ADMAS UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF
ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN
PLANNING
Architectural DESIGN
SENIOR: ACADEMIC YEAR: 2023/24

STUDY REPORT ON ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

Contents
PART ONE : LITERATURE STUDY...............................................................3
INTRODUCTION:....................................................................................3
BACKGROUND;......................................................................................3
PROBLEM STATEMENT:.........................................................................3
DEFINITION:.......................................................................................... 4
HISTORY:............................................................................................... 4
CLASSIFICATIONS:.................................................................................4
STANDARD AND REGULATIONS............................................................6
GENERAL DEISGN CONSIDERATIONS..................................................10
SOCIAL/ENVIRONMENTAL/ECONOMIC CONTEXT...............................22
APPROPRIATE BUILDING MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY..................24
APPROPRIATE STRUCTURE CONSIDERATION......................................26
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SYSTEM DESING........................................31
FAÇADE TREATMENTS REQUIREMENTS..............................................35
PART ONE : LITERATURE STUDY

INTRODUCTION:
An airport is a facility where passengers connect from/to ground transportation to air transportation.
Descriptions of airports can be divided into landside and airside. Landside descriptions cover how
passengers arrive/depart the airport terminal building and move through the terminal building to board
the airplanes. Airside describes the movement of the airplanes on the airports surface. At the very
minimum, an airport consists of one runway (or helipad), but other common components are hangars
and terminal buildings. Apart from these, an airport may have a variety of facilities and infrastructure,
including fixed base operator services, air traffic control, passenger facilities such as restaurants and
lounges, and emergency services. A military airport is known as an airbase in North American
terminology. The terms airfield and airstrip may also be used to refer to a facility that has nothing more
than a runway. The term aerodrome refers to any surface used for take off or landing. The term airport
refers to an aerodrome that is licensed by the responsible government organization (ie FAA). Airports
have to be maintained to higher safety standards. There is usually no minimum standards for a basic
aerodrome.

BACKGROUND;
Airport is one of the most important transportation media. Role of the airport is for meet point of flights
network and flights route. The airport needs very huge area to support the airport planes runway,
apron, and the terminal of the airport. Yogyakarta now is having the airport for commercial needed
which is Adisutjipto International Airport. The airport located at Jl. Raya Solo KM 9. Location of the
Yogyakarta airport is located inside the center of city which means the crowdity and the intensity of
activity is very high, the location radius of airport area also surrounded by the high level building which
means the airport place becomes feasible by now. Adisutjipto airport only has 7 parking stand and was
built in 1938 for the Netherlands military activities. For the province level, the airport role for the city
activity is very important. Yogyakarta Adisutjipto airport incapacity in handling the planes can cause
tardiness of flight schedule which impacts for the other flights. The goverment now is constructing the
new airport in Kulon Progo as the solution in Yogyakarta airport problems. Yogyakarta new airport
located at Temon, Kulon Progo. The new airport will have more aprons to accommodate more planes
which is being the problem in Adisutjipto airport. Also, the New Yogyakarta International airport have
longer runway. New Yogyakarta International airport has different runway and apron 2 design and the
material. The new airport runway design will be the main case of this analysis.

PROBLEM STATEMENT:
The number of passenger now is increasing and not balanced with the condition and capacity of
Adisutjipto International Airport. Therefore it is needed to build a new airport to sustain the needs of
passengers in capacity and condition due to the Adisutjipto International Airport is not available to do
the improvement. The new airport is not yet constructed. It is planned to accomodates Boeing 747-400.
The design must be pair with the International Civil Aviation Code about the design for Boeing 747-400.
For that, it is need to be an evaluate about the design of runway that pair with the planned plane.

DEFINITION:
Often, we interchangeably use the words Aerodrome and Airport. Let us understand if there is any
difference between them?

An aerodrome is a place where aircraft operate. It can be arrival or departure. Aerodromes handle
passengers and cargo. It can be private, owned, or government-controlled. It can be on land or water. It
is a small airfield with just basic facilities. The term aerodrome is popular in Britain and Britain ruled
countries.An airport is an aerodrome with extended facilities. The facilities include those for the
passengers and the aircraft in terms of parking, maintenance, repair, hangar etc. Passenger facilities
such as restaurants and lounges, and emergency services. There is no distinct line of demarcation
between airport and aerodrome.

HISTORY:
The earliest airplane landing sites were simply open, grassy fields. The airplane could approach at any
angle that provided a favorable wind direction. Early airfields were often built for the purpose of
entertainment. These aerodromes consisted of a grassy field, with hangar for storage and servicing of
airplanes, and observation stands for the visitors. Increased aircraft traffic during World War I led to the
construction of regular landing fields. Airplanes had to approach these from specified directions. This led
to the development of navigation aids for directing the approach and landing slope. Following the war,
some of these military airfields added commercial facilities for handling passenger traffic. One of the
earliest such fields was Le Bourget, near Paris. The first international airport to open was the Croydon
Airport, in South London. In 1922, the first permanent airport and commercial terminal solely for
commercial aviation was built at Königsberg, Germany. The airports of this era used a paved "apron",
which permitted night flying as well as landing heavier airplanes. The first lighting used on an airport was
during the later part of the 1920s; in the 1930s approach lighting came into use. These indicated the
proper direction and angle of descent. The colors and flash intervals of these lights became standardized
under the ICAO. In the 1940s, the slope-line approach system was introduced. This consisted of two
rows of lights that formed a funnel indicating an aircraft's position on the glideslope. Additional lights
indicated incorrect altitude and direction. Following World War II, airport design began to become more
sophisticated. Passenger buildings were being grouped together in an island, with runways arranged in
groups about the terminal. This arrangement permitted expansion of the facilities. But it also meant that
passengers had to travel further to reach their airplane.

CLASSIFICATIONS:
The Five General Aviation Airport Categories;

1.National Airports

National airports, while supporting general aviation (GA), are very busy places. It is important to note
that just because they are classed as ‘GA airports’ doesn’t mean they are small. An example of a large
national airport? Teterboro, New Jersey. This is an airport with constant arrivals of jet traffic and
complex instrument approach systems. It acts as one of the main airports serving the city of Manhattan.

The regulatory body takes into account the following in its classification of airports. A national airport
will have: Greater than 5000 instrument departures or arrivals 11 or more jet aircraft based at the
airport Greater than 20 international flights each year More than 10,000 passengers taking off or landing
Over 500 million lbs. of cargo transiting each yearThere are presently 84 national airports in the USA.

2.Regional Airports

Regional airports are much more prolific. There is a total of 467 at present in the United States. These
airports tend to be located in metropolitan areas and are generally only used for interstate travel. Over
a third of all general aviation flying takes place at regional airports. Again, these are very busy airports.
The kind of services you can expect to see include air taxi operations, jet arrivals, and vast amounts of
helicopter traffic. To qualify as a regional airport, it must satisfy the following:

Be based close to a metropolitan area

Have at least 10 flights departing on journeys of 500 miles or greater

Have at least one jet aircraft based at the airport

Have 100 or more aircraft based at the airport

3.Local Airports

Local airports are the type used the most by general aviation aircraft. They account for nearly half of the
general aviation flying performed each year. Most flights will be performed by light piston engine-driven
aircraft, making local flights. There are around 1236 general aviation airports in the United States. And
they are used predominantly as flight training centers. They can still get pretty busy. To qualify as a local
airport, they need: Over 2500 passengers departing or arriving yearly A minimum of 15 aircraft
permanently based at the airport Local airports have vital infrastructure, such as control towers,
emergency services, and departure and arrival procedures.

