Origins of Child Development Theories

6th - 15th centuries

Medieval period
 Preformationism: children seen as little adults.
 Childhood is not a unique phase.
 Children were cared for until they could begin caring for themselves, around
7 years old.
 Children treated as adults (e.g. their clothing, worked at adult jobs, could be
married, were made into kings, were imprisoned or hanged as adults.)

16th Century
Reformation period
 Puritan religion influenced how children were viewed.
 Children were born evil, and must be civilized.
 A goal emerged to raise children effectively.
 Special books were designed for children.

17th Century
Age of Enlightenment
 John Locke believed in tabula rasa
 Children develop in response to nurturing.
 Forerunner of behaviorism

18th Century
Age of Reason
 According to Jean-Jacques Rousseau, children were noble savages, born
with an innate sense of morality; the timing of growth should not be
interfered with.
 Rousseau used the idea of stages of development.
 Forerunner of maturationist beliefs

19th Century
Industrial Revolution
 Charles Darwin introduced theories of natural selection and survival of the
fittest
 Darwin made parallels between human prenatal growth and other animals.
 Forerunner of ethology
20th Century
Theories about children's development expanded around the world.
 Childhood was seen as worthy of special attention.
 Laws were passed to protect children

THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Psychoanalytical Theories

Beliefs focus on the formation of personality. According to this approach,

children move through various stages, confronting conflicts between biological
drives and social expectations.

Psychoanalytic Theory by Sigmund Freud

 Sigmund Freud is considered as the father of psychodynamic theory and

psychoanalytic therapy.
 The Psychoanalytic theory was utilized by Freud to describe the stages of
human development (Psychosexual Stages), explain the structure of
personality (Libido Theory) and as a therapeutic technique (free
association).
 Freud used structural, developmental, and motivational constructs to
describe the complexity of human personality functioning.
 Based on belief that a person’s behavior, whether appropriate or
inappropriate, is determined largely by underlying dynamic psychological
forces of which he or she is not consciously aware.
 As a result of these conflicts, abnormal symptoms may occur to the
individual if not resolved.
 Shaped by three UNCONSCIOUS forces:
o Id – guided by the Pleasure Principle
 Instinctual needs, drives, and impulses
 Sexual; fueled by libido (sexual energy)
o Ego – guided by the Reality Principle
 Seeks gratification, but guides us to know when we can and
cannot express our wishes
 Ego defense mechanisms protect us from anxiety
 o Superego – guided by the Morality Principle
 Conscience; unconsciously adopted from our parents
 The moral arm of personality
 These three parts of the personality are often in some degree of conflict
o A healthy personality is one in which compromise would exist among
the three forces
o If the id, ego, and superego are in excessive conflict, the person’s
behavior may show signs of dysfunction
 Developmental stages
o Freud proposed that at each stage of development, new events and
pressures require adjustment in the id, ego, and superego,
 If resolved successfully then personal growth occurs
 If unsuccessful, fixation at an early developmental stage,
leading to psychological abnormality
o Because parents are the key figures in early life, they are often seen as
factor that may cause improper development
o If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a
healthy personality.
o If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can
occur.
 A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage.
 Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck"
in this stage.
 The Psychosexual Stages of Development
o Oral
 Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
 Erogenous Zone: Mouth
 During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction
occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is
especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the
infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying
activities such as tasting and sucking.
 Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who
are responsible for feeding the child), the infant also develops a
sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.
 The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the
child must become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation
occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have
 issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result
in problems with drinking, eating, smoking or nail biting.

o Anal
 Age Range: 1 to 3 years
 Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
 During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of
the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements.
The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child has
to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this
control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
 According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the
way in which parents approach toilet training. Parents who
utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate
time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel
capable and productive. Freud believed that positive
experiences during this stage served as the basis for people to
become competent, productive and creative adults.
 However, not all parents provide the support and
encouragement that children need during this stage. Some
parents' instead punish, ridicule or shame a child for accidents.
According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result
in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too
lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality
could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful or
destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet
training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive
personality develops in which the individual is stringent,
orderly, rigid and obsessive.
o Phallic
 Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
 Erogenous Zone: Genitals
 During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on
the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the
differences between males and females.
 Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a
rival for the mother’s affections. The Oedipus complex
describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and
the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears
 that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear
Freud termed castration anxiety.
 The term Electra complex has been used to described a similar
set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however,
believed that girls instead experience penis envy.
 Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex
parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent.
For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never
fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on
this stage. Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this
theory, calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women.
Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings of
inferiority because they cannot give birth to children.
o Latency
 Age Range: 6 to Puberty
 Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
 During the latent period, the libido interests are suppressed. The
development of the ego and superego contribute to this period
of calm. The stage begins around the time that children enter
into school and become more concerned with peer
relationships, hobbies and other interests.
 The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual
energy is still present, but it is directed into other areas such as
intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is
important in the development of social and communication
skills and self-confidence.
o Genital
 Age Range: Puberty to Death
 Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
 During the final stage of psychosexual development, the
individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex.
This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of
a person's life.
 Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual
needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage.
If the other stages have been completed successfully, the
individual should now be well-balanced, warm and caring. The
goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various
life areas.
 Psychosocial Theory by Homburg E. Erikson

