all forward directions

φ0 = (3.18)

Z π
2
φ0 = I0 cos (θ ) dθ (3.19)
0

Where dΩ=small element of solid angle = 2π sin (θ ) dθ

Z π
2
φ0 = I0 cos (θ ) 2π sin (θ ) dθ (3.20)
0

Z π
2
= πI0 sin (2θ ) dθ = πI0 (3.21)
0

But the power from such source that can be collected by an adjacent fiber whose core diameter is
greater than the diameter of the source is given by φ , where

Z αm
Φ= I0 cos (θ ) 2π sin (θ ) dθ = πI0 sin (2αm ) (3.22)
0
   2  2
Φ
= sin (αm ) = NA = 2n21 ∆ (3.23)
φ0
Φ
φ0 = (sin αm )2 = (NA)2 = 2n21 ∆ → (16) Where ∆ = ((n1 − n2 ))/n1 Equation (16) represents the
light gathering power of the fiber. In order to collect as much light as possible it is necessary to
make n1 and ∆ large. In some cases it is customary to use ∆n which can be defined as ∆n = n1 − n2
But ∆ = ((n1 − n2 ))/n1 = ∆n/n1 Φ
φ0 = (sin αm )2 = (NA)2 = 2n21 ∆ →(17) NA = (2n1 ∆n) → (18)

3.16 Classification optical fibers

3.16.1 Difference between single mode fibers and multi mode fibers

: In single mode fiber there is only one path for ray propagation In multimode fiber, large number of
paths is available for light ray propagation. A single mode step index fiber has less core diameter
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 68

(< 10µm) and the difference between the reflective indices of core and cladding is very small.
Multi mode fibers, large number of paths are available for light ray propagation. In single mode
fibers, there is no dispersion. There is signal distortion and dispersion takes place in multimode
fibers. The band width is about 50 MHz for multimode step index fiber where as it is more than
1000 MHz km in case of single mode step index fiber. The band width of the fiber lies in between
200 MHz km to 600 MHz km even though theoretically it has an infinite bandwidth. NA of
multimode step index fiber is more where as in single mode step index fibers, it is very less. NA
of graded index fibers is less. Launching of light into single mode fibers is difficult. Launching of
light into multimode fibers is easy. Fabrication cost is very high. Fabrication cost is less

Single mode fiber Multimode fiber

1. In single mode fiber there is only one path 1. In multimode fiber, large number of paths
for ray propagation is available for light ray propagation.
2. A single mode step index fiber has less 2. Multi mode fibers, large number of paths
core diameter (< 10µm) and the difference are available for light ray propagation.
between the reflective indices of core and
cladding is very small.
3. In single mode fibers, there is no dispersion 3. There is signal distortion and dispersion
takes place in multimode fibers.
4. The band width is about 50 MHz for multi- 4. The band width of the fiber lies in between
mode step index fiber where as it is more than 200 MHz km to 600 MHz km even though
1000 MHz km in case of single mode step in- theoretically it has an infinite bandwidth.
dex fiber.
5. NA of multimode step index fiber is more 5. NA of graded index fibers is less.
where as in single mode step index fibers, it is
very less.
6. Launching of light into single mode fibers 6. Launching of light into multimode fibers is
is difficult. easy.
7. Fabrication cost is very high. 7. Fabrication cost is less

TABLE 3.2: Differences between Single mode and multi mode fiber
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 69

3.16.2 Step index fibers and graded index fiber -transmission of signals in them

Based on the variation of refractive index of core, optical fibers are divided into:

1. step index and

2. graded index fibers.

Again based on the mode of propagation, all these fibers are divided into:

1. single mode and

2. multimode fibers.

In all optical fibers, the refractive index of cladding material is uniform. Now, we will see the con-
struction, refractive index of core and cladding with radial distance of fiber, ray propagation and
applications of above optical fibers. Step index fiber: The refractive index is uniform throughout
the core of this fiber. As we go radially in this fiber, the refractive index undergoes a step change
at the core-cladding interface. Based on the mode of propagation of light rays, step index fibers
are of 2 types: a) single mode step index fiber & b) multimode step index fibers. Mode means, the
number of paths available for light propagation of fiber. We describes the different types of fiber
below
Single mode step index fiber: The core diameter of this fiber is about 8 to 10µm and outer diam-
eter of cladding is 60 to 70 µm. There is only one path for ray propagation. So, it is called single
mode fiber. The cross sectional view, refractive index profile and ray propagation are shown in
fig. (i). In this fiber, the transmission of light is by successive total internal reflections i.e. it is a
reflective type fiber. Nearly 80% of the fibers manufactured today in the world are single mode
fibers. So, they are extensively used.

Multimode step index fiber: The construction of multimode step index fiber is similar to single
mode step index fiber except that its core and cladding diameters are much larger to have many
paths for light propagation. The core diameter of this fiber varies from 50 to 200 µm and the outer
diameter of cladding varies from 100 to 250 µm. The cross-sectional view, refractive index profile
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 70

and ray propagations are shown in fig 2. Light propagation in this fiber is by multiple total internal
reflections i.e it is a reflective type fiber. Transmission of signal in step index fiber:Generally
the signal is transmitted through the fiber in digital form i.e. in the form of 1’s and 0’s. The
propagation of pulses through the multimode fiber is shown in fig. The pulse which travels along
path 1(straight) will reach first at the other end of fiber. Next the pulse that travels along with path
2(zig-zag) reaches the other end. Hence, the pulsed signal received at the other end is broadened.
This is known as intermodal dispersion. This imposes limitation on the separation between pulses
and reduces the transmission rate and capacity. To overcome this problem, graded index fibers are
used.
2) Graded index fiber: In this fiber, the refractive index decreases continuously from center
radially to the surface of the core. The refractive index is maximum at the center and minimum at
the surface of core. This fiber can be single mode or multimode fiber. The cross sectional view,
refractive index profile and ray propagation of multimode graded index fiber are shown in fig .
The diameter of core varies from 50 to 200µm and outer diameter of cladding varies from 100 to
250µm.
The refractive index profile is circularly symmetric. As refractive index changes continuously
radially in core, light rays suffer continuous refraction in core. The propagation of light ray is not
due to total internal reflection but by refraction as shown in fig. In graded index fiber, light rays
travel at different speed in different paths of the fiber. Near the surface of the core, the refractive
index is lower, so rays near the outer surface travel faster than the rays travel at the center. Because
of this, all the rays arrive at the receiving end of the fiber approximately at the same time. This
fiber is costly. . Transmission of signal graded index fiber: In multimode graded index fiber, large
number of paths is available for light ray propagation. To discuss about inter modal dispersion,
we consider ray path 1 along the axis of fiber, another ray path 2. Along with the axis of fiber, the
refractive index of core is maximum, so the speed of ray along path 1 is less. Path 2 is sinusoidal
and it is longer, along this path refractive index varies. The ray mostly travels in low refractive
region, so the ray 2 moves slightly faster. Hence, the pulses of signals that travel along path 1 and
path 2 reach other end of fiber simultaneously. Thus, the problem of intermodal dispersion can be
reduced to a large extent using graded index fibers.
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 71

F IGURE 3.9: Types of Optical fibers

3.17 Fiber optic communication system :

Fiber oppticsessentially deals of with the communication(including voice signals,video signals or

digital data) by transmission of light through optical fibers. Optical fiber communication system
essentially consists of three parts:(a)transmitter (b) optical fiber and (c) receiver.The transmitter
includes modulator, encoder, light source, drive circuits and couplers. The receiver includes am-
plifier and decoder,binary electrical signal and light decoder.

1. Encoder:
It is an electric circuit where in the information is encoded into binary sequences of zeros
and one.

2. Transmitter:
An electric signal is applied to the optical transmitter. The optical transmitter consists of
driver circuit and the light source. Driver circuit drives the light source. Light source con-
verts electrical signal to optical signal.

