INTRODUCTION

 Surface chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals

with the processes occurring at interfaces between
phases for example, solid and liquid, solid and gas and
liquid and liquid.

 This topic is of immense importance to our everyday life

and to numerous industries, from materials and paints
to medicine and biotechnology.

 Surfaces play a key role in heterogeneous catalysis,

formation and stability of colloids and electrode
reactions. Surfaces of solids are inherently different
from their bulk portion. The bonding between the
atoms at the mere surface is different from that in the
 Hydrogen that exists in the interstellar space are
formed on the surfaces of grains and dust particles.

 Mosquitoes and other small insects can walk on the

surface of water but they will drown into the water
when soaps are added in the neighbourhood

 We are fascinated by the spherical shape of water

droplets and mercury droplets. We are also impressed
by the non-sticky wings of butterfly and leaves of
plants.
 In all the above only the surface of matter is important.
Many of creams, lotions and other personal care
products are complex emulsions. Food companies are
interested in developing healthy, tasty and long lasting
food products. All these are based on the principles of
colloids and surface chemistry. So, surface Chemistry is
 Adsorption and Absorption
 Solid surfaces have the ability to attract the contacting
species due to free valency or residual force on them.
For example:
• charcoal adsorbs ammonia, silica gel adsorbs water.,
charcoal adsorbs colorants from sugar.
These examples prove that adsorption is a
surface phenomenon.
In contrast to adsorption,
Absorption is a bulk phenomenon i.e. the adsorbate
molecules are distributed throughout the adsorbent.

• Adsorbent is the material on which adsorption

takes place.

• Adsorbed substance is called an adsorbate.

 Adsorption
The ability to attract the contacting species due to free valency or
residual force on them

Adsorbent : Eg. the material on which adsorption takes place

Eg. Ni, Cu, Pt, Ag and Pd and certain colloids

Adsorbate : Adsorbed substance is called an adsorbate Eg. He, Ne, O2,

N2 ,SO2 and NH3 and solutions of NaCl or KCl

The process of removing a adsorbed substance from the surface is

called desorption

Positive Adsorption
Adsorption
Negative Adsorption

The adsorbate molecules are

Absorption distributed throughout the
adsorbent
 Adsorption and Absorption

ADSORPTION ABSORPTION
 Characteristics of Adsorption
 Occur in all interfacial surfaces i.e. in between gas-solid,
liquid-solid, liquid-liquid, solid- solid and gas-liquid
Adsorption is a spontaneous process
 Decrease in free energy. When ΔG reaches zero, the
equilibrium is attained
ΔG = ΔH - TΔS ; ΔG is Change in Free energy
 When molecules are adsorbed, there is always a decrease
in randomness of the molecules ie., ΔS<0, and TΔS is
negative. Hence, adsorption is exothermic.
 M.C. Bain introduced a term ‘sorption’ to represent the
simultaneous adsorption and absorption
 T. Graham used a term ‘occlusion’ for sorption of gases
on metal surfaces
 Types of Adsorption

Chemical adsorption Physical

Chemisorption adsorption
or Physisorption
Van der waal’s force of
Gas molecules are held to attraction, dipole- dipole
the surface by formation interaction, dispersion forces
of chemical bonds etc., exist between adsorbent
and adsorbate