 Expanded on Freud's theories.

 Believed that development is life-long.
 Emphasized that at each stage, the child acquires attitudes and skills
resulting from the successful negotiation of the psychological conflict.
 Identified 8 stages:
o Stage 1 – Oral Sensory (birth to 1 year – infancy)
 basic conflict is trust vs. mistrust
 the important event is feeding and the important relationship is
with the mother
 the infant must develop a loving, trusting relationship with the
mother/caregiver through feeding, teething and comforting
 failure to resolve this conflict can lead to sensory distortion, and
withdrawal
o Stage 2 – Muscular-Anal (age 1 to 3 years – toddler)
 Basic conflict is autonomy vs. shame/doubt
 The important event is toilet training and the important
relationship is with the parents
 The child’s energy is directed towards mastering physical skills
such as walking, grasping and muscular control
 The child learns self control but may develop shame, doubt,
impulsivity or compulsion if not handled well
o Stage 3 – Locomotor (age 3 to 6 years – preschool)
 basic conflict is initiative vs. guilt
 the important event is independence and the important
relationship is family
 the child continues to become more assertive in exploration,
discovery, adventure and play
 the child may show too much force in this stage causing
feelings of guilt
 failure to resolve this conflict can lead to ruthlessness and
inhibition
o Stage 4 – Latency (age 6 to 12 years - school age)
 the basic conflict in this stage is industry vs. inferiority
 the important event is school and the important relationships
are teachers, friends and neighbourhood
  the child must learn to deal with new skills and develop a sense
of achievement and accomplishment
 failure to do so can create a sense of inferiority, failure and
incompetence

o Stage 5 – Adolescence (age 12 to 20 years – adolescent)

 the basic conflict is identity vs. role confusion
 the important event is development of peer relationships and
the important relationships are peers, groups and social
influences
 The teenager must achieve a sense of identity in occupation, sex
roles, politics and religion. In addition, they must resolve their
identity and direction.
 Failure to make these resolutions can lead to the repression of
aspects of the individual for the sake of others or fanaticism

o Stage 6 – Young Adulthood (age 20 to 40 years – Youth)

 The basic conflict in young adulthood is intimacy vs. isolation
 The important event is parenting and the important
relationships are lovers, friends and work connections
 The individual must develop intimate relationships through
work and social life
 Failure to make such connections can lead to promiscuity,
exclusivity and isolation

o Stage 7 – Middle Adulthood (age 40 to 65 years – Adults)

 The basic conflict is generativity vs. stagnation
 The important event is parenting and the important
relationships are with children and the community
 This stage is based on the idea that each adult must find a way
to satisfy, support and contribute to the next generation; it is
often thought of as giving back
 Failure to resolve this stage can lead to overextension or
rejectivity

o Stage 8 – Maturity (age 65 to death – Elderly)

 The basic conflict is ego integrity vs. despair
 The important event is reflection on and acceptance of the
individual’s life and important relationships is with
humankind
  The individual is creating meaning and purpose of one’s life
and reflecting on life achievements
 Failure to resolve this conflict can create feelings of disdain

Behavioral and Social Learning Theories

Beliefs that describe the importance of the environment and nurturing in the
growth of a child.

Classical Conditioning by Ivan Pavlov

 Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a

stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally
evoked by another stimulus.
 Classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal before a naturally
occurring reflex. In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal
was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in
response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus with the environmental
stimulus (the presentation of food), the sound of the tone alone could
produce the salivation response
 A process of learning by temporal association in which two events that
repeatedly occur close together in time become fused in a person’s mind and
produce the same response (Comer, 2004).
 Learning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus.