3. Optical fiber:
The optical fiber acts as a wave guide and transmits the optical pulses towards the receiver,
by the principle of total internal reflection.

4. Receiver:
The light detector receives the optical pulses and converts them into electrical pulses. These
signals are amplified by the amplifier.
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 72

(H)

F IGURE 3.10: Block diagram of Optical Fiber Communication System

5. Decoder:
The amplified signals are decoded by the decoder.

3.18 Applications of optical fibers:

Optical Fibres uses in Medical industry

Because of the extremely thin and flexible nature, it used in various instruments to view inter-
nal body parts by inserting into hollow spaces in the body. It is used as lasers during surgeries,
endoscopy, microscopy and biomedical research.

Optical Fibres used in Communication

In the communication system, telecommunication has major uses of optical fibre cables for trans-
mitting and receiving purposes. It is used in various networking fields and even increases the speed
Chapter 3. LASERS AND FIBER OPTICS 73

and accuracy of the transmission data. Compared to copper wires, fibre optics cables are lighter,
more flexible and carry more data.

Optical Fibres used in Defense Purpose

Fibre optics are used for data transmission in high-level data security fields of military and aerospace
applications. These are used in wirings in aircraft, hydrophones for SONARs and Seismics appli-
cations.

Optical Fibres are used in Industries

These fibres are used for imaging in hard to reach places such as they are used for safety measures
and lighting purposes in automobiles both in the interior and exterior. They transmit information
in lightning speed and are used in airbags and traction control. They are also used for research and
testing purposes in industries.

Optical Fibres used for Broadcasting

These cables are used to transmit high definition television signals which have greater bandwidth
and speed. Optical Fibre is cheaper compared to the same quantity of copper wires. Broadcasting
companies use optical fibres for wiring HDTV, CATV, video-on-demand and many applications.

Uses of Optical Fibre for Lightening and Decorations

By now, we got a fair idea of what is optical fibre and it also gives an attractive, economical and
easy way to illuminate the area and that is why it is widely used in decorations and Christmas
trees.

Optical Fibres used in Mechanical Inspections

On-site inspection engineers use optical fibres to detect damages and faults which are at hard to
reach places. Even plumbers use optical fibres for inspection of pipes.
Chapter 4

LIGHT AND OPTICS

Course Outcomes

After successful completion of this module, students should be able to:

CO 5 Interpret the phenomenon of interference and diffraction by using the Understand
principles of wave motion and superposition.

4.1 Introduction

Optics is the branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including its
interactions with matter and construction of instruments that use or detect it.

So, what is light? Is it a particle or wave? According to R. Feynman “It is like neither”. Simply
light is a transverse Electromagnetic radiation. Usually at the graduation level optics is classified
as ray or geometrical optics and physical optics.

In recent years, the field of optics has become extremely important because of its applications in
many diverse areas.

74
Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 75

4.1.1 Basic Definitions

1. Refractive Index:-
The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of velocity of light in vacuum to the ve-
locity of light in medium.
2. Rarer Medium:-
The medium with lesser refractive index or with high velocity of light is called rarer medium.
3. Denser Medium:-
The medium with higher refractive index or less velocity of light is called denser medium.
4. Reflection:-
When a ray of light strikes on a surface and returns back in the same medium, the phenomenon is
called reflection. Laws of reflection:
i) the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
ii) The incident ray, the normal and reflected ray lie in the same plane.

F IGURE 4.1: Reflection of Light

5. Refraction:- When a ray of light travels from one medium to another, the ray of light changes
its direction of ray. This phenomenon is called refraction.
Laws of refraction: - i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface at the point
of incidence all lie in one plane.
ii) For a monochromatic light sin i ∝ sin r called as Snell’s law
Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 76

F IGURE 4.2: Refraction of Light

6. Total Internal Reflection:-

When a light ray, travelling from optically denser medium to optically rarer medium, if it is inci-
dent at an angle greater than the critical angle for the two media, the ray is totally reflected back
into the same medium by obeying laws of reflection. This phenomenon is called total internal
reflection.

F IGURE 4.3: Total Internal Reflection

7. Wave Front:- A wave front is the locus of the points which are in the same phase; for example,
if we drop a small stone in calm water, circular ripples spread out from the point of impact, each
point on the circumference of the circle oscillates with same amplitude and same phase and thus
we have a circular wave front.
8. Huygen’s Theory:-
Huygen’s theory is essentially based on a geometrical construction which allows us to determine
the shape of the wavefront at any time. According to Huygen’s Principle
1) Each point of a wave front is a source of secondary disturbance and the wavelets emanating
Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 77

F IGURE 4.4: Formation of wavefront

from theses points spread out in all directions with the speed of the wave.
2) The forward tangent envelope to these wave lets gives the direction of new wave front. Accord-
ing to Huygen’s principle, each point of a wave front is a source of secondary disturbance and the
wavelets emanating from theses points spread out in all directions with the speed of the wave. The
envelope of theses wavelets gives the shape of the new wavefront.

4.2 Principle of Superposition of Waves

When two or more waves travel simultaneously in a medium, the resultant displacement at any
point is due to the algebraic sum of the displacements due to individual waves in the absence of
others. This is the principle of superposition of waves. Let, y1 be the displacement due to one
wave at an instant and y2 be the displacement of another wave in the absence of first wave. Then
the resultant displacement due to the presence of both the waves is given by

y = y1 ± y2

Positive sign has to be taken when both the displacements y1 and y2 are in the same direction;
negative sign has to be taken when they are in the opposite direction. Interference: -
When two light waves superimpose, then the resultant amplitude ( or intensity*) in the region of
Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 78

F IGURE 4.5: Principle of superposition

superposition is different than the amplitude ( or intensity) of individual waves. This modification
in the distribution of intensity in the region of superposition is called interference.
When the resultant amplitude is the sum of the amplitudes due to two waves, the interference is
known as constructive interference and when the resultant amplitude is equal to the difference of
two amplitudes, the interference is known as destructive interference. The figure shows the inter-
ference pattern in water. During the interference of two waves if we assume ‘a’ as the amplitude
of each wave then the displacement is given by
y = a + a = 2a is the case of constructive interference.
y = a − a = 0 is the case of destructive interference.
The regions of constructive interference and destructive interference does not change with position
and time, they change depending on the phase difference between the waves.

F IGURE 4.6: Interference in water-Ripple tank

Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 79

4.3 Young’s Double slit Experiment

If we consider two sources of light with same power, they may emit waves of same wavelength
with same amplitude but since the waves are emitted spontaneously by two different sources, they
will have randomly varying phase i.e., they will not have constant phase difference, hence two
independent sources of light can never be coherent.
This difficulty was successfully overcome by Thomas Young, in 1801, he demonstrated, experi-
mentally the phenomenon of light. He allowed sunlight to pass through a pin hole S and then at
some distance through two sufficiently close pin holes S1 and S2 in an opaque screen. The inter-
ference pattern was observed on a screen XY. He observed few colored bright and dark bands on
the screen.
Now a days for increased efficiency pin holes s1 and s2 are replaced with narrow slits and sunlight
is replaced by monochromatic light source. To explain the interference pattern Young’s consid-
ered Huygen’s wave theory. When a light of wave length λ from a monochromatic source was
illuminated on slit S, S1 and S2 are two slits which are equidistant from each other, such that they
are in phase with each other.

F IGURE 4.7: Young’s double slit Experiment

The secondary waves from S1 and S2 fell on the screen kept nearly at a distance of 1 m.
In the regions of overlap, they produced bright and dark interference fringes. When slits S1 or S2
Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 80

was closed, the fringes were disappeared and there was uniform illumination on the screen.
This clearly proved that the bright bands were due to constructive interference and dark bands
were due to destructive interference of light. Analytical Treatment
Let us consider a monochromatic source of light emitting waves of wave length λ . The emitted
light is made to pass through S and then through slits S1 and S2 separated by a distance of ‘2d’.
Let the waves emerging from S1 and S2 have same amplitude ‘a’.
Let a screen be kept at a distance of D, where O is the centre of the screen. Let us choose a point
P on the screen. Let φ be the phase difference between the waves reaching P at any instant of time.