Eg. Adsorption of O2 on
tungsten , Adsorption of Eg. Adsorption of N2 on
H2 on nickel, Adsorption mica, Adsorption of gases
of ethyl alcohol vapours on charcoal.
on nickel.
Difference between Chemisorption and Physisorption
 Factors affecting Adsorption
SURFACE AREA :
 As the adsorption is a surface phenomenon it depends on the
surface area of adsorbent; higher the surface area, higher is the
amount adsorbed
Nature of adsorbate
 The nature of adsorbate can influence the adsorption.
 Gases like SO2 ,NH3 ,HCl and CO2 are easily liquefiable as they have
greater van der waal’s force of attraction
Effect of temperature
 When temperature is raised chemisorption first increases and
then decreases. Whereas physisorption decreases with increase in
temperature
Effect of pressure
 Chemical adsorption is fast with increase in pressure, it can not
alter the amount of adsorption. In Physisorption the extent of
adsorption increases with increase in pressure
 Adsorption isotherms and
isobars
Adsorption isobars:
• When amount of adsorption is plotted versus
temperature at constant pressure it is called
adsorption isobar.
• Adsorption isobars of physisorption and chemisorption
are different as represented in the graphs.
 In physical adsorption, x/m decreases with
increase in temprature, But in chemical
adsorption, x/m increases with rise in
temperature and then decreases.
The increase illustrates the requirement of
activation of the surface for adsorption is due to
fact that formation of activated complex
requires certain energy.
 The decrease at high temperature is due to
Adsorption isotherms
• Adsorption isotherms represents the variation of
adsorption at constant temperature.
• Adsorption isotherm can be studied quantitatively. A
plot between the amount of adsorbate adsorbed and
pressure (or concentration of adsorbate) at constant
temperature is called adsorption isotherms.
• In order to explain these isotherms various equations were
suggested as follows:

• (i) Freundlich adsorption isotherm.

According to Freundlich,

• where x is the amount of adsorbate, adsorbed on ‘m’

gm of adsorbent at a pressure of p. K and n are
constant introduced by freundlich. Value n is always
less than unity.
Hence the intercept represents
the value of log k and the slope
 This equation explains the increase of x / m with
increase in pressure. But experimental values show the
deviation at low pressure.

Limitations
• This equation is purely empirical and valid over a limited
pressure range.
• The values of constants k and n also found vary with
temperature.
• No theoretical explanations were given.
Applications of adsorption
1. Gas masks: During world war - I charcoal gas mask was
employed by both the British and American. Activated
charcoal was found to be one of the best adsorbents.
2. To create high vacuum in vessels, Tail and Dewar used
activated charcoal.
For dehydration and also purification of gases like CO2, N2,
Cl2, O2 and He, alumina and silica are employed.
In the blast furnace silica gel is also used for drying air.
3.One of the highly important use of adsorption is the
softening of hardwater. Permutit is employed for this
process which adsorbs Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions in its surface,
there is an ion exchange as shown below it occurs on the
surface.
4. Ion exchange resins
Ion exchange resins are working only based on the process
of adsorption. Ion exchange resins are used to
demineralise water. This process is carried out by passing
water through two columns of cation and anion exchange
resins.
5. Petroleum refining and refining of vegetable oil
Fuller’s earth and silica gel are used for refining process.
6. Decolourisation of Sugar:
Sugar prepared from molasses is decolourised to remove
coloured impurities by adding animal charcoal which acts
as decolourising material.
7. Chromatography
The chromatographic technique is applied for separation
of components in a mixture. It is mainly based on
adsorption of components on the surface of adsorbents.
This method is very
effective and used for identification, detection and
estimation of many substances even if they are contained
in micro quantities.
9. Qualitative analysis
When blue litmus solution is added to Al3+ ion, a red
coloration is seen due to the acidic nature of the solution.
Addition of ammonium hydroxide to it gives a blue lake.
This is due to the adsorption of blue colour litmus
compound on the surface of Al (OH)3 Which is formed
during the addition of NH4OH
10. Medicine:
Drugs cure diseases by adsorption on body
tissues.
11. Concentration of Ores of metals
Sulphides ores are concentrated by a process called froth
flotation in which light ore particles are wetted by pine oil.
12. Mordants and Dyes
Most of the dyes are adsorbed on the surface of the
fabrics. Mordants are the substances used for fixing dyes
onto the fabric.
13. Adsorption indicators
In the precipitation titrations, the end point is indicated
by an external indicator which changes its colour after
getting adsorbed on precipitate. It is used to indicate the
end point of the titration.
 CATALYSIS

 Catalyst is defined as a substance which alters the rate of

chemical reaction without itself undergoing chemical
change.