In his classic experiment with dogs, he measured the saliva secreted by the
animals when food was given (see Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1: Dog with tube inserted in its cheek. When the dog salivates, the saliva
is collected in the test tube and its quantity is recorded on the rotating drum

Step 1: Before Conditioning

He gave a hungry dog a bowl of food. The dog is hungry, the dog sees the
food and the dog salivates.

Food Salivation

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Unconditioned Response (UR)

This is a natural sequence of events, an unconscious, uncontrolled, and

unlearned relationship. Stimulus means something that is given to initiate a
response. So ‘Unconditioned Stimulus’ and ‘Unconditioned Response’ simply
means that the stimulus and the response are naturally connected. They just came
that way, hard wired into the brain of the organism. "Unconditioned" means that
this connection was already present in the dog before Pavlov began his
experiments.

Step 2: During Conditioning

Next, Pavlov, presented the hungry dog with food and simultaneously rang a bell,
and the dog salivated.

Food

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Salivation

Bell
Unconditioned Response (UR)
 Conditioning Stimulus (CS)

Step 3: After Conditioning

This time Pavlov rang only the bell at mealtime, but he did not show any
food. Guess what the dog did. Right.

Bell Salivation

Conditioning Stimulus (CS) Conditioning Response (CR)

The bell elicited the same response as the sight of the food gets. Over repeated
trials, the dog has LEARNED to associate the bell with the food. The bell has the
power to produce the same response as the food. In other words, the dog has been
conditioned to salivate when hearing the bell.

Operant Conditioning by B.F. Skinner

 Operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced.

 The idea is that if a behavior is rewarded, that behavior will be repeated.
 The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function
of change in overt behavior.
 Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events
(stimuli) that occur in the environment.
 Voluntary or automatic behavior is either strengthened or weakened by the
immediate presence of a reward or punishment (Skinner: 1968).
 There is significance attached to the organism, which is essentially active in
the environment in the emitting behavior.
 The job of the trainer is to ensure the right behavior is reinforced

Social Learning by Albert Bandura

  Bandura’s theory explains human behavior in terms of a continuous
reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental
determinants.
 Learning takes place both as a result of experienced responses and
vicariously through observing the effects on the social environment of other
people's behavior.
 Bandura (1969, 1976, 1977) considers four distinct components or sub-
processes:
o Attention
o Retention
o Motor reproduction
o Motivational processes.

Key Terms in Behavioristic Theories

 "Unconditioned" means unlearned, untaught, pre-existing, already-present-

before-we-got-there. "Conditioning" just means the opposite.
 An organism is capable of generalization, and able to generalize across
different stimuli that are different or nearly the same.
 The organism is capable of discrimination, and able to differentiate among
the different stimuli.
 Behaviorism: Psychology should not be concerned with the mind or mental
processes but should be concerned only with behavior.
 John Watson demonstrated that an emotion such as fear could be
‘transferred’ to an organism that originally that not have such a fear.
 Stimulus generalisation occurs when the organism responds to stimuli that
are similar or related.
 Extinction: A response gradually disappears when the stimulus is not applied
over a period of time.
 A behaviour reinforced by a pleasant consequence increases the probability
of that behaviour occurring in the future.
 A positive reinforcer is a stimulus that increases the probability of a
particular behaviour occurring in the future.
 A negative reinforcer is a stimulus when removed increases the probability
of a particular behaviour occurring in the future.
 Punishment decreases the probability of a behaviour occurring.
 Schedule of Reinforcement: Instead of rewarding a particular behaviour
every time it occurs, the behaviour is rewarded according to a predetermined
schedule.
  Shaping is a method of successive approximation which involves reinforcing
behaviour that is vaguely similar to the behaviour desired.

Learning is…
A search for meaning by the learner
Contextualized
An inherently social activity
Dialogic and recursive
The responsibility of the learner

Cognitive Stages of Development

The construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem

solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood.

Cognitive Theory of Development by Jean Piaget

 Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of a person's thought

processes.
 It also looks at how these thought processes influence how we understand
and interact with the world.
 Cognitive development accounts the steps and sequence of children's
intellectual development.
 Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) observed his
children (and their process of making sense of the world around them) and
eventually developed a four-stage model of how the mind processes new
information encountered.
 He posited that children progress through 4 stages and that they all do so in
the same order. These four stages are:
o Sensorimotor stage (Birth to 2 years old).
 The infant builds an understanding of himself or herself and
reality (and how things work) through interactions with the
environment.
 It is able to differentiate between itself and other objects.
 Learning takes place via assimilation (the organization of
information and absorbing it into existing schema) and
accommodation (when an object cannot be assimilated and the
schemata have to be modified to include the object.
o Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 4)
  The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs
concrete physical situations.
 Objects are classified in simple ways, especially by important
features.
o Concrete operations (ages 7 to 11).
 As physical experience accumulates, accomodation is
increased.
 The child begins to think abstractly and conceptualize, creating
logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences.
o Formal operations (beginning at ages 11 to 15).
 Cognition reaches its final form.
 By this stage, the person no longer requires concrete objects to
make rational judgments.
 He or she is capable of deductive and hypothetical reasoning.
His or her ability for abstract thinking is very similar to an
adult.
Key Concepts

Schemas – A schema describes both the mental and physical actions

involved in understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of
knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.