F IGURE 4.8: Young’s double slit Experiment

If y1 and y2 are the displacements at P due to the waves from S1 and S2 respectively. Then,

y1 = a sin ωt

y2 = a sin(ωt + φ )

Resultant displacement
Y = y1 + y2

so,Y = a sin ωt + a sin(ωt + φ )

that gives,
Y = a sin ωt + a sin ωt cos φ + a cos ωt sin φ

Y = a sin ωt(1 + cos φ ) + a cos ωt sin φ (4.1)

Let, R cos θ = a(1 + cos φ ) (4.2)

R sin θ = a sin φ (4.3)

Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 81

F IGURE 4.9: Young’s Intensity Distribution

Now, on squaring and adding (2.2) and (2.3) we get

R2 cos2 θ + R2 sin2 θ = a2 sin2 φ + a2 (1 + cos φ )2

R2 = a2 sin2 φ + a2 (1 + 2 cos φ + cos2 φ )

R2 = a2 sin2 φ + a2 + 2a2 cos φ + a2 cos2 φ

R2 = a2 (sin2 φ + cos2 φ ) + a2 + 2a2 cos φ

R2 = 2a2 + 2a2 cos φ

R2 = 2a2 (1 + cos φ )

R2 = 2a2 . cos2 φ /2

R2 = 4a2 cos2 φ /2

so, Intensity
I = 4a2 cos2 φ /2

Special Cases:
i) When the phase difference φ = 0, 2π, 4π. . . . . . etc., and the corresponding path difference δ =
0, λ , 2λ , ......nλ , cos2 φ /2 = 1. Hence I = 4a2 .
i.e., the intensity is maximum when the phase difference is a whole number multiple of 2π or the
path difference is an integral multiple of λ .
Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 82

F IGURE 4.10: Determination of fringewidth

ii)When the path difference φ = π, 3π, 5π, . . . and the corresponding path difference δ = λ /2, 3λ /2,
5λ /2, . . . (2n + 1)λ /2 i.e., the intensity is minimum when the phase difference is an odd number
multiple of π or the path difference is an odd number multiple of λ /2.
iii) At bright points intensity is 4a2 and at dark points it is zero. Hence the average intensity is 2a2 .
This is equal to the uniform intensity expected due to the waves in the absence of interference phe-
nomenon. Hence due to interference energy is neither created nor destroyed but only transferred
from dark points to bright points.
Equation for Fringe Width: Let us consider a narrow monochromatic source S and two narrow
slits S1 and S2 , equidistant from S separated by a distance 2d. Due to the superposition of wave
fringes from S1 and S2 bright and dark interference fringes are produced.
Let ‘O’ be a point on the screen which is equidistant from S1 and S2 . The path difference is zero,
hence O is bright.
Consider a point P ‘x’ distance away from O, the path difference (S2 P − S1 P) can be obtained as
follows.
From the figure S2 P2 = S2 B2 + PB2
S2 P2 = D2 + (x + d)2 (since PB = PO + OB)
Similarly, S1 P2 = S1 A2 + PA2
So, S1 P2 = D2 + (x − d)2 (since PA = PO − PA)
Now, S2 P2 − S1 P2 = D2 + (x + d)2 − D2 − (x − d)2 =(x + d)2 − (x − d)2 =2x.2d
2x.2d
Now, S2 P − S1 P = S2 P+S1 P

We can take S2 P = S1 P = D; by neglecting x, when compared with D

Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 83

x.2d
Hence, the path difference δ = D
2π 2π x.2d
Corresponding phase difference is φ = λ δ = λ D

• For Bright Fringes:

x.2d D
We know that at point P, D = nλ , where n=1,2,3. . . or xn = nλ 2d
D
This equation gives the distances of the bright fringes from the centre O. For, n=1: x1 = λ 2d
D
For, n=2: x2 = 2λ 2d
D
For, n=3: x3 = 3λ 2d
∴ The distance between two consecutive bright fringes is

D
β =λ (4.4)
2d

• For Dark Fringes:

The distance between two consecutive dark fringes as obtained in same procedure as above
is
D
β =λ (4.5)
2d

The distance between two consecutive bright or dark fringes is called Fringe width. From equa-
tions (1.4) & (1.5) bright and dark fringes have equal widths. From this we can say that fringe
width is
■ Directly proportional to the wavelength of light used λ .

■ Directly proportional to the distance of the screen from the two sources ’D’.

■ Inversely proportional to the distance between the two coherent sources ’2d’.

4.4 Newton’s Rings:

If a Plano convex lens of large radius of curvature is placed on a plane glass plate a thin air film is
formed between the curved surface and the plane glass plate. When this film is viewed under the
reflected light alternate dark and bright rings are formed. These are called Newton’s rings.
Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 84

F IGURE 4.11: Experimental setup of Newton’s Rings

Light from a monochromatic source ‘S’ is made parallel and allowed to fall on a reflecting glass
plate ‘G’.
The light then falls on the Plano-convex lens. The reflected light from the upper surface of air film
and the lower surface of air film interfere with each other.
The path difference between these two beams is given by
∆ = 2µt cos(r + α) + λ /2
For air µ = 1, for normal incidence r=0, for large radius of curvature the angle α is very small.
cos α is nearly equal to 1.
Hence ∆ = 2t + λ /2
At the point of contact the thickness of air film t=0. ∆ = λ /2 at the point of contact. This is
the condition for minimum intensity. So, the central spot is dark. The condition for maximum
intensity is ∆ = 2t + λ /2 = nλ =⇒ 2t = nλ − λ /2 =⇒ 2t = (2n − 1)λ /2 for n=1, 2, 3,. . .
The condition for minimum intensity is ∆ = 2t + λ /2 = (2n + 1)λ /2
=⇒ 2t = (2n + 1)λ /2 − λ /2 =⇒ 2t = nλ
This is the condition for darkness in reflected light. Hence the conditions for the maxima and
minima depend upon the value of thickness’t’. The point of equal thickness of air film lie on a
circle, hence circular rings are going to be formed. The radius of these rings can be obtained as
Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 85

F IGURE 4.12: Newton rings under reflected light

F IGURE 4.13: Calculation of Diameter of Newton’s Rings

follows.
From the geometry we can write that (2R − t) × t = r × r =⇒ 2Rt − t 2 = r2 as t is very small t 2
can be neglected.
√
=⇒ 2Rt = r2 => r = 2Rt For dark ring we have 2t = nλ =⇒ r2 /R = nλ
Hence r2 = nλ R, so r is directly proportional to square root of n for dark rings.
For bright rings r2 = R(2n − 1)λ /2, so r is directly proportional to square root of (2n-1).
Determination of R:
We have rn2 = nλ Rand rm
2 = mλ R for dark rings n and m respectively, such that m>n we know that

r=D/2.
D2n /4 = nλ R andD2m /4 = mλ R
(D2m − D2n )/4 = mλ R − nλ R => (m − n)λ R = (D2m − D2n )/4
D2m −D2n
So, R = 4(m−n)λ

Where Dn is the diameter of the nth dark ring and Dm is the diameter of the mth dark ring. R is
Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 86

radius of the curvature of the convex lens.

4.5 Diffraction
The phenomenon of bending of light round the corners of obstacles and spreading of light waves
into the geometrical shadow region of an obstacle placed in the path of light is called diffraction.
This can be explained based on Huygen’s wave theory of light.

• According to Huygen’s wave theory every point on the primary wavefront acts as second
source of disturbance and secondary waves are generated from those points.