 The phenomenon which involves the action of a catalyst

is called catalysis
 Types of Catalysis

Homogeneous catalysis Heterogeneous catalysis

Reactants, products and Reactants, products and catalyst

catalyst are in the same phase are in the different phase

Contact Process
Gaseous phase 2SO2+O2+
[NO]→2SO3+[NO]
Haber’s Process
Vapour Phase N2+3H2 Fe 2NH3
CH3CHO+[I2 ]→CH4+CO+[I2 ]
Eg: Decomposition of H2O2
Eg: Hydrolysis of cane sugar hydrogenation of unsaturated
and Ester hydrolysis
 Characteristics of Catalysts
For a chemical reaction, catalyst is needed in very small quantity
catalyst remains unchanged in mass and chemical composition in a
chemical reaction
A catalyst itself cannot initiate a reaction. But, if the reaction is taking
place in a slow rate it can increase its rate
A solid catalyst will be more effective if it is taken in a finely divided
form
A catalyst can catalyse a particular type of reaction, hence they are said to be
specific in nature
Catalyst reduces the time for attainment of equilibrium and hence it does not affect
the position of equilibrium and value is constant
A catalyst is highly effective at a particular temperature called as
optimum temperature
Presence of a catalyst generally does not change the nature of
products
 Positive and negative
 In positive catalysis, the rate of a reaction is increased
catalysis:
by the presence of catalyst but in negative catalysis, the
rate of reaction is decreased by the presence of a
catalyst.
 Promoters and catalyst poison
Promoters
Promoters increases the activity of the catalyst
Eg: Molybdenum is used as promoter in Haber’s process in
manufacture of ammonia
catalyst poison
catalytic poisons decreases or completely destroys the activity
of catalyst
Eg: CO acts as a catalytic poison for Pt - catalyst

Autocatalysis
In a reaction one of the products acts as a catalyst
2AsH3 →2As+3H2
Arsenic acts as an auto catalyst
 THEORIES OF CATALYSIS
 For a chemical reaction to occur, the reactants are to be
activated to form the activated complex. The energy
required for the reactants to reach the activated
complex is called the activation energy.
 The activation energy can be decreased by increasing
the reaction temperature. In the presence of a catalyst,
the reactants are activated at reduced temperatures in
other words, the activation energy is lowered.
 The catalyst adsorbs the reactants activates them by
weakening the bonds and allows them to react to form
the products.
 As activation energy is lowered in presence of a catalyst,
more molecules take part in the reaction and hence the
rate of the reaction increases.
The action of catalysis in chemical reactions is explained mainly by two
important theories. They are
(i) The intermediate compound formation theory
Intermediate compound formation theory
 A catalyst acts by providing a new path with low energy
of activation.
 In homogeneous catalysed reactions a catalyst may
combine with one or more reactant to form an
intermediate which reacts with other reactant or
decompose to give products and the catalyst is
regenerated.
 Limitations
 The intermediate compound theory fails to explain
the action of catalytic poison and activators
(promoters).

 This theory is unable to explain the mechanism of

heterogeneous catalysed reactions.
 Adsorption Theory
Langmuir explained the action of catalyst in heterogeneous catalysed
reactions based on adsorption
The reactant molecules are adsorbed on the catalyst surfaces, so this
can also be called as contact catalysis

Steps Involved in heterogeneous catalysed

reactions
1. Reactant molecules diffuse from bulk to the catalyst surface.

2. The reactant molecules are adsorbed on the surface of the catalyst

3. The adsorbed reactant molecules are activated and form activated

complex then decomposed to form the products.

4. The product molecules are desorbed and diffuses away from the
surface of the catalyst.
 Active Centres

 The surface of a catalyst is not smooth , It bears steps, cracks and

corners,
 The atoms on such locations of the surface are co ordinatively
unsaturated, The surface carries high surface free energy.
 They have much residual force of attraction and such sites are
active centres.

The presence of such active centres increases the rate of

reaction by adsorbing and activating the reactants
 Explanation for Active Centres
Increase in the surface area of metals and metal oxides by
reducing the particle size increases acting of the catalyst and
hence the rate of the reaction

The action of catalytic poison occurs when the poison blocks

the active centres of the catalyst.