Assimilation – The process of taking in new information into our previously

existing schema's is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat
subjective, because we tend to modify experience or information somewhat
to fit in with our preexisting beliefs.

Accommodation – Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering

our existing schemas in light of new information, a process known as
accommodation. Accommodation involves altering existing schemas, or
ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may
also be developed during this process.

Equilibration – Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance

between assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved through a
mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress through the
stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance
between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior
to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain
how children are able to move from one stage of thought into the next.
 Cognitive Theory by Lev Vygotsky

 Vygotsky’s theory places a stronger emphasis on social interactions.

 Knowledge is not individually constructed, but co –constructed between
people.
 Language and communication play the most important role of cognitive
development – his primary concern dealing with nature, evaluation and the
transmission of human culture.
 Vygotsky identified three stages in children’s use of language:
o Language is primarily used for communication or as social speech.
o Children begin to use egocentric or private speech to regulate their
own thinking.
o Children use inner speech or verbal thoughts to guide their thinking
and actions.
 Vygotsky’s theory speech is an extremely important developmental
phenomenon as he believed that “children learn through conversations with
adults as the need to communicate with them presses the child to seek for the
adult meanings of things that are said” (Mason Timothy, 2006).
 Vygotsky’s term Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) was used to refer
the difference between what children can do on their own, and what they
could do with the assistance of others (Meece, 2002).
 The ZPD indicates what a child's level of mental development is at a
particular time (Galant, 2006).
 Vygotsky assumed that interactions with adults and peers in the zone of
proximal development help children move to higher levels of mental
functioning (Meece, 2002).
 Vygotsky believed that interactions with adults and peers in this zone helped
children move to higher levels of mental functioning within the classroom.
 Vygotsky’s theory is about guided discovery by having the teacher offer,
“intriguing questions to students and having them discover the answers
through testing hypotheses. The students are engaged in the discovery
process; however, they are still receiving assistance from a more
knowledgeable source” (Sample, 2006).
 Major Educational Contributions of Vygotsky’s theories are:
o Role of private speech in cognitive development.
o The importance of guided participation and scaffolding.
o The role of peer interactions in cognitive development (p. 159-161).
 Multiple Intelligences (MI) by Howard Gardner

 Gardner uses eight basic criteria to identify several different intelligences that
all humans have as part of their cerebral endowment.
 The eight intelligences identified by MI theory are Linguistic, Logical-
mathematical, Spatial, Kinesthetic, Musical, Naturalist, Interpersonal and
Intrapersonal.
 Each of the intelligence has its own memory system with cerebral structures
dedicated to processing its specific contents (Gardner, 1993).
o Linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences are most
often associated with academic accomplishment. The core features of
linguistic intelligence include the ability to use words effectively for reading,
writing and speaking. Linguistic skill is important for providing
explanations, descriptions and expressiveness.
o Logical-mathematical intelligence involves skill in calculations
as well as logical reasoning and problem-solving. People strong in this
intelligence are usually the ones who are described as being “smart” (e.g.,
mathematicians, philosophers, logicians). Logical-mathematical intelligence
is required for multi-step, complex problem-solving and mental math. Most
IQ tests assess a person’s ability to reason and problem-solve quickly, but do
not examine divergent and reflective aspects of Logical-mathematical
intelligence, such as the identification of novel problems or the generation of
new and worthy questions.
o Musical intelligence includes sensitivity to pitch, rhythm, and
timbre and the emotional aspects of sound as pertaining to the functional
areas of musical appreciation, singing, and playing an instrument.
o Kinaesthetic intelligence highlights the ability to use one's body
in differentiated ways for both expressive and goal-directed activities. Well-
developed kinaesthetic ability for innovative movement is required for
success in professions such as choreography, acting, and directing movies or
plays.
o Spatial intelligence includes the ability to perceive the visual
world accurately and to perform transformations and modifications upon
one's own initial perceptions via mental imagery.
o Naturalist intelligence displays empathy, recognition, and
understanding for living and natural things. Careers requiring strong
Naturalist skills include farmer, scientist, and animal behaviorist.
 o Functions important to Intrapersonal intelligence include
accurate self-appraisal, goal setting, self-monitoring/correction, and
emotional self-management.
o Interpersonal intelligence also plays a vital function in a
person’s sense of well-being. It promotes success in managing relationships
with other people. Its two central skills, the ability to notice and make
distinctions among other individuals and the ability to recognize the
emotions, moods, perspectives, and motivations of people, are known to be
critical factors in successful employment. The ability to manage groups of
people is required for managerial or leadership positions.