• When an aperture or obstacle is placed in the path of light, every point on the wavefront
reaching the aperture acts as secondary source of light and the secondary waves enter into
the geometrical shadow region.

4.5.1 Differences between Interference and Diffraction

Interference Diffraction
It is the phenomenon of non-uniform distribu- The phenomenon of bending of light around
tion of light energy due to the super position the corner of any obstacle (disobeying the rec-
of light waves coming from a coherent source. tilinear propagation of light) is called diffrac-
tion.
The intensity of all the bright bands is equal. The intensity of all the secondary maxima is
not equal.
The width of all the interference fringes is The width of central maxima is large, and on
equal. increasing distance, the width of maxima de-
creases.
The intensity of dark fringe is completely The intensity of secondary minima is mini-
zero. mum, but not completely zero as in the case
of interference.
It is the effect of superposition of light waves. It is the super position of wavelets.

4.5.2 Types of Diffraction

1. Fraunhofer’s Diffraction: In this class of diffraction, source and screen are placed at infinity
or effectively at infinity from the aperture. In this case the wavefront which is incident on
the aperture or obstacle is plane.

2. Fresnel’s Diffraction:- In this class of diffraction, source and screen are placed at finite
distances from the aperture or obstacle having sharp edges. In this case no lenses are used
Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 87

for making the rays parallel or convergent. The incident wavefronts are either spherical or
cylindrical.

Type of Diffrac- Fraunhofer’s Fresnel’s

tion
Wave fronts Planar wave fronts Cylindrical wave fronts
Observation dis- Observation distance is infinite. In Source of screen at finite distance
tance practice, often at focal point of lens. from the obstacle.
Movement of Fixed in position Move in a way that directly corre-
diffraction pattern sponds with any shift in the object.
Surface of calcula- Fraunhofer diffraction patterns on Fresnel diffraction patterns on flat
tion spherical surfaces. surfaces.
Diffraction patterns Shape and intensity of a Fraunhofer Change as we propagate them fur-
diffraction pattern stay constant. ther ‘downstream’ of the source of
scattering.

4.6 Fraunhofer’s Diffraction at single slit

Let S be a point source of monochromatic light. L1 and L2 are two lenses. AB is the single slit of
width a, and finally MN is the screen.
According to Huygen-Fresnel, every point of the wavefront in the plane of the slit is a source of
secondary spherical wavelets, which spread out in all directions.
The secondary wavelets travelling normally to the slit i.e., along the direction OP0 , are brought to
focus at P0 , thus it is a bright central image.
The secondary wavelets travelling at an angle θ with the normal are focused at a point P1 on
the screen. The point P1 is of minimum intensity or maximum intensity depending upon the
path difference between the secondary waves originating from the corresponding points of the
wavefront.
To calculate this draw BL perpendicular to AR.
Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 88

F IGURE 4.14: Singleslit Diffraction

From figure it is clear that the secondary waves starting from various points on BOA have varying
path difference to reach P1 . This path difference varies from minimum value of zero at B to a
maximum value of AL at A let AL = δ .
From triangle ABL sin θ = AL/AB = δ /a or δ = a sin θ Where a is slit width, θ is angle of diffrac-
tion δ is path difference between the secondary waves originating from A and B.
Let us assume that this path difference is λ . Let us divide the wavefront AB into two halves AO
and OB, and take the effect of interference of waves from these two wavefronts. The path differ-
ence between waves from A and O and reaching P1 will be λ /2 and hence interfere destructively.
Since AO = a/2, we can choose many points one on AO and another on OB all separated by a/2.
These points are all called corresponding points. The path difference between waves from all such
corresponding points is λ /2 on reaching P1 and hence they give rise to destructive interference.
Hence P1 will be of minimum intensity. If the angle of diffraction θ is such that the path difference
δ is 2λ , then the slit AB has to be divided into four equal parts of width a/4 each. Then again
the waves from corresponding points chosen on first part and second part will have path difference
λ /2 and hence undergo destructive interference. Similarly waves from third and fourth parts will
also interfere destructively. Hence point P1 will have minimum intensity. Hence in general the
condition for minimum intensity can be written as a sin θn = nλ Where n=1, 2, 3, . . . n is an inte-
ger. θn corresponds to the direction of nth maxima. Similarly if the path difference is odd multiple
of λ /2, maximas are obtained. Thus the diffraction pattern due to a single slit consists of a central
bright maximum with secondary maxima and minima on both the sides as shown in Fig.
Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 89

F IGURE 4.15: Single slit Diffraction-Intensity Distribution

Let us now calculate the width of central maxima. since θ is small sin θ = λ /a (for n=1)
If x is the half width of central bright maxima and d is the distance between the slit and the screen
then θ = x/d = λ /a or x = dλ /a
Hence the width of central maxima 2x = (2dλ )/a
If the lens L2 is very near the slit or the screen is far away from the lens L2 , then sin θ = x/ f Where
f is the focal length of lens L2 .
But sin θ = λ /a
x/ f = λ /aora = f λ /x

4.7 Fraunhofer Diffraction by a double slit

Let AB and CD be two parallel slits of equal width e and separated by an opaque distance d. Ac-
cording to Huygen’s principle every point in the slits AB and CD sends out secondary wavelets in
all directions.
Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 90

F IGURE 4.16: Double Slit Diffraction

The distance between the corresponding middle points of the two slits is ’e+b’. Let a parallel beam
of monochromatic light of wavelength λ be incident normally upon the two slits.
The light diffracted from these slits is focused by a lens on the screen XY placed in the focal plane
of lens.
When a plane wave front is incident normally on both slits, all points within the slit become the
sources of secondary wavelets which travel in all directions.
The secondary waves travelling in the direction of incident light come to a focus O while the
secondary wavelets travelling in a direction making an angle θ with the incident direction come to
focus at P.
To calculate path difference draw a perpendicular S1 K on S2 K
Therefore, path difference is ∆ = S2 K
From Triangle S1 S2 K, sin θ = S2 K/S1 S2 = ∆/(e + d)
or
∆ = (e + d) sin θ Hence the phase difference is δ = (2π/λ )pathdi f f erence
Therefore, δ = (2π/λ )(e + d) sin θ
For maxima, (e + d) sin θ = nλ where n= 0,1,2,3. . .
The diffraction of two slits is a combination of diffraction as well as interference, i.e., the pattern
on the screen is the diffraction pattern due to single slit on which a system of interference fringes
is superposed.
Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 91

F IGURE 4.17: Double Slit Diffraction-Intensity Distribution

4.8 Fraunhofer Diffraction due to N-slits (Diffraction Grating)

A diffraction grating is a precision instrument which is widely used in the study of spectra formed
by light sources.
An array of identical large number of parallel slits placed equidistant side by side is known as
grating obtained by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a glass plate by means of a fine diamond
point.
The line acts like opaque substances and thus, the incident light cannot pass through them. These
are called opacities.

F IGURE 4.18: Diffraction Grating

Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 92

The light passes through the spaces between the lines, the spaces are called transparencies, that’s
why this is known as plane transmission grating. Let the width of each slit is ‘a’ and ‘b’ is the
separation between the slits. The distance (a+b) is known as grating element. The combined
width of a ruling and a slit is called grating element. Points on successive slits separated by
a distance equal to grating element are called corresponding points. Consider a parallel beam of
monochromatic light of wavelength λ be incident normally on the grating. The secondary wavelets
which are travelling normal to the slits are focused at point ‘O’, on the screen, which is the central
maximum. Those secondary wavelets which are making an angle θ with the slits are focused at
point P on the screen on passing through a convex lens in different phases.