A promoter or activator increases the number of active

centres on the surfaces.
 Enzyme Catalysis

Enzymes are complex They catalyse the

protein molecules with chemical reaction in
three dimensional living organism
structures

They are often present Each enzyme produced

in colloidal state and in a particular living cell
extremely specific in can catalyse a particular
catalytic action reaction in the cell
EXAMPLES

07/19/2024 44
Mechanism of enzyme catalysed reaction

E - is the enzyme,
S - the substrate (reactant),
ES - represents activated complex
P - the products.
 Enzyme catalysed reaction show certain general
special characteristics

 Effective and efficient conversion is the special characteristic

of enzyme catalysed reactions.
 An enzyme may transform a million molecules of reactant in
a minute.

 For this reaction, the activation energy is 18k cal/mole

without a catalyst.
 With colloidal platinum as a catalyst the activation energy is
11.7kcal/mole
 But with the enzyme catalyst the activation energy of this
reaction is less than 2kcal/mole.
 Enzyme catalysis is highly specific in nature.

 The enzyme urease which catalyses the reaction of urea does not catalyse
the following reaction of methyl urea

 Enzyme catalysed reaction has maximum

rate at optimum temperature.
 At first rate of reaction increases with
the increase of temperature, but above a
particular temperature the activity of
enzyme is destroyed.
 The rate may even drop to zero.
 The temperature at which enzymic
activity in high or maximum is called as
optimum temperature.
Example:
• Enzymes involved in human body have an
optimum temperature 37°C /98°F
• During high fever, as body temperature
rises the enzymatic activity may collapse
and lead to danger.
 Zeolite Catalysis

 Zeolites are microporous, crystalline, hydrated, alumino

silicates, made of silicon and aluminium tetrahedrm
 As silicon is tetravalent and aluminium is trivalent, the
zeolite matrix carries extra negative charge. To balance
the negative charge, there are extra framework cations
for example, H+ or Na+ ions.
 Zeolites carring Na+ ions are used as basic catalysis
 In zeolites, the active sites namely protons are lying
inside their pores. So, reactions occur only inside the
pores of zeolites.
Reactant selectivity:
When bulkier molecules in a reactant mixture are prevented from reaching
the active sites within the zeolite crystal, this selectivity is called reactant
shape selectivity.

Transition state selectivity:

If the transition state of a reaction is large compared to the pore size of
the zeolite, then no product will be formed.

Product selectivity:
It is encountered when certain product molecules one too big to
diffuse out of the zeolite pores.
 Phase Transfer catalysis
A phase-transfer catalyst or PTC is a catalyst that facilitates
the migration of a reactant from one phase into another phase
where reaction occurs

Nucleophile Y- = aqueous solution

Alkyl halide RX = organic phase
Onium salt Q+X- = catalyst
Ion pair (Q+Y-) is generated in aqueous
phase
Alkali metal M+Y- and catalyst (Q+X-)
Examples
 Nano materials such as
Nanocatalysts carry the
metallic nano particles,
advantages of both
metal oxides, etc., are used
homogeneous and
as catalyst in many
heterogeneous catalyses.
chemical transformation