4.Basic Airports

Basic airports, while significantly smaller, are still very prolific. There are 668 in the US alone. This type
of airport often includes single runways, limited infrastructure, and is used extensively for pleasure
flying and training. The criteria for an airport to be considered as ‘basic’ is as follows: A minimum of 10
aircraft based at the airport The airport may be either publicly or privately owned (as opposed to state-
owned) Be at least 30 nautical miles away from an NPIAS airport

5.Unclassified Airports

There is actually an abundance of unclassified airports nationwide. In fact, there are 497 of them! As
they are unclassified, no set criteria define them. Generally, they include:Decommissioned and
repurposed military airfieldsPrivate landing strips‘Mom and pop’ style private airfields Airfields that
don’t meet the above-required classification criteria.
STANDARD AND REGULATIONS
A.DESIGN STANDARDS

1. For Federally obligated airports, it is the responsibility of the airport proponent/sponsor/planner

to comply with FAA airport design standards.

2. For non-Federally obligated airports or National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems (NPIAS)
airports, it should be encouraged that the airport proponent/sponsor/planner comply with FAA
airport design standards.

3. It should be noted when airport design standards are combined with appropriate state and local
zoning ordinances, the resultant effect should:

1. Assure the lowest possible operational altitudes for aircraft;

2. Protect the economic investment in the airport; and

3. Promote safety in the areas affected by the airport by assuring, through proper development,
compatible land use.

B.AIRPORT SPACING GUIDELINES AND TRAFFIC PATTERN AIRSPACE AREAS

1. The following guidelines are to be used as aids when evaluating airport proposals. The
guidelines may also be used to determine airspace requirements to accommodate a given
operation under a given condition, areas of potential air traffic conflict for aircraft having certain
operational and performance characteristics, and the degree of aircraft operational flight
compatibility with other airports in a given area. These guidelines are not to be construed as
authorizations for aircraft operations contrary to any Code of Federal Regulations, nor are the
dimensions to be construed as air traffic separation standards.

2. Aircraft Approach Categories - The factor used to categorize the following aircraft was taken
from Part 97. This factor is based on 1.3 times the stall speed with aircraft in landing
configuration at maximum certificate landing weight.

a) Category A - Speed less than 91 knots. This category includes civil single-engine aircraft, light
twins, and some of the heavier twins.

b) Category B - Speed 91 knots or greater but less than 121 knots.

c) Category C - Speed 121 knots or greater but less than 141 knots.

d) Category D - Speed 141 knots or greater but less than 166 knots.

e) Category E - Speed 166 knots or greater. This category includes, for the most part, those
military, experimental, and some civil aircraft having extremely high speeds and critical
performance characteristics.
C.IFR Radar Airspace.

1. Air traffic control airspace requirements for a specific runway or airport are generally dictated
by the approach category of the aircraft that will use the airport and the direction of the
associated instrument approaches and departures. Based on these factors, the following
rectangular airspace areas were developed as general guides for the planning or siting of new
airports and the designation of instrument runways when IFR radar control procedures are
contemplated or programmed for a single airport operation, or under certain conditions,
multiple airport operations. No provisions are made for holding or for procedure turns within
the airspace areas.

a) Airports that are regularly used by Category C aircraft or larger: 10 miles in the departure
direction, 15 miles in the direction from which approaches will be made, and 5 miles either side
of the extended runway centerline.

b) Airports which are regularly used by Category B and smaller aircraft: 5 miles in the departure
direction, 10 miles in the direction from which approaches will be made, and 4 miles either side
of the extended runway centerline.

c) In metropolitan areas requiring more than one airport: the primary instrument runways at all
airports should be aligned in the same general direction to allow maximum spacing between
airspace areas.

d) At airports having parallel approaches: the rectangular airspace areas should be applied to each
runway. Should the instrument runways at an airport have bi-directional instrument approach
capabilities, the total length of the larger airspace areas should be increased to 30 miles for
Category C and D aircraft, and to 20 miles for Category A and B aircraft in the smaller airspace
areas.

2.These airspace dimensions will not, nor are they intended to, contain sufficient airspace to provide
for completely independent IFR operations. Normally, these areas will provide for reasonable
operational efficiency if the traffic pattern airspace areas of adjacent airports do not overlap.
However, in large metropolitan areas where there is an extremely heavy mix of en route and
terminal traffic, reasonable operational efficiency may not result even though the airspace areas do
not overlap. Such situations require a thorough review of the procedural potential of the area, as
well as alternate site considerations. In conducting studies where complete radar environments call
for the larger airspace areas, and such areas abut each other but do not overlap, there is adequate
space for:

a) Approach and departure on the runway centerline.

b) Two additional tracks offset from and parallel to the runway centerline. A minimum of four
miles is provided between adjacent tracks of different areas.
 3.Where two smaller areas are adjacent but do not overlap, an additional 1-mile spacing is required
on two of the longitudinal sides.

4.When the anticipated traffic volume at an existing or proposed airport requires additional airspace
for greater airspace-use efficiency and operational flexibility, expand the airspace, where available,
by providing a 5-mile buffer area between the adjacent airports involved. This additional airspace
will provide two additional tracks offset from and parallel to the runway centerlines within the
airspace areas of the adjacent airports and one additional track for each airport within the 5-mile
buffer area. A minimum of 3 miles is provided between each track paralleling the runway centerline
and each additional track in the buffer area. A 3-mile no transgression area is also provided between
the two airports.

5.If additional airspace is required in the smaller areas for greater airspace-use efficiency and
flexible operation, the procedures for determining the additional airspace are identical to those
used for the larger areas, except that the smaller airspace should be used in lieu of the larger
airspace areas. The 1-mile additional spacing should also be applied, as outlined in subparagraph
b.3. above, in addition to the 5-mile buffer area.

IFR Nonradar Airspace - A wide range of procedures is available for airspace requirements
associated with instrument approach procedures at IFR airports without radar services. Therefore,
no attempt has been made to describe these requirements in detail. However, should it become
necessary to determine the airspace requirements at such airports, apply the appropriate primary
airspace areas and “aircraft approach categories" discussed in subparagraph a. above. Additional
information is contained in AC 150/5300-13, Airport Design.

1. VFR Airspace - A primary objective in an airport/airspace study is to determine whether

compatible VFR traffic patterns may be developed for a new airport or when to alter a runway
layout at an existing airport located in proximity to other airports. Because flight tracks and
climb/descent profiles vary when operating in a VFR traffic pattern, the following guidelines are
offered for use in these studies:

1. Traffic pattern airspace of one airport may touch but should not overlap the traffic pattern
airspace of another airport;

2. Traffic pattern airspace should be enlarged as described in paragraph when more than four
aircraft of the same category operate in a VFR traffic pattern at the same time.

6.DESIGNATION OF INSTRUMENT RUNWAYS, CHANGES OF AIRPORT STATUS VFR TO IFR AND

LOWERING MINIMUMS

Requests for designation of instrument runways, which relate to installation or qualification for precision
landing aids, and proposals for a change in airport status from VFR to IFR, or lowering instrument
approach minimums usually take one of the following forms:
 a) In cases involving Federally obligated airports, the Airports Division must be responsible for
coordinating, corresponding directly with the proponents, and formulating the official
determination.

b) In cases requesting an instrument procedure not involving a Federally obligated airport, the FPT
must coordinate directly with the proponent.

c) In cases requesting the installation of a NAVAID not involving a Federally obligated airport, the
Technical Operations Services area office is responsible for coordinating, corresponding directly
with the proponent, and formulating the official determination.

d) A proposal submitted under Part 157 (FAA Form 7480-1) not involving a request for an
instrument procedure or an installation of a NAVAID, the appropriate Airports Division must be
responsible for coordinating, corresponding directly with the proponent, and formulating the
official determination, regardless of which division receives the proposal.

e) A change to the Airport Layout Plan (ALP). The Flight Procedures Team must be responsible for
coordinating the requests for instrument procedures not involving a Federally obligated airport.
Coordination of requests for installation of NAVAIDs must be in accordance with Part 4 of this
Order. The Airports Office must be responsible for coordinating submittals under Part 157 and
all other construction on a public-use airport, and changes to approved ALPs. Designation of
instrument runways on all Federally obligated airports must be the responsibility of the Airports
Division and will be treated in the same manner as a revision to the ALP. Regardless of where
the coordination begins, air traffic, Technical Operations Services, Flight Standards, Airports, and
Flight Procedures Team must have an opportunity to review and comment on the proposal. No
division/service area office must require dual reporting of such a proposal. The responsible
coordinating division/service area office must correspond directly with the proponent and
formulate the official determination.

