Journal of Positive School Psychology http://journalppw.

com
2022, Vol. 6, No. 4, 6699 – 6707

Sustaining Quality Tertiary Education via Critical Reading Skills

and Language Learning Strategies

1Dineshwari Sundran, 2Gurnam Kaur Sidhu, 3Sathiamoorthy Kannan

123
Faculty of Education, Languages and Psychology, SEGI University, Malaysia

Abstract
To sustain quality tertiary education students must possess the fundamental literacy skill of critical
reading. This skill comes alongside with a repertoire of language learning strategies. Educationists
have highlighted that a majority of tertiary students in Malaysia lack critical reading skills and this
may be due to limited acquisition of language learning strategies. Therefore, the main aim of this
study was to identify sustainability towards quality tertiary education through exploring the critical
reading skills and language learning strategies of tertiary students in a private university in Malaysia.
The study adopted a sequential exploratory research design with a mixed methods approach. The
sample population comprised 108 tertiary students and data were collected through a three-pronged
approach involving the use of a questionnaire, reading comprehension test and semi-structured
interviews. The quantitative data were analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics via the
SPSS version 26 whilst qualitative data were analysed using thematic analysis. The findings indicated
that the tertiary students’ critical reading skills were rather limited and there was a significant
difference based on gender and discipline of study. Furthermore, they displayed between low to
average frequency use of language learning strategies.The findings of this study implies the need for
educationists to equip tertiary students with the necessary critical reading skills and language learning
strategies so that they can cope with academic needs in higher education and sustain the quality
education at the tertiary level.

Keywords: quality education; critical reading skills; language learning strategies.

1. INTRODUCTION who lack critical reading skills (CRS) were

unable to cope academically in universities and
Reading is a fundamental skill required to
this affected their opportunity to be employed.
function in today’s society. Inadequate reading
Based on the Malaysian National Education
skills and Language Learning Strategies (LLS)
Blueprint, the unemployment of Malaysian
affect studying, working and survival in general
graduates has been one of the top five problems
as everything needs to be read and attended to.
in Malaysia since 2006 (2013-2025 p.12).
Primarily for tertiary students, reading critically
Furthermore, lecturers in tertiary institutions do
is crucial as universities and workplaces expect
not teach these skills assuming it has already
a higher level of reading that comprises critical
been taught at both the primary and secondary
thinking and analytical skills.
school levels and this results with students
However most educators and researchers being unequipped to handle texts at the
specialized in reading have stated that university level (Zin et.al, 2014). Hence, most
Malaysian tertiary students are unable to of these students often experience difficulty in
critically read (Koo 2011, Thang & Azarina coping with academic study at institutions of
2008, Nambiar 2007, Pandian 2007). Students higher learning. This shows the ongoing
Dineshwari Sundran 6700

problem that has yet to be solved and the 5. What are the tertiary students’ challenges
importance of CRS and LLS has often been faced based on critical reading skills and
ignored and swept under the carpet. language learning strategies?
As Malaysia is progressing towards Education
4.0, the 4Cs of 21st century learning, namely,
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Critical Thinking, Collaboration,
Communication and Creativity has been The following section will provide a brief
emphasized and integrated in all educational review of literature on CRS, LLS and their
levels. Through critical reading, the 4Cs can be relationship with gender, discipline and English
achieved with ease as the skills are interlinked. language proficiency (ELP).
In addition, the United Nations Sustainable
Development Summit adopted the 2030 A. Critical Reading Skills and Language
Agenda for Sustainable Development in 2015 Learning Strategies
and a new goal was added on global education Critical reading involves the ability to judge the
(SDG 4) which aims to “…ensure inclusive and validity of the claims made in a written text. Is
equitable quality education and promote is different from basic reading as it is the act of
lifelong learning opportunities for all…” such logical reasoning through clear evaluation and
as basic literacy skills starting from early analysis of a text (Harris & Hodges, 1981).
childhood level till secondary level. However, According to Bloom’s Taxonomy by Benjamin
literacy skills become even more critical for Bloom (1956), a Critical Reader goes through 6
students at the tertiary level as students have to (six) levels to read critically; Knowledge,
sieve through volumes of written text and Comprehension, Application, Analysis,
therefore tertiary students need to employ Synthesis and Evaluation. The level moves
analytical and critical skills plus LLS to obtain from simple to complex and comprises skills to
necessary information from reading materials. read critically. All critical readers will go
The Curriculum and Instructional Design for through these levels until they reach the
Sustainable Development must be looked into advanced level at Evaluation to be successful
as fundamental literacy skills such as CRS and critical readers. However, for second language
LLS must be possessed first to sustain and tertiary learners such as learners in Malaysia,
provide equitable quality tertiary education and they not only have to read in the second
at the same time achieve our Nation’s language but should also be able to read
aspiration to equip learners with the skills critically and that requires LLS.
required for the 21st Century.
Rebecca Oxford put forward the SILL which
With that, this paper will be guided by the refers to Strategy Inventory of Language
following five research questions: Learning (1990), a tool to measure the
1. What are the tertiary students’ level of strategies used by a learner to learn the English
critical reading skills? Language. She classified 6 (six) LLS which
are; Memory, Cognitive, Compensation,
2. Are there any significant differences among Metacognitive, Affective and Social. These
tertiary students’ level of critical reading skills classifications were based on what ‘A Good
based on gender, discipline and English Language Learner’ would employ to be
language proficiency? proficient in the English Language. According
to some studies, effective LLS has contributed
3. What are the tertiary students’ frequency use
to better reading comprehension (Ghafournia,
of language learning strategies?
2014 & Pratama, 2015). To sustain quality
4. Are there any significant differences among tertiary education, all tertiary students should
tertiary students’ use of language learning possess basic literacy skills such as CRS and
strategies based on gender, discipline and LLS.
English language proficiency?
6701 Journal of Positive School Psychology