Nano
Catalysis

Like homogeneous Like the heterogeneous

catalysts, the catalysts, nanocatalysts can
nanocatalysts give 100% be recovered and
selective transformations recycled.Nanocatalyst are
and excellent yield and actually oluble
show extremely high heterogeneous catalysts
activity.
Example for Nano catalyst
Origin
Origin of study of colloid starts with Thomas Graham who observed diffusion of
that a solution of sugar, urea or sodium chloride through a membrane but not
glue, gelatine or gum.
 He called the former substances as crystalloids
and the latter as colloids ( In Greek, kola as
gum, eidos-like).
 Later it was realised that any substance can be
converted into a colloid by reducing its particle
size to 1-200nm.
 Hence, colloid is a homogeneous mixture of two
substances in which one substance (smaller
proportion) is dispersed in another
substance( large proportion).
Classifications of Colloidal
solution
 Probably the most important colloidal systems
have dispersed phase as solid and the
dispersion medium as liquid.
 If the dispersion medium considered is water,
then the colloids are referred as hydrosols or
aquasols.
 If the dispersion medium is an alcohol, the
colloid is termed as alcosol, and if benzene is the
dispersion medium, it is called as benzosol.
One more type of classification is based on the forces
acting between the dispersal phase and dispersion
medium.
• In lyophillic colloids definite attractive force or affinity
exists between dispersion medium and dispersed phase.
• Examples: sols of protein and starch.
• They are more stable and will not get precipitated
easily. They can be brought back to colloidal solution
even after the precipitation by addition of the
dispersion medium
• In a lyophobic colloids, no attractive force exists
between the dispersed phase and dispersion medium.
• They are less stable and precipitated readily, but can
not be produced again by just adding the dispersion
medium.
• They themselves undergo coagulation after a span of
characteristic life time.
• They are called irreversible sols
• Examples: sols of gold, silver, platinum and copper.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTION
 PREPARATION OF COLLOIDS

Many lyophillic substances are made in their colloidal form by

warming with water

In general, colloidal are prepared by the following methods.

i. Dispersion methods and ii. Condensation method

i. Dispersion methods: In this method larger particles are broken

to colloidal dimension

ii. Condensation method: In this method, smaller atom or

molecules are converted into larger colloidal sized particles.
DISPERSION METHODS - MECHANICAL DISPERSION

Using a colloid mill, the

solid is ground to
colloidal dimension. The
colloid mill consists of
two metal plates rotating
in opposite direction at
very high speed of nearly
7000 revolution / minute

By this method, colloidal

solutions of ink and
graphite are prepared.
 DISPERSION METHODS - ELECTRO DISPERSION

A brown colloidal solution of platinum was first prepared

by George Bredig in 1898

An electrical arc is struck between electrodes dispersed in

water surrounded by ice. When a current of 1 amp /100 V
is passed an arc produced forms vapours of metal which
immediately condense to form colloidal solution.
DISPERSION METHODS - ULTRASONIC DISPERSION

Sound waves of frequency more

than 20kHz (audible limit)
could cause transformation of
coarse suspension to colloidal
dimensions
Claus obtained mercury sol by
subjecting mercury to
sufficiently high frequency
ultrasonic
vibrations.

The ultrasonic vibrations

produced by generator spread
the oil and transfer the
vibration to the vessel with
mercury in water.
 DISPERSION METHODS - PEPTISATION

• By addition of suitable electrolytes, precipitated particles can be

brought into colloidal state.
• The process is termed as peptisation and the electrolyte added is
called peptising or dispersing agent
 CONDENSATION METHODS

When the substance for colloidal particle is present as small sized particle,
molecule or ion, they are brought to the colloidal dimension by condensation
methods.

Various chemical methods for the formation of colloidal particles

(i)Oxidation - Sols of some non metals are prepared by this

method.
(a) HIO3+5HI→3H2O+I2 (Sol)
(b) H2Se+O2 →2H2O+Se(sol)

ii) Reduction - Gold sol is prepared by reduction of auric chloride

(

using formaldehyde.
2AuCl3+3HCHO+3H2O→2Au(sol)+6HCl+3HCOOH
(iii) Hydrolysis - Sols of hydroxides of metals like chromium and aluminium can
be produced by this method.
FeCl3+3H2O→Fe(OH)3+3HCl

(iv) Double decomposition - When hydrogen sulphide gas is passed

through a solution of arsenic oxide, a yellow coloured arsenic
sulphide is obtained as a colloidal solution.

As2O3+3H2S→As2S3+3H2O

(v)Decomposition - When few drops of an acid is added to a

dilute solution of sodium thiosulphate, the insoluble free sulphur
produced by decomposition
S2O3- +2H+ → S+H2O+SO2
BY EXCHANGE OF SOLVENT

Colloidal solution of few substances like phosphorous or sulphur is

obtained by preparing the solutions in alcohol and pouring them
into water. As they are insoluble in water, they form colloidal
solution.
P in alcohol + water → P sol.
 Purification of
• colloids
The colloidal solutions due to their different methods of
preparation may contain impurities.
• If they are not removed, they may destablise and
precipitate the colloidal solution.
• This is called coagulation. Hence the impurities mainly
electrolytes should be removed to increase the
stabilization of colloid.
• Purification of colloidal solution can be done by the
following methods.