F IGURE 4.19: Diffraction Grating-Oblique Incidence

The path difference between waves on reaching P is CK since they travel equal path beyond AK.
From triangle AKC, sin θ = AK/AC =⇒ AK = (a+b) sin θ
The superposition of these waves at P1 causes interference.
P1 will be bright when (a + b) sin θn = nλ
Where n= 0, 1, 2, 3. . . and angles θ1 , θ2 , θ3 . . . correspond to the directions of the principal maxima.
nλ 1
Hence sin θn = a+b = nNλ Where a+b = N is the number of grating elements or lines per unit
width of the grating. For, n=1: (a + b) sin θ1 = λ For n=2; (a + b) sin θ2 = 2λ Different order
bright images are obtained both sides of the direct ray as shown in figure.
Chapter 4. LIGHT AND OPTICS 93

Instead of monochromatic source of light, if we use chromatic source, in each diffraction order
different colors are diffracted at different angles. Because all grating spectra are similar, they are
called Standard or Normal Spectra.
Maximum Number of Orders possible with a grating can be obtained by taking the diffraction
angle θ as 900
(a+b)
Hence (a + b) sin θ = nλ =⇒ nmax = λ

so, maximum numbers of orders available with a given grating depends on the grating element
(a+b) and the wavelength.

F IGURE 4.20: Diffraction Grating-Spectral Distribution

Chapter 5

HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND

WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION

Course Outcomes
After successful completion of this module, students should be able to:
CO 6 Make use of the concept of simple harmonic motion and arrive at ex- Apply
pressions for damped, forced harmonic oscillators and wave equations
by using necessary mathematical formulations.

5.1 Introduction

A motion which repeats itself after equal intervals of time is called as periodic motion or harmonic
motion.
Examples: Spin of earth, motion of satellite, vibration of atoms in a molecule
A body or a particle is said to possess oscillatory or vibratory motion if it moves back and forth
repeatedly about the mean position.
Examples: Pendulum of a clock, prongs of a tuning fork

94
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 95

Frequency ( f ):

Number of oscillations in one second is called frequency of the oscillation. It is usually denoted
by ν or f . The SI unit for frequency is s−1 or Hertz (Hz).

Time Period ( T ):

The time taken to complete one oscillation is called Time period It is clear that frequency and
1
period are reciprocals. T = f Also, recall the useful relation between frequency f and the angu-
lar speed ω : ω = 2π f ω is the number of radians per second, but f is the number of turns or
oscillations per second. Each turn is 2π radians.

Displacement

The distance of the particle in any direction from the equilibrium position is known as displace-
ment.

Amplitude

The maximum displacement or The distance between the mean position to the extreme position is
called Amplitude and denoted by A.

Phase

The state of the particle as regards its position and direction of motion at a particular instance is
called phase.

Restoring force

The force which acts to bring a body to its equilibrium position is known as restoring force.
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 96

5.2 Simple Harmonic motion

This is a special type of periodic motion in which the body moves again and again over the same
path about a fixed point (equilibrium position). It is defined as the motion of an oscillatory particle
which is acted upon by a restoring fore which is directly proportional to the displacement but
opposite to it in direction.

Characteristics of SHM

1. The motion is periodic

2. The motion is along a straight line about the mean or equilibrium position

3. The acceleration is proportional to displacement

4. Acceleration is directed towards the mean or equilibrium position.

5.2.1 Simple Harmonic Oscillator

The body or particle moves such that its acceleration is always directed towards a fixed point and
varies directly as its distance from that point. This kind of particle or body is called as simple
harmonic oscillator.

Equation of motion

Consider a particle P of mass m executing SHM about equilibrium position O along X-axis. The
force acting on the particle is proportional to the displacement and directed towards mean position.
Let x be the displacement of P from O at any instance. The force acting on the P is

F ∝ −x

F = −kx (5.1)

Where k is proportionality constant which represent the force per unit displacement. The negative
sign indicates that the force is oppositely directed to the displacement. According to Newton’s
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 97

F IGURE 5.1: Mass-Spring system under simple harmonic motion.

second laws,
d2x
F =m (5.2)
dt 2

From Eq. 5.1 and 5.2

d2x
m = −kx
dt 2
d2x k
= − x (5.3)
dt 2 m

k
Let us substitute m = ω2

d2x
= −ω 2 x
dt 2
d2x
+ ω 2x = 0 (5.4)
dt 2

This is known as differential equation of simple harmonic oscillator.

Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 98

Solution

d2x
 
d dx
=
dt 2 dt dt
dv
=
dt
dv dx
=
dx dt
d2x dv
= v (5.5)
dt 2 dx

On substituting the above equation in Eq. 5.4, we get

dv
v = −ω 2 x
dx
vdv = −ω 2 xdx

On integration,
v2 x2
= −ω 2 + c1 (5.6)
2 2

where c1 is a constant of integration.

The value of c1 can be obtained by applying the condition that at x = A (amplitude of vibration),
the velocity of the particle or body is zero.

A2
−ω 2 + c1 = 0
2
A2
⇒ c1 = ω 2 (5.7)
2

By substituting c1 value in Eq. 5.6, we obtain

v2 x2 A2
= −ω 2
+ ω2
2 2 2
ω2 2
A − x2


=
2
v2 = ω 2 A 2 − x 2


p
⇒ v = ω A2 − x2 (5.8)

(5.9)
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 99

dx
but v =
dt
dx p
∴ = ω A2 − x 2
dt
dx
√ = ωdt (5.10)
A2 − x2

Let us substitute x = A sin θ ⇒ dx = A cos θ dθ

A cos θ dθ
p = ω dt
A2 − A2 sin2 θ
A cos θ dθ
q = ω dt
A2 (1 − sin2 θ )
A cos θ dθ
= ω dt
A cos θ
dθ = ω dt (5.11)

By integrating on both sides

θ = ωt + φ , where φ is a constant

∴ The displacement

x = A sin(ωt + φ ) (5.12)

Eq. 5.12 gives the displacement of a particle/object which is in SHM, at any instant of time.

5.2.2 Few definitions of simple harmonic motion

i) Displacement: The distance of the particle in any direction from the equilibrium position

x = A sin(ωt + φ )

The maximum displacement from the mean position is called as amplitude (A).

ii) Velocity: The velocity (v) of the oscillating particle is

dx p
v= = Aω cos(ωt + φ ) = ω a2 − x2 (5.13)
dt
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 100

At mean position x = 0, the velocity is maximum i.e., Aω, where as at the extreme positions
the velocity will be zero.

iii) Time period: The displacement of a particle/object which is in SHM is given by,

x = A sin(ωt + φ )

Let time t is increased by 2π/ω, then displacement is given by

x = A sin(ω(t + 2π/ω) + φ )

= A sin(2π + (ωt + φ ))

x = A sin(ωt + φ )

It shows that the displacement repeats after the time 2π/ω, which is known as time period.
Therefore the time period of SHM is given by

2π
T= (5.14)
ω
p
But ω = k/m (From Eqs. 5.3) and 5.4)
r
m
T = 2π (5.15)
k

iv) Frequency (ν): Number of oscillations in one second

1 ω
ν = =
T r2π
1 k
ν = (5.16)
2π m

v) Phase: The state of the particle as regards its position and direction of motion at a particular
instance.

5.2.3 Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator

A simple harmonic oscillator possesses kinetic energy due to its velocity while the potential energy
is due to its displacement from the equilibrium position. If no other forces (frictional or external
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 101

forces) are acting on the oscillator, both the energies vary but their sum is constant.

Kinetic energy

If m is the mass and v is the velocity of the oscillator, then its kinetic energy is given as

1
KE = mv2
2

The velocity of a SHO is given by Eq. 5.13

dx p
v = = Aω cos(ωt + φ ) = ω a2 − x2
dt
1 2 2 2
∴ KE = mA ω cos (ωt + φ ) (5.17)
2

Potential energy

In case of simple harmonic oscillator, the force is proportional to the displacement but in opposite
direction.
F = −kx

where k is the force per unit displacement. The force can be expressed in terms of potential energy
U as

dU
F = − (5.18)
dx
dU
−kx = −
dx
dU
= kx (5.19)
dx

By integrating the above equation, we get

1
U = kx2 +C
2
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 102

But the potential energyU = 0 when displacement is x = 0. Thus C = 0.