B. Critical Reading and Gender Yet, a study conducted by Zin et al. (2014)
revealed that students from the PS discipline
Many studies have identified that male and
displayed limited critical reading ability as the
females have different reading performances
respondents admitted that they were not
such as in comprehension, values, competency,
familiar with the genre of the reading material
frequency, habit, motivation, attitude and
which was a formal letter format. The PS
choice. Some researchers believe that the
students did not possess the necessary
differences exist as a result of gender
background knowledge on critical reading to
stereotypes in the education sector.
read and understand different types of reading
Based on the UNESCO’S Global Education materials other than their standard scientific
Monitoring report (GEM) 2020, for SDG 4, it text which is contrary to SS students who have
states that substantial gender gaps do exist in plenty of knowledge with various reading
adult education and employment (p. 238, para materials. Another study by Koray & Çetinkılıç
4). In addition, a study done in Chile during (2020) indicated that the group of PS students
2020 indicated that almost all respondents in who were taught CRS performed significantly
the study agreed that reading was seen as a better at extracting information from a text than
feminine activity (Espinoza & Strasser, 2020). the group of PS students who were taught the
Another study claimed that because from early conventional way to understand a reading
ages, as mothers tend to read more to their material. This further supports that PS students
children and teachers influence on gender were not taught and lack CRS. Hence, the
stereotyping roles since young that girls should relationship between CRS and discipline was
stay in class and read while boys should play looked into in this study.
outside has created a belief system that reading
D. Critical Reading and English Language
was a feminine activity while males were
Proficiency
associated with subjects such as sports, math
and science (Mutwoni & Retelsdorf, 2018). Language proficiency is evaluated based on
This claim has also been supported by the reading, writing, listening and speaking ability
GEM 2020 report that family, teachers and in a particular language. Examinations such as
society do pass down gender-stereotyping roles TOEFL and IELTS require the second
to children (p.16, para. 5). The GEM report language learners (L2) to be proficient in these
also adds that females outperformed males in four abilities to determine their level of ELP.
reading performance (p.13, para. 1) however However, many institutions employ exam-
females still face barriers in pursuing STEM oriented techniques rather than teaching to
(Science, Technology, Engineering, understanding a text critically (Abednia, 2015).
Mathematics) related subjects (p.16, para. 1). If Zin et. al (2014) stated that there was a
a person is not reading, they would not obtain significant difference between L2 learners’
the opportunity to practice their CRS and an ELP and critical reading ability in her study.
equitable and quality education will not be
Having said that, other studies such as by
obtained by each gender evenly. Therefore, the
Yousefi & Mohammadi (2016) and Carson et
relationship between CRS and gender was
al. (1990) argued that there was no relationship
looked into in this study.
between CRS and English language as their
C. Critical Reading and Discipline study stated that the respondents’ usage of CRS
for both their first language (L1) and L2 does
Reading is a fundamental skill particularly for
not differ. This indicates that CRS can be used
the teaching and learning process in every
in any language as CRS teaches one to obtain
study discipline whether it is the pure science
information from a text skillfully and critically
(PS) or social science (SS) as lessons and
and differences in language of the context does
reading materials need to be read to obtain
not affect one’s critical reading ability. Thus,
knowledge and information.
with this study, a more in-depth relationship
between CRS and ELP was looked into.
Dineshwari Sundran 6702