7.AIRSPACE FEASIBILITY STUDY

Before expending funds for acquisition of real property, development of the ALP, or plans and
specifications for new airports and major airfield improvements, feasibility studies or preliminary airport
site analyses are encouraged. Normally, preliminary airport site analyses are made on all Federal
agreement projects involving airport site selections. Analyses of this nature allow the agency to evaluate
the proposals and advise the proponents as to their feasibility from a safety and airspace use standpoint
in addition to other related matters. Guidance for conducting these airport studies is contained in AC
150/5070-6A, Airport Master Plans. That AC describes the major considerations when selecting a site for
a new airport for which Federal aid is anticipated. Airport studies of this nature are coordinated in the
same manner as Federal agreement proposals, except that the proposals are not circularized to the
public unless specifically requested by the proponent.
 8.ONSITE EVALUATION

The intent of the FAA is to achieve safe airport operations and to fulfill its responsibilities of assuring
that unsafe conditions will not exist. Therefore, if there is an indication of unsafe conditions or
information to evaluate the proposal cannot be obtained from the proponent, an onsite evaluation of
the proposal must be considered before issuing a determination. Such an evaluation may be necessary if
the proposal would be located in a congested area or the study indicates the presence of obstructions
that may affect the safe and efficient use of the airspace. An onsite evaluation may also be necessary if
information pertaining to the proposal is insufficient for arriving at a determination. Airports, air traffic,
Flight Procedures Team, Technical Operations Services, and Flight Standards personnel must assist in the
evaluation as necessitated by the situation requiring evaluation.

9.FORMULATION OF FAA DETERMINATION

The FAA determination must be a composite of the airspace review and the comments and findings
received from other interested FAA offices. Should there be a disagreement in the airspace findings or
between other comments received, the disagreement must be resolved before formulating the FAA
determination.

GENERAL DEISGN CONSIDERATIONS

Architects face a formidable challenge when designing more than 100 airports capable of handling at
least 10 million people annually with a focus on safety, efficiency, and aesthetic cohesiveness. However,
they almost succeeded thanks to rigorous airport design standards.

Most of these airport design standards must represent a holistic comprehension of several aspects and
how they all work together. Considerations include:

 Aircraft capabilities and sizes.

 Air traffic control.

 The need for efficient and safe operations.

 The impact of noise on surrounding areas.

 The presence of obstructions in the airspace.

1) Airport Planning Process

 Master Plan Airport

A master plan is the first aspect of airport design standards. It’s the big picture of how the airport will
grow and change over time. Financial considerations and physical studies are also a part of this plan,
which details the staged development of the entire airport region to meet the needs of both aviation
and non-aviation demand and land use around the airport.

A master plan for an airport should accomplish four main goals:

 Development of the airport’s physical facilities and the future use of land near the airport

 Establishment of a schedule of priorities for the implementation of the phase advancement and
enhancement proposed in the plan

 Determination of the innovative and financial requirements of the proposed development

 Documentation of policies and future aerospace demand regarding spending, depreciation, and
other financial considerations.

2) Forecasting Airport Traffic

A detailed and reasonable projection of future traffic is essential for airport planning and creating a
viable airport investment program.
However, excessively forecasting airport traffic can lead to premature investment expenses, higher-
than-necessary operational costs, more significant congestion with high degrees of delay, and probably
lost income are all possible outcomes of an excessively optimistic projection.

The following are some crucial aspects to take into account while designing an airport:

 Distinct local demographic irregularities

 Regional considerations that will impact air travel demand

 Budgetary shifts that free up more disposable incomes for some vacationers all increase
vacation flights

 New resorts and meeting sectors or capacities that would entice vacationers

 Competing airports in the area whose operations might detract from the proposed airport

3) Capacity and Timeline Analysis of Requirements

Having compiled an inventory of airport assets and examined their current state, planners may now
assess whether or not the airport can handle the anticipated influx of passengers.

The first step is calculating the airport’s capacity to the demand, paying close attention to the delay that
will occur at peak hours.
The second major component of the study of the needs is determining how effectively the airport can
handle traffic control in both good and bad weather flight circumstances.

4) Choice of Airport Location: Factors to Consider

The conditions within ten miles of the airport site will frequently impact the outcome of the airport’s
construction. Site placement and runway orientation rely heavily on the airspace and accompanying
ground tracks along the runway’s take-off and landing corridors.

These factors determine where planes can land safely over 95% of the time, where obstructions that
protrude into the flight path must be removed, and where the noise from planes might be intolerable
for nearby homes, businesses, and outdoor spaces.

According to the Federal Aviation Administration, runway siting must address all three
restrictions. Communities are advised to prevent the construction of public assembly buildings within 3
miles of the airport reference point due to the severity of aircraft crashes near schools and public
spaces.
5) Design and Layout (Geometric Design of Airport)

 Airplane Physical Features

Before beginning any design work, it is necessary to have a firm grasp of the functionality and structural
characteristics of the airplanes that will be using the airport.

Typical airplane size for airport design standards ©Davuniversity.org

Maximum take-off weight (W), wingspan (A), length (B), tail height (C), wheelbase (D), nose to the
centerline of main gear (E), undercarriage width (1.15 main gear track) (F), and line-of-sight/obstacle-
free zone at the nose of the aircraft (G) are the key physical features of the plane that affect airport
design.

 Runway Length

The ideal runway length is based on aircraft type, maximum take-off weight, engine performance,
landing and braking performance, flap position, and required safety features.
©Wanaka Airport

Additionally, each plane in the airport needs to be able to take off with only one working engine, which
means the runway needs to be long enough and obstacle-free enough to accommodate that. Adequate
stopping space should be incorporated into the stopping zone if the pilot cancels take-off before the
rotation.
An illustration of the stop way, which prevents accidents at the runway’s end, and the clearway, also
known as the runway protection zone. ©Davuniversity.org

Because lift capability is inversely related to air density, airport height, and temperature also play a
crucial role in determining the optimal runway length.

 Runway and Taxiway Guidelines

The FAA has established a standard set of parameters for issues like runway width, separations between
runways and taxiways, safety areas around runways and taxiways, shoulder width, pads to redirect jet
blasts, object-free areas, and so on. These norms heavily influence airport design standards, which
depend on airspeed and airplane mass.
Runway Safety Area ©Everythingairport
6) Airport Lighting and Signing

 Runway

The runway’s lighting and signs help the pilot maintain proper alignment with the runway, sideways
displacement, and distance all along the runway. Pilots must know the threshold to land safely,
indicated by a green light bar at the end of the runway. Yet, those lights turn red when planes come in
from the opposite direction.

©laptrinhx.com

 Airfield

The airstrip is designated with signs indicating taxiways, stop lines, holding zones, etc. The borders of the
taxiway are marked with blue lights, while a yellow warning bar suggests when you should stop crossing
or approaching an active runway.