• (i) Dialysis

• (ii) Electrodialysis

• (iii) Ultrafilteration
(i) Dialysis
• In 1861, T. Graham separated the electrolyte from a
colloid using a semipermeable membrane (dialyser).
• In this method, the colloidal solution is taken in a bag
made up of semipermeable membrane.
• It is suspended in a trough of flowing water, the
electrolytes diffuse out of the membrane and they are
carried away by water.
ii) Electrodialysis
• The presence of electric field increases the speed of
removal of electrolytes from colloidal solution.
• The colloidal solution containing an electrolyte as
impurity is placed between two dialyzing membranes
enclosed into two compartments filled with water.
• When current is passed, the impurities pass into water
compartment and get removed periodically.
• This process is faster than dialysis, as the rate of
diffusion of electrolytes is increased by the application
of electricity.
iii) Ultrafiltration
• The pores of ordinary filter papers permit the passage of
colloidal solutions.
• In ultra filtrations, the membranes are made by using
collodion cellophane or visiking.
• When a colloidal solution is filtered using such a filter,
colloidal particles are separated on the filter and the
impurities are removed as washings.
• This process is quickened by application of pressure.
• The separation of sol particles from electrolyte by
filteration through an ultrafilter is called ultrafiltration.
• Collodion is 4% solution of nitrocellulose
in a mixture of alcohol and water.
 Properties of
1) Colour: Colloids
The colour of a sol is not always the same as the colour of the
substance in the bulk.
For example bluish tinge is given by diluted milk in reflected light and
reddish tinge in transmitted light.
Colour of the sol, generally depends on the following factors.
(i) Method of preparation
(ii) Wavelength of source of light.
(iii) Size and shape of colloidal particle
(iv) whether the observer views the reflected light or transmitted
light.
2) Size:
The size of colloidal particles ranges from 1nm (10-9 m) to 1000 nm
(10-6 m) diameter.
3) Colloidal solutions are heterogeneous in nature having two distinct
phases.
Though experiments like dialysis, ultrafiltration and ultracentrifuging
clearly show the heterogeneous nature in the recent times colloidal
solution are considered as border line cases.
4) Filtrability:
As the size of pores in ordinary filter paper are large the colloidal
particles easily pass through the ordinary filter papers.
5) Non-Setting nature
Colloidal solutions are quite stable i.e. they are not affected by gravity.
6) Concentration and density
When the colloidal solution is dilute, it is stable. When the volume of medium is
decreased coagulation occurs. Generally, density of sol decreases with decrease in
7) Diffusability
Unlike true solution, colloids diffuse less readily through membranes.
8) Colligative properties
The colloidal solutions show colligative properties i.e. elevation of
boiling point, depression in freezing point and osmotic pressure.
Measurements of osmotic pressure is used to find molecular weight of
colloidal particle.
9) Shape of colloidal particles
It is very interesting to know the various shapes of colloidal particles.
Here are some
examples
10) Optical property
• Colloids have optical property. When a homogeneous
solution is seen in the direction of light, it appears clear
but it appears dark, in a perpendicular direction.
• But when light passes through colloidal solution, it is
scattered in all directions.
• This effect was first observed by Faraday, but
investigations are made by Tyndall in detail, hence
called as Tyndall effect.
• The colloidal particles absorb a portion of light and the
remaining portion is scattered from the surface of the
colloid.
• Hence the path of light is made clear.
11) Kinetic property
• Robert Brown observed that when the pollen grains
suspended in water were viewed through ultra
microscope, they showed a random, zigzag ceaseless
motion.
• This is called Brownian movement of colloidal particles.
• This can be explained as follows
• The colloidal sol particles are continuously bombarded
with the molecules of the dispersion medium and hence
they follow a zigzag, random, continuous movement.
• Brownian movement enables us,
I. to calculate Avogadro number.
II. to confirm kinetic theory which considers the ceaseless rapid movement of
molecules that increases with increase in temperature.
III. to understand the stability of colloids: As the particles in continuous rapid
movement they do not come close and hence not get condensed. That is Brownian
movement does not allow the particles to be acted on by force of gravity.
12) Electrical property
(1) Helmholtz double layer