III. METHODOLOGY appropriate with the students’ level of language

proficiency. For reliability, a pilot study was
This study employed a sequential explanatory
conducted prior to the actual one. As for
research design with a mixed methods
trustworthiness, the interviews were transcribed
approach. The study was conducted in a private
verbatim for member-checking and peer-
Malaysian University located at Kota
debriefing. To achieve triangulation, data was
Damansara, Selangor. The population
collected from three different sources
comprised 108 randomly selected tertiary
(questionnaires, tests and semi-structured
respondents. The sample was divided into two;
interviews) to obtain valid results by
Sample A comprised a total of 53 (fifty-three)
converging information from the different
respondents from the pure sciences (PS)
sources. Data was analyzed through
discipline whilst 55 (fifty-five) respondents
independent sample t-tests and ANOVA for
were from the social sciences (SS) discipline.
parametric tests plus Man-Whitney U test and
Sample B was a sub-set from sample A and
Kruskal Wallis H test for non-parametric tests.
comprised a total of twelve (12) volunteers
respondents who were involved in the semi- To protect the subjects’ rights in this study,
structured interviews. several ethical considerations were taken into
consideration. Prior permission was obtained
The research instruments employed included a
from the universities and faculties involved. All
reading comprehension test, a questionnaire
students’ informed consent was obtained, and
and semi-structured interviews. The reading
they were given assurance that all students’
comprehension test was based on past year
information will not be disclosed as anonymity
MUET, (Malaysian University English Test)
will be maintained at all times. To maintain
Reading Tests. This test is set by the Malaysian
anonymity, a pseudonym was given to each
Examination Council and has been vetted for
respondent based on gender, discipline and
validity and reliability at the ministry level.
language proficiency: M=Male, F=Female,
This test was used to determine the
PS=Pure Science, SS=Social Science,
respondents’ CRS and comprised 4 (four)
HEP=High English Language Proficiency,
reading passages with 30 (thirty) multiple
IEP=Intermediate English Language
choice questions. MUET is a CEFR (Common
Proficiency, LEP=Limited English Language
European Framework of References) aligned
Proficiency. The students were also informed
English language proficiency test based on the
that they had the right to withdraw at any time
four main language skills of listening,
from the project. All data was kept secure in
speaking, reading and writing. It is often
password protected laptops
employed for University Admissions in
Malaysian public universities. The
questionnaire, employing Rebecca Oxfords’
SILL, evaluated LLS and it comprised 50 IV. FINDINGS
(fifty) items. The semi-structured interviews The following section will report the findings
were used to investigate the twelve of the five main research questions that guided
respondents’ challenges faced based on CRS the study.
and LLS.
A. Tertiary students’ level of Critical
Since the MUET Reading Test is a test Reading Skills
prepared by the Malaysian Examination
Council, test validity and reliability were not Research Question One in the findings
issues of concern. Nonetheless, since the examined the students’ level of CRS where the
researchers picked passages from a few past data were obtained from the MUET reading
year papers, the passages were arranged from comprehension test and descriptive analysis
simple to complex through a readability were conducted to determine the mean and
checker (Flesch-Kincaid and Gunning Fox) to standard deviation. The test scores were
make sure the levels of difficulty were divided into three levels (low=0 to 33.3),
6703 Journal of Positive School Psychology

(moderate=33.4 to 66.7) and (high=66.8 to The one-way ANOVA analysis was conducted
100). The findings indicated that the to examine CRS based on English Language
respondents’ critical reading skills level was proficiency (ELP) which was viewed based on
between low to moderate levels (M=45.83, three levels (high, average & limited). The
SD= 13.489). results shown in Table 3 below indicate that
there was no significant difference based on the
Research Question Two investigated if there
respondents’ level of CRS based on ELP. The
were any significant differences among tertiary
HEP respondents had a M=47.56, SD=15.042,
students’ level of CRS based on gender,
IEP (M=45.79, SD = 13.365) and LEP
discipline and ELP. The findings on gender
(M=42.56, SD=10.98) with a p value of
were analyzed through an independent samples
0.555>0.05.
t-test as only two groups were involved (male
and female). Table 1 indicates there was a TABLE 3 TERTIARY STUDENTS’ CRITICAL
significant difference based the tertiary READING SKILLS BASED ON ENGLISH
students’ level of CRS based on gender as the LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY (n=108)
females (M=48.456, SD=11.828) showed
English Language Mean SD Sig. (2-
significantly higher CRS level compared to
Proficiency tailed)
males (M=43.210, SD=14.608) with a p value
of 0.043<0.05. Limited 42.564 10.98318 .555