1 2
∴U = kx
2
1
= k(A sin(ωt + φ ))2
2
1 2 2 2
= kA ω sin (ωt + φ )
2
1 2 2 2
U = mA ω sin (ωt + φ )(∵ k = mω 2 ) (5.20)
2

Total energy

The total energy of the oscillator (is given by the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy.

E = KE +U
1 2 2 2 1
E = mA ω cos (ωt + φ ) + mA2 ω 2 sin2 (ωt + φ )
2 2
1 2 2
= mA ω [cos2 (ωt + φ ) + sin2 (ωt + φ )]
2
1 2 2
E = mA ω (5.21)
2

F IGURE 5.2: variation of potential and kinetic energies with respect to displacement

5.3 Damped Harmonic Motion

The amplitude of an ideal harmonic oscillator is constant with time. But, when a body is vibrat-
ing in air or some medium, the amplitude decreases gradually with time due to frictional forces
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 103

and finally body comes to rest. The motion of an object subjected to frictional forces is called as
damped harmonic motion and the object is called damped harmonic oscillataor. Example: pendu-
lum oscillating in air.

5.3.1 Equation of motion

A damped harmonic oscillator experiences two forces

i. Restoring force: This is proportional to the displacement but oppositely directed.

F1 = −kx (5.22)

ii. 2. Frictional force: This is proportional to the velocity of the body but oppositely directed.

dx
F2 = −γ (5.23)
dt

where γ is called frictional force constant, equals to the frictional force per unit velocity.

The total force experienced by a damped harmonic oscillator F, is given by

F = F1 + F2
d2x dx
m = −kx − γ
dt 2 dt
2
d x k γ dx
= − x−
dt 2 m m dt
d 2 x γ dx k
+ + x = 0
dt 2 m dt m
d2x dx
+ 2b + ω 2 x = 0 (5.24)
dt 2 dt

where 2b = γ/m is known as damping constant and ω 2 = k/m. Eq. 5.24 is the differential equation
of damped harmonic oscillator.

Solution

Let the solution of Eq. 5.24 be

x = Aeαt (5.25)
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 104

where A and α are two arbitrary constants. On differentiating above equation twice,

dx
= Aαeαt
dt
dx2
= Aα 2 eαt
dt 2

Substituting these values in Eq. 5.24,

Aα 2 eαt + 2bAαeαt + ω 2 Aeαt = 0

Aeαt α 2 + 2bα + ω 2 = 0

α 2 + 2bα + ω 2 = 0 (∵ Aeαt ̸= 0)

This gives us
p
α = −b ± b2 − ω 2 (5.26)

∴ The general solution of Eq. 5.24 is given by

√ √
b2 −ω 2 )t b2 −ω 2 )t
x = A1 e(−b+ + A2 e(−b− (5.27)

Case 1:Over damped or Heavily damped or dead beat motion

√
If b2 > ω 2 , then −b − b2 − ω 2 is real and less than b. The both exponents in Eq. 5.27 are
negative. The displacement x consists of two terms, both dying off exponentially to zero without
performing any oscillations as shown in FIGURE 5.3. The rate of decrease of displacement is

F IGURE 5.3: Displacement as a function of time under over damped condition.

√
governed by e(−b+ b2 −ω 2 )t as the other term reduces to zero much rapidly when compared with
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 105

this. In this case, once the body is displaced, returns to its equilibrium position quite slowly
without performing any oscillations. This kind of motion is called as dead beat or over damped
motion.
Example: Pendulum moving in thick oil or moving coil galvanometer.

Case 2: Critical damped motion

When b2 = ω 2 , from Eq. 5.26, α = −b = ∓ω; thus our trial solution 5.25 3.5) will have only one
arbitrary constant, which is not enough for the general solution of a second-order equation.
√
Let us consider b2 − ω 2 is non zero, but it is equal to a small quantity (h) i.e.,

p
b2 − ω 2 = h → 0

Then Eq. 5.27 becomes,

x = A1 e(−b+h)t + A2 e(−b−h)t

= e−bt [A1 eht + A2 e−ht ]

x2 x3
 
−bt ±x
= e [A1 (1 + ht + . . . ) + A2 (1 − ht + . . . )] ∵ e = 1±x+ ± +...
2! 3!
= e−bt [(A1 + A2 ) + ht(A1 − A2 ) + . . . ]

x = e−bt (P + Qt) (5.28)

where P = A1 + A2 and Q = h(A1 − A2 ). This is the possible form of solution for Eq. 5.25. It
is clear from this equation that as t increases, the term (P + Qt) increases linearly, bute( − bt)
decreases exponentially. Due to this the displacement tends to zero as t increases. In case 1, the
exponential term is less than −bt but in this case it is −bt. Hence, body comes to equilibrium in
this case much earlier than case 1. Body comes back to its equilibrium position more quickly. This
type of motion is called critically damped motion.
Example: In pointer instruments like voltmeter and ammeter, the pointer moves to correct position
and comes to rest without oscillating.
Critical damping is defined as the condition in which the damping of an oscillator results in it
returning as quickly as possible to its equilibrium position. The critically damped system may
overshoot the equilibrium position, but if it does, it will do so only once.
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 106

F IGURE 5.4: Comparison of displacements under over damping and critical damping conditions.

Case 3: Under damped or lightly damped motion

√ √
If b2 < ω 2 , then b2 − ω 2 will become imaginary. Consider b2 − ω 2 ,

p p p
b2 − ω 2 = i ω 2 − b2 = iβ (∵ i2 = −1 and β = ω 2 − b2 )

Now the solution Eq. 5.27 becomes

x = A1 e(−b+iβ )t + A2 e(−b−iβ )t

= e−bt [A1 eiβt + A2 e−iβt ]

= e−bt [A1 (cos βt + i sin βt) + A2 (cos βt − i sin βt)]

= e−bt [(A1 + A2 ) cos βt + i(A1 − A2 ) sin βt]

x = e−bt (a sin φ cos βt + a cos φ sin βt)

where A1 + A2 = a sin φ and i(A1 − A2 ) = a cos φ

x = e−bt a sin(βt + φ )
p
x = ae−bt sin( ω 2 − b2t + φ ) (5.29)

This equation represents a simple harmonic motion with amplitude ae−bt and time period T =
2π √ 2π
ω = The amplitude of motion is continuously decreasing owing to the factor e( − bt)
ω 2 −b2
.
√
which is called the damping factor. As value of sin( ω 2 − b2t + φ ) varies between −1 to + 1,
the amplitude ranges between −e( − bt) to e( − bt). The decay of amplitude depends upon the
damping coefficient b. This kind of motion is called under(lower) damped motion and is shown in
the FIGURE 5.5. The time period slightly increases as T = √ 2π when compared to T = 2π
in
ω 2 −b2 ω
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 107

F IGURE 5.5: Oscillations with under damping

the absence of damping. Displacements under three different conditions are compared in FIGURE
5.6.

F IGURE 5.6: Comparison of displacememts under three different conditions

5.4 Force Harmonic Motion

When we displace a system, say a simple pendulum, from its equilibrium position and then release
it, it oscillates with a natural frequency ω and these oscillations are free oscillations. However, all
free oscillations eventually die out due to the ever present damping forces in the surrounding but
an external agency can maintain these oscillations.
Definition: Forced vibrations are defined as vibrations with which body vibrate with a frequency
other than its natural frequency under the action of external periodic force. The external force is
itself periodic with a frequency p which is known as the drive frequency.
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 108

A good example of forced oscillations is when a child uses his feet to move the swing or when
someone else pushes the swing to maintain the oscillations.