Standard airfield markings point pilots toward the terminal, parking, fuel, gates, transitory aircraft areas,
military aircraft runways, cargo docks, worldwide terminals, and other airside services. The pilot can also
rely on visual indicators to help land safely at the airfield.

©flashtechnology.com

7) Airport Plans
After the assessment, forecasting, requirements analysis, and site inspection, master planning combines
airside and landside principles and designs. These include airport layout and approach and clear zone
plans. The site, access, and environmental objectives may also exist.

 Airport Layout

The airport layout design shows current and future airport infrastructure in scale. It will provide aerial
criteria, clearance and dimensions data, and external area relationships as the airport’s public
document. Schematics further show the airfield’s runways, taxiways, aprons, and terminals.

©Espacio Colectivo Arquitectos SA + Cuna Arquitectura

 Approach and Runway Clear Zone Plan

These plans allow the planner to assess how the airport will interact with the land around it in terms of
maintaining safe flight conditions.

Terminal Area Plan

The terminal area plan is a conceptual sketch outlining the overall layout of the terminal, including any
future extension plans. Alterations to the terminal could have far-reaching effects on the airport’s
taxiway and runway, which could be reflected in a revised layout design.

Singapore Airport’s Fifth Terminal ©KPF and Heatherwick Studio

JFK Airport’s Terminal Plan ©mavink.com

 Noise Compatibility Plan

Noise Compatibility Planning ©hmmh.com

Noise contours should be produced using projected airport traffic to forecast where noise will be an
issue in the future. Planned elements incorporate backup launch sites and operational restraints. It
would also reveal which structures and other infrastructure could benefit from being relocated or
soundproofed.
There are many other airport design standards all architects and planners should adhere to, but covering
them all would take at least a few more articles. However, the airport design standards mentioned
above are the bare minimum requirements that any architect who plans to create an airport must meet.
Whether you’re a professional architect, urban planner, designer, academic, or just a fan of stunning
architecture, you’ll find inspiration in this collection of airport designs from around the world that we
think are particularly well-executed and adhere to all the necessary airport design standards.
SOCIAL/ENVIRONMENTAL/ECONOMIC CONTEXT
The anthropogenic negative effects on the Earth’s climate are one of the most important environmental
issues the aviation industry has faced.5 Emissions from aircraft, both at ground level and at altitude, can
give rise to numerous negative effects on air quality, climate and the ozone layer. The gases and
particles emitted from aircraft engines can cause harmful effects in different stages of the flight, from
the ground to higher altitudes. At ground level, where airports are involved, one of the adverse effects
of aircraft emissions is degradation of the air quality, which may directly impact human health.6
According to the environmental reports and assessments, particulate matters, NOx, HC, SOx, and CO
from aircraft engine emissions can affect air quality, health and welfare.7 Aviation-related emissions in
the ground level and airport vicinities do not limit to aircraft emissions; ground support equipment are
other contributors. This means that air pollution from the airport ground-service vehicles, as well as the
airport surface access systems should be considered as part of the environmental burden of the
airports.8 4 Environmental capacity of an airport can be defined as: “the capacity of the receiving
environment, both human and non-human, to tolerate the impacts of airport activity”. See Paul Upham
et al, “Environmental capacity and airport operations: current issues and future prospects”, (2003)
Journal of Air Transport Management 145-151, at 146. 5 L.Q. Maurice. and D.S. Lee (eds.), Assessing
Current Scientific Knowledge, Uncertainties and Gaps in Quantifying Climate Change, Noise and Air
Quality Aviation Impacts, Final Report of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Committee
on Aviation and Environmental Protection (CAEP) Workshop (Washington DC and Manchester: US
Federal Aviation Administration and Manchester Metropolitan University, 2009) at 25 [Assessing Climate
Change, Noise and Air Quality Aviation Impacts]. 6 Rae Andre, Take Back the Sky: Protecting
Communities in the Path of Aviation Expansion (London: Sierra Club Books, University of California Press,
2004) at 26; Assessing Climate Change, Noise and Air Quality Aviation Impacts, supra note 5 at iv. 7 ICAO
Environmental Report 2010: Aviation and Climate Change, The Environment Branch of ICAO in
collaboration with FCM Communications Inc. (2010), at 18 (Available online at: .); Assessing Climate
Change, Noise and Air Quality Aviation Impacts, supra note 5 at 7. 8 This includes Motor vehicles (e.g.,
cars and buses for airport operations, and passenger, employee, and rental agency vehicles), Ground
service equipment (GSE) (e.g., aircraft tugs, baggage and belt loaders, generators, lawn mowers, snow
plows, loaders, tractors, air-conditioning units, and cargo moving equipment), Stationary sources (e.g.,
boilers, space heaters, emergency generators, incinerators, fire training facilities, aircraft engine testing
facilities, painting operations, and solvent degreasers). See OCCASIONAL PAPER SERIES VII 3 Today,
there are environmental limits and constraints which are implemented with respect to the airports in
order to lessen the environmental costs of aviation activities. To this aim, environmental capacities have
been defined by regulators and authorities, which limit the number of air traffic movements for people
and cargo, and foster other measurements to keep the environmental burdens below the defined limits.
Such environmental capacity limits and targets are manifested in the form of caps and quotas in each
airport.9 To address the pollution and air quality concerns raised by airports operation, different
solutions and mechanism are suggested and being employed by the airport authorities. Such solutions
may range from using procedures and technologies to reduce aircraft emissions at landing and take-off,
and sustainable management of airport fleets to aircraft engine efficiency, as well as the use of
alternative fuel sources for ground support equipment and power heating.10 With respect to the
emissions from airport operations, it is important to mention that the strategies for minimizing
emissions from sources owned or controlled by airport operator and emissions from off-site generation
of electricity purchased for airports are different from those developed to prevent acceleration of
environmental impacts created by emissions from sources which are not owned or controlled by the
airport operator, including aircrafts and ground access vehicles and public transport.11 B. NOISE ISSUES
Noise, which can be defined as any unwanted sound,12 can cause profound negative effects on humans’
health13 and their physical, psychological and social wellbeing and quality of life.14 Since the
emergence of the aviation industry, aircraft noise has been one of the most important sources of
excessive noise generated by human activities. Two sources of aircraft noise are the engines, which
include two major types of jet and Environmental Impacts of Airport Operations, Maintenance, and
Expansion, CRS Report for Congress, 5 April 2007, at CRS 10 [CRS Report]. Also see Janić, Greening
Airports, supra note 1 at 55; Janić, “Modelling Operational, Economic and Environmental Performance”,
supra note 2 at 422. 9 Ibid, at 15, 60. 10 Karen Thomas, “Airports and the Environment- A sustainable
Approach”, Airports Council International, Celebrating 20 years_ 1991-2011, at 103-4. 11 Xavier Oh,
“Greenlight to grow”, (February-March 2012) 17:1 Airport World, at 51. 12 Zeldine Niamh O'brien, “Civil
Subsonic Jet Aeroplane Noise: Its Impact, Regulation and Remedies” (2006) 14 Irish Students Law
Review 156 at 156. More precisely ‘environmental noise’ as “unwanted or harmful outdoor sound
created by human activities, including noise emitted by means of transport, road traffic, rail traffic, air
traffic, and from sites of industrial activity.…” Directive 2002/49/EC of the European Parliament and of
the Council of 25 June 2002, Relating to the Assessment and Management of Environmental Noise –
Declaration by the Commission in the Conciliation Committee on the Directive relating to the
assessment and management of environmental noise. 13 The definition of health by the World Health
Organization (WHO) indicates that health is “a state of complete physical, mental, and social wellbeing
and not merely the absence of disease, or infirmity.” Preamble to the Constitution of the World Health
Organization as adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 19-22 June, 1946, signed on
22 July 1946 by the representatives of 61 States (Official Records of the World Health Organization, no.
2, at 100) and entered into force on 7 April 1948. 14 B Griefahn et al., “Protection goals for residents in
the vicinity of civil airports”, (Jul 2004) 6:24 Noise & Health 51-62 at 51; O'brien, supra note 12 at 156;
Assessing Climate Change, Noise and Air Quality Aviation Impacts, supra note 5 at 7. SUSTAINABILITY
AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION MEASURES FOR AIRPORTS 4 piston engines, and the aircraft
frame.15 In the view of the fact that aircraft produces more noise during take-off and landing,16 airports
are considered to be important contributors to the problem of excessive noise, and from a community’s
perspective, one of the most obvious environmental problems of airport activities is noise pollution.17
In addition, noise generated by ground access systems in the airport landside area adds to the already
existing problem of excessive noise in airports.18 With respect to the problem of excessive noise in the
vicinity of airports, airport operator need to reduce aircraft noise emissions, reduce the number of
people exposed to excessive noise levels, and finally help local community receive the airport’s plans
and activities.19 Solutions such as urban planning, applying new technologies and designs, and
restricting operation of particular aircraft types, frequency of flights and night-time flights, planning and
managing land use, and redistributing noise by managing runways and routes use are some of the
mitigative measures employed to meet noise quotas and prescribed limits. 20 For the purpose of
protecting local communities in the vicinity of airports, curfews and avoidance of immission of noise
during night might seem to be some of the most practical solutions.21 However, restrictions on night
flights and curfews lead to under-utilization of infrastructure, which is not favorable with respect to
growth and economic viability of airports.22 ICAO, with its regulations and manuals, has been very
active in noise management and control at airports. C. LAND UTILIZATION, WASTE AND CONGESTION
The impacts of airports do not limit to emissions and noise issues. Land use by airport, waste and ground
congestion are among the problems which need attention of regulators as well as airport authorities in
order to diminish the impacts on environment and social life. Land take refers to utilisation of land by
airports for the purpose of building and operating airport related activities. Through effective
operational procedures and increasing the capacity gains the need for additional land for building new
runways and facilities will be avoided.23 15 O'brien, supra note 12 at 158. 16 Janić, Greening Airports,
supra note 1 at 42. 17 Andre, supra note 6 at 36; Allegedly a third of complaints about airports concern
acoustic issues. Thomas, supra note 10 at 105. 18 Janić, Greening Airports, supra note 1 at 56. 19 Oh,
supra note 11 at 51. 20 CRS Report, supra note 8 at CRS 4; Janić, Greening Airports, supra note 1 at 44;
Thomas, supra note 10 at 105. 21 Griefahn supra note 14 at 56. 22 Thomas, supra note 10 at 106. 23
Janić, Greening Airports, supra note 1 at 99. OCCASIONAL PAPER SERIES VII 5 Airport waste refers to the
waste generated by an airport’s operation. Such waste can be generated by passengers, airfield
operations and maintenance activities, and those caused by construction and demolition.24 The less the
waste generated by airport over a specific time is, the better and more efficient waste management
efforts of airports have been. 25 Needless to mention that some of the activities of airports such as
aircraft and airfield deicing and anti-icing, fuel storage and refueling, aircraft and vehicle cleaning and
maintenance, and construction may result in the discharge of pollutants to adjacent water bodies and
consequently trigger aquatic life and human health.26 Airline and air passenger congestion and delays
are another issue accompanied with operation of airports. Optimum utilization of airport and specially
runways’’ capacity is normally considered the key to minimize the aforementioned congestion.