The surface of colloidal

particle adsorbs one type of ion
due to preferential adsorption.
This layer attracts the oppositely
charged ions in the medium
and hence at the boundary
separating the two electrical
double layers are setup.
This is called as Helmholtz
Electrical double layer.

• As the particles nearby are having similar charges, they

cannot come close and condense.

• Hence this helps to explain the stability of a colloid.

(ii) Electrophoresis:
• When electric potential is applied across two platinum electrodes
dipped in a hydrophilic sol, the dispersed particles move toward one
or other electrode.
• This migration of sol particles under the influence of electric field is
called electrophoresis or cataphoresis.
• If the sol particles migrate to the cathode, then they posses positive
(+) charges, and if the sol particles migrate to the anode then they
have negative
charges(-).
• Thus from the direction of migration of sol particles , we can
determine the charge of the sol particles.
• Hence electrophoresis is used for detection of presence of charges
on the sol particles.
Few examples of charges of sols detected by
electrophoresis are given below:
(iii) Electro osmosis
• A sol is electrically neutral. Hence the medium carries an
equal but opposite charge to that of dispersed particles.
• When sol particles are prevented from moving, under
the influence of electric field the medium moves in a
direction opposite to that of the sol particles.
• This movement of dispersion medium under the
influence of electric potential is called electro osmosis.
13. Coagulation or
precipitation
The flocculation and settling down of the sol particles is
called coagulation.
Various method of coagulation are given below:

(i) Addition of electrolytes

(ii) Electrophoresis

(iii) Mixing oppositively charged sols.

(iv) Boiling
(i) Addition of electrolytes
• A negative ion causes the precipitation of positively
charged sol and vice versa.
• When the valency of ion is high, the precipitation
power is increased. For example, the precipitation
power of some cations and anions varies in the
following order

• The precipitation power of electrolyte is determined by

finding the minimum concentration (millimoles/lit)
required to cause precipitation of a sol in 2hours.
• This value is called flocculation value. The smaller the
flocculation value greater will be precipitation.
(ii) Electrophoresis:
• In the electrophoresis, charged particles migrate to
the electrode of opposite sign.
• It is due to neutralization of the charge of the
colloids.
• The particles are discharged and so they get
precipitated.

(iii) By mixing two oppositively charged sols

• When colloidal sols with opposite charges are mixed
mutual coagulation takes place.
• It is due to migration of ions from the surface of the
particles.

(iv) By boiling
• When boiled due to increased collisions, the sol
particles combine and settle down.
14. Protective action
• Generally, lyophobic sols are precipitated readily even
with small amount of electrolytes.
• But they are stabilised by addition of a small amount of
lyophillic colloid. A small amount of gelatine sol is added
to gold sol to protect the gold sol.
• Zsigmondy introduced the term ‘gold number’ as a
measure of protecting power of a colloid.
• Gold number is defined as the number of milligrams of
hydrophilic colloid that will just prevent the
precipitation of 10ml of gold sol on the addition of 1ml
of 10% NaCl solution.
• Smaller the gold number greater the protective power.
 Emulsion
s
Emulsions are colloidal solution in which a liquid
is dispersed in an another liquid.
Generally there are two types of emulsions.
(i) Oil in water (O/W)
(ii) Water in oil (W/O)
Example:
• Milk is example of the oil in water type emulsion.