5.4.1 Equation of motion

The body is subjected to

1. Restoring force ∝ displacement ⇒ Frest = −kx

where k is called restoring force constant and equls to force per unit distance.

2. Frictional force ∝ velocity ⇒ Fdamp = −γ dx

dt

where γ is frictional force constant, equals to the frictional force per unit velocity.

3. External periodic force = F sin pt

where F is magnitude of force, P is driving frequency.

The total force acting on the body is

dx
−γ − kx + F sin pt
dt

dx
These forces create an acceleration in the body dt 2
. According to Newton’s second law of motion

dx
F = ma = m
dt 2

∴ Equation of motion is given by

dx dx
m = −kx − γ + F sin pt
dt 2 dt
dx dx
m + γ + kx = F sin pt
dt 2 dt
dx γ dx k F
2
+ + x = sin pt
dt m dt m m
dx dx
+ 2b + ω 2 x = f sin pt (5.30)
dt 2 dt

k F
where 2b = mγ , ω 2 = m and f = m . Eq. 5.30 is known as second order differenti al equation of
forced harmonic oscillator.
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 109

The oscillator, initially, oscillates with its natural frequency ω. When we apply the external peri-
odic force, the oscillations with the natural frequency die out, and then the body oscillates with the
frequency of the external periodic force. This is called a steady state. The solution of differential
equation in this steady state is given by,

x(t) = A sin(pt − θ ) (5.31)

where t is the time from the moment we apply external periodic force, A is the steady amplitude of
vibration, θ is the angle by which displacement lags behind the applied force. On differentiating
Eq. 5.31, we have

dx
= Ap cos(pt − θ ) (5.32)
dt
dx
= −Ap2 sin(pt − θ ) (5.33)
dt

By substituting Eqs 5.31, 5.32 and 5.33 in Eq. 5.30, we get

−Ap2 sin(pt − θ ) + 2bAp cos(pt − θ ) + ω 2 A sin(pt − θ ) = f sin(pt − θ + θ )

−A(p2 − ω 2 ) sin(pt − θ ) + 2bAp cos(pt − θ ) = f sin(pt − θ ) cos θ + f cos(pt − θ ) sin θ

If this relation holds good for all values of t, then the coefficients of sin(pt − θ ) and cos(pt − θ )
must be equal on both the sides.

∴ −A(p2 − ω 2 ) = f cos θ ⇒ A(ω 2 − p2 ) = f cos θ (5.34)

2bAp = f sin θ (5.35)

On squaring and adding Eqs. 5.34 and 5.35,

A2 (ω 2 − p2 )2 + 4b2 A2 p2 = f2

A2 [(ω 2 − p2 )2 + 4b2 p2 )] = f2
f
⇒A= p (5.36)
(ω 2 − p2 )2 + 4b2 p2 )
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 110

This is the amplitude of forced vibration On dividing Eq. 5.35 with Eq. 5.34,

2bAP
tan θ =
A(ω 2 − p2 )
2bP
tan θ =
(ω 2 − p2 )
 
−1 2bAP
θ = tan (5.37)
ω 2 − p2

This is the phase difference between the displacement x and the external force. Depending upon
the relative values of p and ω, there are three possible cases.

Case 1: when driving frequency is low (p ≪ ω)

As b → 0,
f
A=
ω2

and
θ = tan−1 (0) = 0

From above two equations we can infer that amplitude of vibration depends on magnitude of force
F and force constant k. Also displacement and applied force are in phase.

Case 2: When p = ω (Resonance condition)

In this case,
f F
A= =
2bp γω

and
π
θ = tan−1 (∞) =
2

The amplitude depends on the damping constant γ. For the small frictional forces the amplitude
will be very high. The displacement lags behind the driving force by π/2.
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 111

Case 3. p ≫ ω

In this case,
f
A=
p2

and
θ = tan−1 (−0) = π

In this case amplitude goes on decreases with the increase in the frequency of the driving force.
The displacement lags behind the driving force by π.

F IGURE 5.7: Amplitude of a harmonic oscillator as a function of the frequency of the driving
force. The curves represent the same oscillator with the same natural frequency but with different
amounts of damping. Resonance occurs when the driving frequency equals the natural frequency,
and the greatest response is for the least amount of damping. The narrowest response is also for
the least damping.

5.5 Transverse waves

When the particles of a medium vibrate in a direction normal to the direction of propagation
of wave, the motion is called transverse wave motion. e.g., stretched strings of violin, guitar,
sitar, sonometer etc. Electromagnetic waves are also transverse in nature. Crests and troughs are
formed when a transverse wave propagates. Distance between consecutive troughs or creats is
called wavelength.
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 112

F IGURE 5.8: Formation of crests and troughs in a transverse wave.

5.5.1 Wave equation and velocity of transverse waves

When a string fixed between two points is stretched in a direction perpendicular to its length,
a tension acts on the string to bring it back to its original position. But due to inertia, string
overshoots and goes to other extreme. Hence, transverse waves are produced in the string. In
displaced position, let AB be the small string element of length dx between x and x+dx along x-
axis. Let θ1 and θ2 be the angles made by tension ’T’ at A and B points. At point A, the horizontal

F IGURE 5.9: Dynamics of a short segment of string: The only forces acting on the ends of the
string are tension forces ’T’ by neglecting gravity.

component is T cos θ2 and the vertical component is T sin θ2 . At point B, the horizontal component
is T cos θ1 and the vertical component is T sin θ1 . The horizontal components T cos θ1 , T cos θ2 are
equal and balance each other. The resultant vertical force in the upward direction is ,

Fy = T sin θ2 − T sin θ1

Fy = T (sin θ2 − sin θ1 ).

As θ1 and θ2 are very small,  

∂y
sin θ1 ∼ tan θ1 =
∂x x
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 113

.  
∂y
sin θ2 ∼ tan θ2 =
∂x x+∆x

.    
∂y ∂y
Fy = T − (5.38)
∂x x+∆x ∂ x x

For the sake of convenience, consider

   
∂y ∂y
f (x) = and f (x + ∆x) =
∂x x ∂x x+∆x

Therefore Eq. 5.38 becomes

Fy = T [ f (x + ∆x) − f (x)] (5.39)

By using the Taylor’s series expansion,

′ ′′ (∆x)2
f (x + ∆x) = f (x) + f (x)∆x + f (x) + ....
   2  2! 3 
∂ y (∆x)2
 
∂y ∂y ∂ y
= + ∆x + + ..
∂ x x+∆x ∂x x ∂ x2 ∂ x3 2!

Neglecting higher powers,

∂ 2y
     
∂y ∂y
= + ∆x (5.40)
∂x x+∆x ∂x x ∂ x2

Substituting Eq. 5.40 into Eq. 5.38,

∂ 2y
   

∂y ∂y
Fy = T + 2
∆x −
x ∂x
∂x ∂x x
 2 
∂ y
Fy = T ∆x (5.41)
∂ x2

But, according to Newton’s laws of motion,

Fy = mass × acceleration.
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 114

If µ is linear density (mass per unit length) of the string,

mass
µ= ⇒ mass = µ × dx
dx

Therefore,
 2 
∂ y
Fy = µdx ) (5.42)
∂t 2
 2   2 
∂ y ∂ y
µdx = T dx
∂t 2 ∂ x2
∂ 2y T ∂ 2y
=
∂t 2 µ ∂ x2
∂ 2y ∂ 2y
= v2 2 (5.43)
∂t 2 ∂x
q
T
This is differential equation of wave motion, where v = µ is the velocity of transverse waves in
the string.