APPROPRIATE BUILDING MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY

Materials and resources

Themes from the literature for Materials and Resources center around selection of materials for the
construction of airfield (e.g. runway, taxiway, apron) and terminal building infrastructure, as well as
management of waste from airport construction and operation.

1. Airfield materials

Estimation of environmental effects of airfield pavements is a fairly well-researched subject area,

relative to other airport infrastructure. Airfields are either made from asphalt or concrete, which are
known major sources of GHGs (Horvath 2004, Santero et al 2011, Miller et al 2016). The sustainability of
airfield pavements is constrained by structural integrity requirements and safety standards
(Pittenger 2011).

Evaluation metrics for sustainable airport pavement can be general, such as implementing suggested
best practices, including: using recycled aggregate in pavement mixes; using locally sourced construction
materials; reducing idling times of construction equipment (Hubbard and Hubbard 2019). More specific
critical factors of a sustainable airport pavement relate to its construction (i.e. the raw materials and
equipment used, transportation, waste management) and its operation, which is a function of the
pavement's structural characteristics (Babashamsi et al 2016). Table A4 in appendix A highlights the
specific sustainable practices and assessment methods/metrics found in the literature as they pertain to
different parts of the airfield. Example sustainable practices include use of supplementary cementitious
materials (SCM) in concrete runways and use of recycled aggregates in taxiway and apron construction.
LCA is frequently used in measuring the environmental sustainability of airfield pavements. The scope of
most of the LCAs is limited to impacts from the raw material and construction phases of the airfield.

2. Building materials

Relative to the airfield, environmental impact analysis of other airport infrastructure (e.g. terminal
buildings) is much more limited. LCAs have been performed to determine the optimum level of thermal
insulation for terminal buildings at two Turkish airports with a focus on selecting a design that reduces
GHG emissions (Akyuez et al 2017, Kon and Caner 2019). An extensive overview of construction
methods and building materials that are standard practice (e.g. using locally sourced materials) among
the green building community is applied for airports (ACRP, FAA, Ricondo & Associates, R. &, Center for
Transportation, C. for, & Ardmore Associates 2011). It is common practice, as mentioned in the ACRP
literature, for airports to aim for green building certification from groups such as the U.S. Green Building
Council's Leadership and Energy in Environmental Design (LEED) like LEED provides a checklist
framework where building owners (municipalities in the case of airports) earn points for choosing
'green' building materials and design attributes, among other criteria. There are over 200 LEED certified
airport buildings worldwide (USGBC 2020), with SFO's Terminal 2 the first LEED Gold airport terminal in
the U.S. (SFO 2011).

3. Waste management

Analysis of waste management at airports is another emerging research area. Waste sources at airports
include food waste from retailers/concessionaires, construction waste, and aircraft-related waste
(Turner 2018). Metrics applied for analyzing waste at a major international airport include quantity of
waste, waste source fraction, and waste amount per operation (Baxter et al 2018b). One article assessed
the life-cycle impact, in terms of air emissions, of six waste management scenarios at Hong Kong
International Airport determining that on-site incineration with heat recovery yielded optimal results
(Lam et al 2018).
APPROPRIATE STRUCTURE CONSIDERATION
There are various components of an airport which are structures. The planning and designing of these
Airport components are carried out by civil and structural engineers.

Components of Airport

1. Runway

2. Taxiway

3. Apron

4. Terminal building

5. Control tower

6. Hanger

7. Parking

Runway

Runway is a paved land strip on which landing and takeoff operations of aircrafts takes place. It is in
leveled position without any obstructions on it. Special markings are made on the runway to differ it
from the normal roadways. Similarly, after sunset, specially provided lightings are helped the aircrafts
for safe landing. Many factors are considered for design of runway. The direction of runway should be in
the direction of wind. Sometimes cross winds may happen, so, for safety considerations second runway
should be laid normal to the main runway. The number of runways for an airport is depends upon the
traffic. If the traffic is more than 30 movements per hour, then it is necessary to provide another
runway. Runway can be laid using bitumen or concrete. Bitumen is economic but concrete runways have
long span and requires less maintenance cost. The width of runway is dependent of maximum size of
aircrafts utilizing it. The length of runway is decided from different considerations like elevation of land,

temperature, take off height, gradients etc.