TABLE 1 CRITICAL READING SKILLS OF Intermediate 45.797 13.36593

TERTIARY STUDENTS BASED ON GENDER
High 47.564 15.04236
(n=108)
*P<0.05
Gender Mean SD Sig. (2-tailed)
The above findings were further supported by
Male 43.210 14.60851 .043
respondents during the semi structured
Female 48.456 11.82868 interviews. On the whole, the interviews with
the respondents indicated that they were aware
*P<0.05
of the importance of equipping themselves with
Further in-depth inferential analysis based on CRS as stated by Respondent 2/F/SS/HEP,
the two disciplines (PS & SS) presented in 9/M/PS/IEP and 11/M/PS/LEP.
Table 2 below indicate that there was a
Respondent 7/M/PS/HEP stated that “Yes I do
significant difference among tertiary students’
face challenges with academic reading because
level of CRS based on discipline of study. The
I am not sure if what I understand from the
findings showed that the SS respondents
passage is what the writer means exactly. Even
(M=50.48, SD=11.76) displayed significantly
though I try to read and understand, I still have
higher CRS levels compared to the respondents
trouble identifying the main points.” This
from the PS discipline (M=41.00, SD=13.565)
excerpt indicates that this male respondent
with a p value of 0.000<0.05.
from the pure science discipline is facing some
TABLE 2 TERTIARY STUDENTS’ CRITICAL difficulties with critical reading ability.
READING SKILLS BASED ON DISCIPLINE
B. Tertiary students’ frequency use of
(n=108)
Language Learning Strategies
Discipline Mean SD Sig. (2-
tailed)
Research Question Three analyzed the
frequency use of LLS of the tertiary students
PS 41.006 13.56530 .000 through a descriptive analysis. The levels of the
SS 50.484 11.76591 mean scale for LLS were divided into four
categories: (very low=1.00 to 2.00), (low=2.00
*P<0.05 to 3.00), (moderate=3.00 to 4.00) and
(high=4.00 to 5.00). The findings indicated that
Dineshwari Sundran 6704

the respondents possessed between low to TABLE 5 LANGUAGE LEARNING

moderate frequency use of LLS (M=3.19, STRATEGIES OF TERTIARY STUDENTS
SD=0.511). BASED ON DISCIPLINE (n=108)
Research Question Four examined if there were Discipline Mean Rank Sig.(2-tailed)
any significant differences among tertiary
PS 55.89 .651
students’ use of LLS based on gender,
discipline and ELP. The findings (Table 4) SS 53.16
analyzed through a Mann Whitney U Test
Cognitive Strategy
indicate that there was no significant difference
for the overall LLS strategies based on gender PS 62.37 .010
as the mean rank for males were 55.89 and for
SS 46.92
females were 53.16 (p=0.425>0.05). However,
further analysis indicated that the males had a *P<0.05
significantly higher frequency use of the
Cognitive strategy with a mean rank of 61.30 In terms of the tertiary students’ LLS based on
for males and 47.70 for females ELP, the Kruskal Wallis H test was employed
(p=0.024<0.05). and the findings indicated that there was no
significant difference based on the respondents’
TABLE 4 LANGUAGE LEARNING ELP as HEP respondents had a 66.04 mean
STRATEGIES OF TERTIARY STUDENTS rank, IEP had a 50.33 mean rank and LEP had
BASED ON GENDER (n=108) a 53.54 mean rank (p=0.091>0.05).
Gender Mean Rank Sig.(2-tailed) TABLE 6 LANGUAGE LEARNING
Male 56.90 .425 STRATEGIES OF TERTIARY STUDENTS
BASED ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Female 52.10 PROFICIENCY (n=108)
Cognitive Strategy ELP Mean Rank Sig. (2-tailed)
Male 61.30 .024 Limited 53.54 .091
Female 47.70 Intermediate 50.33
*P<0.05 High 66.04
Furthermore, the findings for tertiary students’ *P<0.05
LLS based on discipline (Table 5) indicate that
no significant difference was displayed through During the interview sessions, the overall
the Mann Whitney U Test as the mean rank for findings indicated that most of the students
PS was 55.89 and for SS was 53.16 were not aware of LLS and how they can be
(p=0.651>0.05). However, the PS respondents’ helped as stated by Respondent 1/M/SS/HEP,
frequency use of the Cognitive strategy was 5/M/SS/LEP and 8/F/PS/HEP.
significantly higher than the SS respondents When the respondents were asked if they were
with a mean rank of 62.37 for PS and 46.92 for able to analyze, reason and conclude which
SS (p=0.10<0.05). were the sub-strategies for the Cognitive LLS,
a few pointed out that this was a challenge for
them. For example, Respondent 4 F/SS/IEP,
stated “I do have difficulty analyzing,
reasoning and concluding. Maybe it is because
of my field of study that I find it hard to do so”
This statement indicates that the female from
the SS discipline found it challenging to
6705 Journal of Positive School Psychology