5.6 Longitudinal waves

Sound wave is called longitudinal wave because it is produced by compressions and rarefactions
in the air. The air particles vibrate parallel to the direction of propagation. A coiled spring that is

F IGURE 5.10: Longitudinal waves.

compressed at one end and then released experiences a wave of compression that travels its length,
followed by a stretching; a point on any coil of the spring will move with the wave and return
along the same path, passing through the neutral position and then reversing its motion again.
Sound moving through air also compresses and rarefies the gas in the direction of travel of the
sound wave as they vibrate back and forth. The seismic waves are also longitudinal.
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 115

5.6.1 Wave equation and velocity of longitudinal waves

Consider a thin bar of length ‘l’ and cross sectional area ‘A’. Bar is made up of homogeneous and
isotropic medium with length very large compared to area.

F IGURE 5.11: Longitudinal waves in a bar.

Assume that only longitudinal vibrations are possible. Consider two planes C and D at distances
‘x’ and ‘x+dx’ in unstrained position of the bar. Under the influence of longitudinal vibrations,
′ ′
plane C moves to position C ( at a distance ‘y’) and plane D moves to position D (at a distance
‘y + dy’).
∂y
(y + dy) = y + dx
∂x

Longitudinal extensions of element CD,

 
∂y
(y + dy) − y = y + dx − y
∂x
 
∂y
(y + dy) − y = dx
∂x
change in length
∴ Longitudinal strain =
original length
∂y
∂ x dx ∂y
Longitudinal strain = =
dx ∂x

Young’s modulus,

Longitudinal stress
Y =
Longitudinal strain
Longitudinal stress = Y × Longitudinal strain
∂y
Longitudinal stress = Y × (5.44)
∂x
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 116

Force acting on the element at C,

= Longitudinal stress × area.

 
∂y
= Y× A. (5.45)
∂x

Force acting on the element at D,

= Longitudinal stress × area.

 
∂ ∂y
= YA × y + dx
∂x ∂x
∂y 2
∂ y
= YA +YA 2 dx (5.46)
∂x ∂x

Net force on the element CD,

∂ 2y
 
∂y ∂y
F = YA +YA 2 dx −YA
∂x ∂x ∂x
2
∂ y
F = YA 2 dx (5.47)
∂x

But, Newton’s second law of motion states,

Force = mass × acceleration

∂ 2y
Force = ρAdx × 2 (5.48)
∂t

where ρ is the density of material rod.

Equating (1) and (2),

∂ 2y ∂ 2y
YA 2
dx = ρAdx × 2
∂x ∂t
2
∂ y Y∂ y 2
=
∂t 2 ρ ∂ x2
2
∂ y 2
2∂ y
= v . (5.49)
∂t 2 ∂ x2

q
Y
This is the equation of motion of longitudinal waves, where v = ρ is the velocity of longitudinal
waves.
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 117

5.7 Harmonics and overtones

When a string is fixed at both ends and stretched, stationary waves are formed in the string due to
the interference of reflected waves with phase change from both ends. Frequency of vibration of
string depends on number of nodes formed between two ends of the string. Therefore, string has

F IGURE 5.12: Harmonics and overtones in a string.

all possible harmonics, frequency of each harmonic is integral multiple of fundamental frequency.
When the string is plucked at the middle, it vibrates with the nodes at the ends and antinode at the
middle. The tone emitted under this condition is called fundamental harmonic or first harmonic.
The frequency of the vibration is called fundamental frequency and is given by
s
1 T
ν1 = (5.50)
2l µ

where l is the length of the string, T is tension in th estring and µ is linear density of the string.
When the string is plucked at one-fourth of its length, the string vibrates in two segments. The
frequency of the vibration is given by
s
2 T
ν2 = = 2ν1 (5.51)
2l µ
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 118

This is called first overtone or second harmonic.

When the string vibrates in three segments, the frequency of the vibration is given by
s
3 T
ν3 = = 3ν1 (5.52)
2l µ

This is called second overtone or third harmonic.

In general the frequency of nth harmonic is given by
s
n T
νn = (5.53)
2l µ

Laws of stretched string

1. First Law:The frequency of the fundamental note emitted is inversely proportional to the
length of the string when tension and mass per unit length are constant, i.e.,

1
ν∝ (5.54)
l

2. Second law: The frequency of the fundamental note emitted is directly proportional to the
square root of tension when length and mass per unit length are constant, i.e.,

√
ν∝ T (5.55)

3. Third law: The frequency of the fundamental note emitted is inversely proportional to the
square root of mass per unit length of the string when tension and length are constant, i.e.,

1
ν∝√ (5.56)
µ

5.8 Reflection and Transmission of waves at a boundary

Consider two strings (1) and (2) fixed at a point x = 0 to form a composite string. These strings are
subjected to tension ‘T’ and have linear densities µ1 and µ2 . The characteristic impedances are,
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 119

F IGURE 5.13: Reflections and transmissions of waves at a boundary.

Z1 = µ1 .v1 and Z2 = µ2 .v2 respectively.

When string (1) meet at boundary x = 0, it is partly reflected in (1) and partly transmitted in
string (2) across the boundary. Consider a wave moving in positive x-direction on string (1) The
displacement of incident w ave is given by,

yi = Ai sin(ωt − k1 x)

2π 2πν
where Ai is incident wave amplitude and k1 is propagation vector given by k1 = λ1 = v1 .

The displacement of reflected wave is given by,

yr = Ar sin(ωt + k1 x).

The displaceme nt of transmitt ed wave is given by,

yt = At sin(ωt − k2 x).

where Ar and At are reflected and transmitt ed wave amplitudes, k2 is propagation vector given by
2π 2πν
k2 = λ2 = v2 . The following are the boundary conditions,

1. y(x, y) and ∂ y(x,t)

∂t is continuous at boundary at x = 0.
2. Transverse component of tension i.e., −T ∂ y(x,t)
∂t is continuous at x = 0.
At boundary x = 0, the displacement of incident wave, reflected wave are,

∂ yi (x,t)
= −k1 Ai cos(ωt − k1 x).
∂x
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 120

∂ yr (x,t)
= k1 Ar cos(ωt + k1 x).
∂x
∂ yt (x,t)
= −k2 At cos(ωt − k2 x).
∂x

But,

 
∂ yi (x,t)
= −k1 Ai cos(ωt).
∂x x=0
 
∂ yr (x,t)
= k1 Ar cos(ωt).
∂x x=0
 
∂ yt (x,t)
= −k2 At cos(ωt).
∂x x=0

Applying the second boundary condition,

−T k1 Ai cos(ωt) − T k1 Ar cos(ωt) = T k2 At cos(ωt).

T k1 (Ai − Ar ) = T k2 At .

But,
2πν T
T k1 = T = 2πν µ1 v1 . since v21 = = 2πνZ1 .
v1 µ1

From (1),
Ai + Ar = At .

Z1 (Ai − Ar ) = Z2 (Ai + Ar ).

Ai (Z1 − Z2 ) = Ar (Z1 + Z2 ).

Ar (Z1 − Z2 )
= .
Ai (Z1 + Z2 )
(Z1 − Z2 )
r12 = ,
(Z1 + Z2 )

where r12 is the reflection amplitude coefficient.

From (1),

Ar = At − Ai .

Z1 (Ai − Ar ) = Z2 At .
Chapter 5. HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES IN ONE DIMENSION 121

Z1 (Ai − At + Ai ) = Z2 At .

2Z1 Ai = (Z1 + Z2 )At .

At 2Z1
= .
Ai Z1 + Z2
2Z1
t12 = ,
Z1 + Z2

where t12 is transmission amplitude coefficient.

Conclusions

1. If boundary is rigidly fixed, then Z2 = ∞. Therefore, we have only reflected wave with phase
change. There is no transmitted wave.
2. From equation (3), if Z2 > Z1 ,then r12 is negative. It means reflected wave has phase change of
π.
3. If Z2 < Z1 , then r12 is positive. There is no phase change in reflected wave.