There are different runway patterns are available and they are

 Single runway

 Two runways

 Hexagonal runway

 45-degree runway

 60-degree runway

 60-degree parallel runway

Single Runway

Single runway is the most common form. It is enough for light traffic airports or for occasional usages.
This runway is laid in the direction of wind in that particular area.

Two Runway

Two runway contains two runway which are laid in different directions by considering cross winds or
wind conditions in that particular area. The runways may be laid in the form of L shape or T shape or X
shape.

Hexagonal Runway

This is the modern pattern of system of runway laying. In which the takeoff and landing movements of
aircrafts can be permitted at any given time without any interference. This is most suitable for heavy
traffic airports or busiest airports.
45 Degree Runway

45 degree run way is opted when the wind coverage for same airfield capacity is greater. This is also
termed as four-way runway.

60 Degree Runway

When the wind in that area is prevailing in many directions, so, it is difficult to decide the direction in
which runway is to be laid. In that case, 60-degree runway is opted which looks like triangular
arrangement of runways.

60 Degree Parallel Runway

It is the extension of 60-degree runway, which is opted when the wind coverage is greater in other two
directions then it is obvious that the third runway is to be chosen. But if the air traffic is more, then it is
difficult to control the operations. Hence, another runway is required parallel to the using one. For that
purpose, 60-degree parallel runway is suitable.

Taxiway

Taxiway is path which connects each end of the runway with terminal area, apron, hanger etc. These are
laid with asphalt or concrete like runways. In modern airports, taxiways are laid at an angle of 30 degree
to the runway so that aircrafts can use it to change from one runway to other easily. The turning radius
at taxiway and runway meets should be more than 1.5 times of width of taxiway.

Apron

Apron is a place which is used as parking place for aircrafts. It is also used for loading and unloading of
aircrafts. Apron is generally paved and is located in front of terminal building or adjacent to hangers. The
size of area to be allotted for apron and design of apron is generally governed by the number of aircrafts
expected in the airport. The aircraft characteristics also considered while design. Proper drainage
facilities should be provided with suitable slope of pavement. Sufficient clearances must be provided for
aircrafts to bypass each other.
Terminal Building

Terminal building is a place where airport administration facilities takes place. In this building, pre-
journey and post journey checking’s of passengers takes place. Lounges, cafes etc. are provided for the
passengers. Passengers can directly enter the plane from terminal buildings through sky bridge,
walkways etc. Similarly, the passengers from plane also directly enter into the terminal building.

Control Tower

The control tower is a place where aircrafts under a particular zone is controlled whether they are in
land or in air. The observation is done by the controller through radars and information is carried
through radio. The controller from the control tower observes all the aircrafts with in that zone and
informs pilots about their airport traffic, landing routes, visibility, wind speeds, runway details, etc.
based on which the pilot decides and attempts safe landing. So, control tower is like nerve system of an
airport.
Hanger

Hanger is a place where repairing and servicing of aircrafts is done. Taxiway connects the hanger with
runway so, when a repair needed for an aircraft it can be moved to hanger easily. It is constructed in the
form of large shed using steel trusses and frames. Large area should be provided for Hanger for
comfortable movement of aircrafts.

Parking

This is a place provided for parking the vehicles of airport staff or passengers which is outside the
terminal building or sometimes under the ground of terminal building.
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SYSTEM DESING
Airports as Complex System of Systems

Because an airport is a very demanding public infrastructure, it usually takes a long time – typically six to
ten years — to plan, design and to get it commissioned for operations. The complexity of a modern
airport includes meeting “predictable demands” such as efficiency in handling passengers and baggage,
ensuring safety and security, serving F&B and shopping needs, and providing comfort and entertainment
for waiting passengers passing time in the airport.

The system also has to deal with unpredictable demands such as managing entropy (i.e. lack of order or
predictability) within the system (e.g. delays from upstream airports), as well as handling major
disruptions arising from the external environment (e.g. volcanic ash in Iceland and Bali). An airport is
hence a complex system of systems. It has complex interdependencies between aspects of airport
operations, e.g. ground transport, air traffic control, terminal and airside operations, and cargo
operations. One failure will automatically trigger adverse consequence in others.

Within each system, there are also multiple components that operate in an independent and yet
interdependent manner. For example, efficient passenger processing within a terminal requires check-
in, immigration, security, flight information and baggage handling systems to work in an integrated
manner. Above all, an airport will require multiple stakeholders to work hand in hand together as an
integrated system. These include government agencies such as the immigration authorities and
customs, operational entities such as airlines, ground handling companies and security providers, as well
as commercial players running retail concessions.

Let’s use Changi Airport as an example to explore system complexity in designing and operating airports.
I will discuss a few common airport features to illustrate their complexities.

Complexity in Airport Planning and Development

There are four key considerations when planning for terminal capacity. They are: terminal handling
capacity, minimum connecting time, technology in process designs, and last but not least, retail and
entertainment for passengers to pass time while waiting in the terminal.

Terminal Handling Capacity

Passenger terminals serve as a node for the dynamic processing of passengers, baggage, aircraft,
vehicles, visitors and staff going through the various touch points and inter-dependent sub-systems. A
bottleneck at any touch point will affect the entire system throughout due to a domino effect.

For instance, a bottleneck at departure immigration due to insufficient number of counters will result in
passengers not being able to board their planes on time and delay aircraft departures. Consequently,
aircraft are held up at the boarding gates for longer than the scheduled time. This results in reduction of
gates/parking stands for inbound aircraft which creates delays in arrival flow. Aircraft will have to
circulate in the air for longer periods or park at remote gates which require busing of passengers to the
terminal. Baggage claims will be delayed as arrival flights are now bunched together resulting in
insufficient belt capacity.

Planning for Peak Hour Demand

Although airport capacity is generally measured in terms of millions of passengers per annum (mppa),
what is more critical for operational efficacy is to evaluate the number of passengers that an airport can
process at peak hours demand. This varies according to different peak hours for different airlines that
are flying to different geographical locations. For peak hour capacity planning, IATA has recommended a
guideline known as the “Level of Service of Framework (LOS)”. For example, in check-in halls, IATA’s
optimum LOS is 2.0 to 2.3 square metres per passenger. In Changi Airport, we planned for 4.0 square
metres per passenger in parts of the check-in hall with high trolley circulation, which provides for
greater system resilience to handle entropy and exogenous shocks or disruptions

Minimum Connecting Time (MCT)

MCT is defined as the minimum time required for a passenger to connect between an arrival flight and a
departure flight. Achieving a short MCT is crucial for a hub airport as shorter connecting times makes the
airport more attractive for transfer passengers and airlines. In Changi, MCT within and between
Terminals 1,2 and 3 is set at 60 minutes with transfers to and from T4 requiring an MCT of 90 minutes.
MCT is affected by two key operational flows that work in tandem: passenger movement and baggage
conveyance. Passenger movement times are affected by four factors, namely, efficiency of air traffic
control for on-time arrivals, ease of wayfinding, speed of people mover systems (connecting walkways
or Skytrains) and finally, efficiency of security checks.