• Stiff greases are emulsion of water in oil i.e. water

dispersed in lubricating oil.
Emulsification
• The process of preparation of emulsion by the
dispersal of one liquid in another liquid is called
Emulsification.
• A colloid mill can be used as a homogeniser to mix the
two liquid.
• To have a stable emulsion a small amount of
emulsifier or emulsification agent is added.
Several types of emulsifiers are known.
i.Most of the lyophillic colloids also act as emulsifiers.
Example: glue, gelatine.

ii. Long chain compounds with polar groups like soap and
sulphonic acids.
iii. Insoluble powders like clay and lamp black also act as
emulsifiers.
Identification of types of emulsion
• The two types of emulsions can be identified by the
following tests.
(i) Dye test:
A small amount of dye soluble in oil is added to the
emulsion. The emulsion is shaken well. The aqueous
emulsion will not take the colour whereas oily emulsion
will take up test
(ii)Viscosity the colour of the dye.
Viscosity of the emulsion is determined by experiments.
Oily emulsions will have higher value than aqueous
emulsion.
(iii) Conductivity test
Conductivity of aqueous emulsions are always higher
than oily emulsions.
(iv) Spreading test
Oily emulsions spread readily than aqueous emulsion
when spread on an oily surface.
Deemulsification:
Emulsion can be separated into two separate layers. The
process is called Deemulsification.
Various deemulsification techniques are given below
1. Distilling of one component
2. Adding an electrolyte to destroy the charge.
3. Destroying the emulsifier using chemical
methods.
4. Using solvent extraction to remove one
component.
5. By freezing one of the components.
6. By applying centrifugal force.
7. Adding dehydrating agents for water in oil (W/O)
type.
8. Using ultrasonic waves.
9. Heating at high pressures.
Inversion of Phase:
The change of W/O emulsion into O/W emulsion is called
inversion of phases.
For example:
• An oil in water emulsion containing potassium soap as
emulsifying agent can be converted into water in oil
emulsion by adding CaCl2 or AlCl3.
• The mechanism of inversion is in the recent
developments of research.
 Various application of colloids
• In every path of life, colloids play a great role. Human
body contains the numerous colloidal solutions.
• The blood in our body, protoplasma of plant and animal
cell, and fats in our intestines are in the form of
emulsions.
•Food
Synthetic polymers like polystyrene silicones and PVC
are stuffs
Food colloids.
like milk cream, butter, etc are present in
colloidal form.
Medicines
• Antibodies such as penicillin and streptomycin are
produced in colloidal form for suitable injections.
• Colloidal gold and colloidal calcium are used as tonics.
• Milk of magnesia is used for stomach troubles.
• Silver sol protected by gelatine known as Argyrol is used
as eye lotion.
In Industry
Colloids find many applications in industries.
(i) Water purification:
Purification of drinking water is activated by coagulation
of suspended impurities in water using alums containing
Al3+
(ii) In washing:
The cleansing action of soap is due to the formation of
emulsion of soap molecules with dirt and grease.
(iii) Tanning of leather
Skin and hides are protein containing positively charged particles
which are coagulated by adding tannin to give hardened leather for
further application.
Chromium salts are used for the purpose. Chrome tanning can produce
soft and polishable leather.
(iv) Rubber industry:
Latex is the emulsion of natural rubber with negative
particles. By heating rubber with sulphur , vulcanized
rubbers are produced for tyres, tubes, etc.
(v) Sewage disposal
Sewage contains dirt, mud and wastes dispersed in water.
The passage of electric current deposits the wastes
materials which can be used as a manure.
Vi ) Cortrell’s precipitator
Carbon dust in air is solidified by cortrell’s precipitator. In
it, a high potential difference of about 50,000V is used.
The charge on carbon is neutralized and solidified. Thus
the air is free
from carbon particles.
Vii) The blue colour of the sky in nature is due to Tyndall effect of air
particles.
Viii) Formation of delta:
The electrolyte in sea and river water coagulates the solid
particles in river water at their intersection. So, the earth
becomes a fertile land.
Ix) Analytical application
Qualitative and quantitative analysis are based on the
various properties of colloids.

Hence we can conclude that in our life, there is hardly any

field which is not including the applications of colloids.