employ the Cognitive LLS strategy and that it importance to critical reading skills….most of
may be because she was not a PS student. my course mates have trouble reading in
English…so I hope everyone of us will take the
C. Tertiary students’ challenges faced
initiative to improve our reading skills
based on Critical Reading Skills and Language
especially since we are in university”
Learning Strategies
12/F/PS/LEP.
The semi-structured interviews were conducted
with twelve (12) respondents to obtain their
perspectives on CRS and LLS. Based on the V. DISCUSSION
interviews, 83% of respondents agreed that
The results shows that the tertiary respondents’
CRS are important for their studies in
CRS level and frequency use of LLS are of
university regardless of the discipline. For
only low to moderate level indicating that
example Respondent 9/M/ PS/ IEP stressed
Malaysian students in universities do lack in
that, “I think it is very important for university
CRS and LLS and it aligns with findings from
students for each discipline to have critical
previous studies (Koo 2011, Thang & Azarina
reading skills especially after their studies as
2008, Nambiar 2007, Pandian 2007). Females
they are going to be global citizens and reading
scored a higher CRS level compared to males
and communication are going to be key in their
indicating that gender stereotypes in the
daily lives. I feel that in order for them to excel
education sector could exist as stated in the
in their career and life, critical reading skills are
GEM report and by Espinoza & Strasser
going to be very important” .
(2020). The SS respondents scored a higher
Moreover, 50% of the respondents claimed CRS level compared to PS respondents which
that they were not taught LLS in school and indicates that PS respondents lack CRS skills
those who were taught admitted that they were and this result aligns with the study conducted
only taught one out of the six strategies. This by Zin et al. (2014). There were no significant
was well articulated by Respondent differences based on CRS and the respondents’
2/F/SS/HEP when she said that “In school I ELP and this result was consistent with Yousefi
don’t think they asked us to even skim and & Mohammadi (2016) and Carson et al. (1990)
scan. We just go through with it…basically just as they claim that CRS are a set of skills to
read…My school didn’t even say analyse a text and can be employed for any
anything…just like stand up and read and that’s language thus ELP does not determine one’s
it…they didn’t teach us like any strategies or ability to critically read.
how to like highlight a point and so on”.
On the other hand, there was no significant
Moving on with more probing, approximately difference based on the overall LLS use based
58% of the respondents agreed that lecturers on gender but males employed significantly
and universities should conduct classes on higher Cognitive strategies compared to
CRS. One respondent stated “Universities or females. This result was consistent with a study
lecturers should take the initiative to have an by Ariyani et.al (2018) that males employ
extra English language class for the students to cognitive strategies the most compared to other
learn critical reading skilsl. This will make it strategies. Based on the overall LLS use and
easier and faster to learn the skills properly” discipline of study, there was no significant
11/M/PS/LEP. difference based on the overall LLS use based
on discipline however the PS respondents
All (100%) respondents agreed that CRS are employed the Cognitive strategies significantly
important for students at higher learning. higher than SS which aligns with a study
Many of them highlighted that CRS are reported by Afni et al. (2019) who stated that
important because it is needed for the PS respondents in their study employed the
understanding reading materials at the tertiary Cognitive strategies the most as well. On top of
level and workplaces as well. For example one that, the findings also revealed that there was
respondent felt that “Students must give more
Dineshwari Sundran 6706

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