Baggage Handling System

Baggage handling is probably one of the most common airport facilities which can positively or
negatively affect passengers’ experience. Airports must get it right. Baggage conveyance is affected by
three factors: efficiency of air traffic control for on-time arrivals, efficiency of ground handlers in off-
loading and transport of baggage, and finally but crucially, the Baggage Handling System (BHS)
performance. The BHS is itself a highly complex engineering sub-system. For transfer passengers, it
comprises baggage induction at the integrated transfer lines, hold baggage security screening, as well as
conveyance to the early baggage storage system for bags whose next departure times are more than 3
hours away. The BHS engineering design must be efficient, reliable and precise.

Technology in Process Designs

Technology is a key factor in delivering the required capacity for airports with increasingly complex
operational requirements. This is particularly important as we face severe manpower constraints for
ground handling agents and government agencies like the Immigration and Checkpoints Authority (ICA)
to handle the fast growth in passenger traffic.

Changi Airport has invested extensively in passenger processing technologies, the latest example being
the Fast and Seamless Travel (FAST) programme in T4. This is the world’s first integrated end-to-end
biometric self-service flow for passengers across four passengers processing touch points: self-service
check-in kiosks, self-service baggage drop, automated immigration gates and automated boarding gates.
All four automated touch points are unmanned and use facial recognition technology. FAST has
significantly improved the performance of T4 in processing departing passengers. Check-in throughput
has increased by 30%, leading to less waiting, queuing and clearance times. Manpower productivity has
improved, with airlines and ground handling agents saving 20% manpower. Advanced facial recognition
technology has enhanced reliability of security checks as risks of human error are reduced.

Retail and Entertainment — One of Changi Airport’s Winning Experiences!

An airport is now no longer just an air transport infrastructure. Besides efficient processing of aircraft
and passenger movements, the modern airport has to enhance passenger experience at the airport
terminal. At Changi, there is a wide array of options for shopping, dining and entertainment, including
beauty care, gyms, a swimming pool, and even a butterfly garden to cater to passengers with long
transfer times. In fact, at Changi, as much as 43% of our revenue is derived from our retail operations. As
such, planning for such non-aeronautical commercial facilities need to be given equal importance in the
design of the terminal space. To keep up with the interests of our passengers-shoppers, the retail
offerings need to be regularly rejuvenated to maintain and enhance their shopping experience. We have
more than 60 million passengers-shoppers a year, and it makes a lot of commercial sense to drive
greater sales conversion when they are captive within the terminal.

Complexity in Airport Operations – Collaborative Decision Making in Airport Operations

In a complex airport system, managing entropies such as a fire break-out, which can generate chaos,
disorder and inefficiencies within and across the various sub-systems, is crucial. One global incident is
the 2010 volcanic eruption of Eyjafjallajokull in Iceland, which resulted in massive flight cancellations
from Singapore to Europe, stranding passengers at Changi Airport. Yet another alarming case was the
recent flooding of Kansai International Airport in Osaka due to typhoons, which totally paralysed the
whole airport, overwhelming even the Japanese who are normally very familiar with and well-prepared
to handle major natural disasters.

Airport operations have to be planned to handle system entropies to avoid severe disruptions, no
matter how unexpected they may be. This requires decision making support tools that can analyse
dynamic traffic conditions in real-time and facilitate coordination of various activities across multiple
stakeholders to respond in a swift and integrated manner. Changi Airport has implemented an Airport
Collaborative Decision Making system, which is a common platform to share information amongst all
airport agencies, so that they can make best use of their resources based on timely updates on statuses
for each flight. This will enable operators to predict the downstream timings of an aircraft the moment it
arrives at Changi, the most important of which is the estimated time when it is ready for its next
departure. Because of improved predictability in flight times, airport resources such as runways and
parking stands can be used more optimally.

High Service Levels

Having the best physical infrastructure and technology is insufficient for Changi Airport to win and
maintain itself as a successful air hub. We have to focus on having the necessary software — system and
processes — in place to deliver a world class experience to all airport users. Ensuring a good experience
for passengers that is personalised, stress-free and positively surprising is the winning point of Changi
Airport’s DNA. This requires Changi Airport to have the discipline to establish and enforce the standards
of efficiency and service quality across all touch points all the time. This includes pleasant encounters at
immigration, customs, tax reclaim, baggage claim, trolley collection, information counters, retail outlets,
entertainment facilities, and even within our toilets. There is a long list of incidents which can make
passengers very happy or unhappy. We have to constantly measure performance outcomes and to take
follow-up actions to remedy any shortcomings, and at the same time provide comprehensive training to
all staff including our airport partners.

Conclusion

An airport is a highly complex system where it has to manage both predictable demands expected from
its role as an air transport infrastructure, as well as to handle unpredictable demands arising from
entropies and disruptions. Expectations of performance and competition for an international air hub is
increasingly high.

For Singapore, our airport — and only one — is an important economy strategy. It has multiple
economical effects of connecting the city to the world and vice versa. In addition, the airport is like the
face of the country, being the first and last point of contact for visitors, and giving either good or bad
first and last impressions of the country. Therefore, having the right systems design, technology,
processes, and most crucially, people would be critical to ensure our continued success in this highly
complex and competitive aviation industry.

I am proud to say that Changi Airport has been able to deliver good passenger satisfaction consistently
since our opening in 1981. This is demonstrated by winning more than 580 Best Airport Awards by
various ranking agencies, though I keep repeating to our colleagues that winning many best airport
awards is the outcome and not to be mistaken as our obsessive goal. I did a mental calculation recently
that with the airport processing an average of 160,000 passengers a day, just 1% dissatisfaction rate
would mean complaints from 1,600 upset passengers. Even at 0.5% dissatisfaction rate we would have
displeased 800 passengers a day. Imagine 800 passengers writing emails, texting messages and making
phone calls to us! However, it is reported to me that we have been able to keep the number of negative
daily feedback to less than 100 a day, meaning a dissatisfaction rate of less than 0.1%. But of course, we
do not know how many may have kept silent about their unhappiness and not bothered to complain to
us at all! The important point is to learn from these feedback or complaints that we have received and
continuously improve our operations to meet users’ expectations. Never just be defensive. Presently,
Changi Airport possesses strong foundational infrastructures that have been put in place, and we
continue to undertake progressive improvements and expansions. With our good track record and
excellent operational performance, barring unforeseen world events that may have catastrophic effects
on global travel, Changi Airport is, in my opinion, well poised to continue to excel as a good international
air hub.
FAÇADE TREATMENTS REQUIREMENTS
Audaciously sculptural or pared down pristine. India’s great feats of architectural ingenuity are pushing
the field in bold new directions. Designing energy efficient terminals that have a long lasting effect on
the environment and passengers alike is the definition for new age terminal designs. Creative Group,
one of the leading Architecture and Engineering Consultancy firms in India, has demonstrated that large
expansive public concourse within an airport terminal assists to alleviate a passenger’s sense of being
crowded while still accommodating the flow of arrival, departing and connecting passengers. Extensively
designed facades within the spaces of Airports in Chennai, Raipur, Goa and Vaodadara are thought
products Design of a sustainable endeavour by the design team.
“The facades that we have designed for all these airports allow natural light to filter through the skin of
the terminal thus providing passengers the delight of experiencing exterior views and better way finding.
In this way, we also maximize daylight and minimize heat gains thus breaking the myth that airports are
massive energy guzzlers,” says Prof. Charanjit Shah, Founding Principal , Creative Group
Facades and Building envelopes – portray an architect’s creative lintent. A thoughtfully designed skin can
make a new building work wonders, through efficient performance for its users and the environment,
and the architects have displayed a similar intent in the airport designs.

Raipur Airport designed by Creative Group

Chennai Airport: View from the cityuser’s

Furthermore, the façade of such buildings that require consistent energy consumption, not only give
shape and add an impressive elevation to the structure, rather it is on the efficiency of such facades
(calculation of heat flow) that HVAC equipment and system sizing is based on. If a façade system helps
the building with less heat gain, the air- conditioning system uses less energy in order to cool the
building; therefore an energy efficient façade needs to have a high thermal performance.
Architecture thrives on creative ideas and bold solutions that fascinate and surprise the cityuser’s
experience each time. Understanding the properties of building materials before, during and after
construction is the key to achieving a high performing façade. However, the actual implementation of
these measures requires knowledge and experience in the exact requirements of a particular airport, as
is evident from Creative Group’s style of architecture in each terminal, setting it apart from the other.
Architecture at its visionary best exhilarates and inspires. It is a field that embodies design ingenuity,
creating places and most importantly imagination. But today’s architectural buildings are not just meant
to be admired from a far; rather they have become this intelligent place of moulding itself in a manner
most suitable for its user. The new Domestic and International Terminals facades are made up of over
40,000 sq mt of glass, equating to 14,000 bespoke panels. Facades need to perform specific functions
like monitoring the potential for overheating in summer. To help manage the temperature, the glass is
coated with a film which controls the amount of sunlight entering the terminal. Fifth generation double
silvered low e-coated glass with high light transmission and low power consumption, very low external
reflection and very high transparency was the perfect solution to wrap the world-class terminal with.
View of the entrance canopies at night

Entrance canopy to the terminal (Chennai Airport)

Each facade is predominantly glazed to allow greater transparency through the building and clear views
of the airfield and the surrounding city side. Maximizing the use of natural light also contributes to the
energy efficiency of the building. Further, the Double Laminated DGU (86.4 – 24 – 68.4) is the glazing
combination that provides suitable acoustic comfort to the passengers within the terminal. The
efficiency of the terminal can be attributed to its meticulously planned spaces. The H-shaped plan is
what forms the very genesis of this sustainable terminal. Creating seven visible facets accentuated by
the remarkable incorporation of a responsive façade design, transparent ingress were created to the
terminal as compared to the conventional four façade system in an ordinary terminal. Not only did it
bestow the passengers with green landscape views, breaking the monotony created by security
processes inside the busy airport, but also ample daylight reached every nook of the building. This
planning strategy clearly exemplifies that “Even Big can be sustainable”. “Further, the planning of the
airport is laid on the foundation that as sustainability is sowed, sustainability will grow. By implementing
facets of sustainability in every quarter of building design and planning, the green terminals are pillars of
sustainability,” explains Ar. Gurpreet Shah, Principal Architect, Creative Group The airport has
prudently used glass to create a visual treat while being functionally superior and ultimately enhancing
the user experience. The high performance glass provides excellent solar control that increases
occupant comfort and reduces traveller fatigue, air conditioning & artificial lighting cost. Also, the
coloured & lacquered glass, SGG Planilaque, greatly adds to the aesthetic value, making the Chennai
International Terminal, truly international. Not only inspiration was taken from the traditional
sustainable strategies, but also many new innovations in design and construction were carved on the
way. The resultant is a path breaking terminal, with unmatched parallels in sustainable design
successful through the incorporation of an intelligent façade system.
The H-shaped plan forms the genesis of the terminal

The facade is predominantly glazed to allow greater transparency

The integrated terminal is an elegant modern structure defined by a high-tech aerodynamic building
offering a smooth transition to its passengers from the flight to the city. Its organic form deriving its
genesis from an “Avian” is conceived with a sliced dome at the centre and multiple wings elevating the
roof profile towards the sky. The slicing of the roof profile maximizes the daylight, while emitting light in
the sky making it visible at night. The design of the terminal building, liaise emphasis on the vastness of
spaces, the visual experience of the sky and the subtle landing on the ground with the terminal building
as a catalyst integrating all three.
Integration of an efficient façade glass and skylights that act as an extension to the glazed envelope
further accentuated through reflective metal panelling supported on steel frames, enable the terminal
to achieve large wide open spaces with natural light in abundance. The architects vision and creativity in
double curves have been creatively realized through the designing of the glazed aerodynamic. Having
used High performance tinted toughened glass, Multicellular insulated translucent panels of skylights,
accommodating a largely span-spaced roofing system and the curb side canopy done with
polycarbonate sheets, lends an extremely symbolic and high-tech appearance to the built form. The rear
side of the air-side corridor is designed to be evolved from a “spaceship” which is attained using a
louvered tube form.
“The façade treatment of any structure is designed and executed to meet appropriate facilities for
maintenance in the long term. Quality of supervision, adherence to specifications and coordinated
efforts from a qualified façade engineer is most important during the designing and execution of such
mega scaled projects,” illustrated Mr. Prabhpreet Shah, Executive Director, Creative Group.An
amalgamation of intelligent use of materials and technology, the façade of the terminal, is adorned with
structural glaz¬ing, resulting in an array of sleek “bow trusses”. Spanning 15m high and 180m long, the
inclined glass façade, lends a unique translucent appearance, visually welcoming the passengers into this
structural marvel.
The specially designed hinged connection at base allows constructability and takes care of the rotational
moment generated due to wind. Another element that adds to the glorious avian terminal is the Yellow-
hued ticket counter that elegantly lies at the centre of the terminal façade framed with stone
cladding on either ends of the front elevation. The passengers are welcomed to experience the changing
hues of the terminal through flaring arms of the tree-columns that during the day mark their reflection
on the glazed façade further dissolving the landscape interior to the landscaped exterior of the avian.

Column free monumental staircase and bow trusses

View of check-in counters

The building has a long glass façade which gives the building transparent and modern look, and has a
solid roof with sleek skylights which is free flowing, resembling a wave and hence the proximity to the
sea. A specially made FACETED GLASS – double glass unit with a protective film is specifically made for
this terminal which provides the much needed thermal and sound insulation. The building form
developed is very simple and bold. It is free flowing and curvilinear in one direction. The use of steel in
the main structure also enhances the modern image of the building.
The New Integrated Terminal at Vadodara Airport is a sleek contemporary structure and a reflection of
the start of sustainable yet modernistic movement in India.
The most prominent structural feature for the New Integrated terminal is an arching, sweeping roof that
spans the entire length of the terminal. Inspired by the body and wings of airplanes, the building’s bold
sweeping form and identity is achieved by wrapping the East and West sides and the roof with one
continuous aerodynamic metal skin. This homogeneity of the structural design depicts artistic and
engineering amalgamation between efficient façade design and the roof. The symbolism remains the
visual and architectural flow of the terminal’s design.
Careful analysis of the building’s orientation has relented its design and unique form. A large overhang
on the North (landside) shelters the transparent facade while shading and protecting passengers along
the kerbside. This profile then creates an overhang on the South (airside) so that the panoramic glass
curtain wall is completely shaded from the strong sun. The volumetric proportion of the interior spaces
combined with filtered natural light from skylights above and the sound of flowing water will activate
and enliven the experience inside the terminal. The Skylights follow the geometry of the trusses further
opening the structural framework to allow natural light to permeate the terminal interiors.
However, it is alarming to note the sudden movement of adoption of curtain walls from the west,
irrespective of the climate condition of the region. Hence, any architectural building, any diverse design
is one which mimics the climate and its very moods, moulding itself in the most appropriate manner for
the user. And one component that can truly give shape to such a structure is the intelligent design and
execution of the façade/the skin of the building.
Gone are the days when airports were nothing more than a stopover between the journey and
destination. Today, with cross-continental travel being stressful enough, airports need to create an
atmosphere of calm & comfort, a place where one can reduce the fatigue & stress that comes with
travel. And The New age Airport designs, along with efficient façade designs, are bound to do just that.

Vadodara Airport: Arial view – the arching,sweeping roof that spans the entire length of the terminal