Brain-Based Learning (BBL) by D. Souza, N. Caine & G. Caine, E. Jensen

 This learning theory is based on the structure and function of the brain. As
long as the brain is not prohibited from fulfilling its normal processes,
learning will occur.
 People often say that everyone can learn. Yet the reality is that everyone
does learn.
 Every person is born with a brain that functions as an immensely powerful
processor. Traditional schooling, however, often inhibits learning by
discouraging, ignoring, or punishing the brain's natural learning processes.
 The core principles of brain-based learning state that:
1. The brain is a parallel processor, meaning it can
perform several activities at once
2. Le a r n i n g e n g a g e s t h e w h o l e p h y s i o l o g y .
3. T h e s e a r c h f o r m e a n i n g i s i n n a t e .
4. T h e s e a r c h f o r m e a n i n g c o m e s t h r o u g h
patterning.
5. E m o t i o n s a r e c r i t i c a l t o p a t t e r n i n g .
6. The brain processes wholes and parts simultaneously.
7. Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral
perception.
8. Learning involves both conscious and unconscious
processes.
9. We h a v e t w o t y p e s o f m e m o r y : s p a t i a l a n d r o t e .
10.We understand best when facts are embedded in natural, spatial
memory.
11.Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat.
 12.Each brain is unique.
 The three instructional techniques associated with brain-based learning are:
1. Orchestrated immersion
Creating learning environments that fully immerse students
inan educational experience
2. Relaxed alertness
Trying to eliminate fear in learners, while maintaining a highly
challenging environment
3. Active processing
Allowing the learner to consolidate and internalize information
by actively processing it

Humanistic and Phenomenological Theory by Carl Rogers

All children are intrinsically motivated to self actualize or learn. Learning is

dependent upon meeting a hierarchy of needs (physiological, psychological and
intellectual). Learning should be reinforced.

 Rogers viewed personality as an organism shaped by experiences that form a

phenomenal field of perception.
 Rogers described two needs as essential to well-being:
o The need for self-regard: an unconditional positive view of the self
o The need for self-actualization: a need to reach one’s full potential
 Rogers gave importance on being a Fully Functioning Person, he
maintained that to be fully functioning, one must:
• be open to experience
• live in the moment
• live life to the fullest
• trust own intuition

Theory of Human Motivation by Abraham Maslow

 He proposed the general characteristics of needs and develop it to be the

hierarch of needs.
 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs arranges five needs in order of relevance to
physical and psychological survival
 Lower needs (physical) are stronger and more tangible than higher needs
(psychological)
  Needs must be satisfied in hierarchical order with lower needs satisfied
before higher needs (e.g., food, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization)
 The Hierarchy of Needs
 The five needs in hierarchical order include:
• Physiological Needs (thirst, hunger, sex)
• Safety Needs (physical and emotional)
• Belonging and Love Needs (sustained intimacy)
• Esteem Needs (personal competence)
• Growth Needs (self-actualization- a process)

Theory of Moral Development

Moral Development Theory by Lawrence Kolhberg

• Kohlberg believed much of Piaget's theory but thought it should be extended

into adolescence and adulthood.
• Kolhberg believed that moral dilemma requires the individual to choose
between:
a. obeying a rule, law, or authority figure, or
b. taking some action which conflicts with these rules or commands
while serving the welfare of others.
• Kohlberg was less interested in what the subject's decision was, than in the
underlying rationale.
• Like Piaget, Kohlberg developed stages of Moral development which follow
some invariant sequence.
• Because each successive stage is built upon the foundation of an earlier one,
each stage must be followed in a particular order.
• According to Kohlberg, each stage represents a METHOD OF THINKING
about a moral dilemma rather than a particular TYPE of moral decision.
What is important is HOW they EXPLAINED their judgments.
• Kohlberg proposed 3 stages of moral development, with each stage
consisting of 2 distinct substages:

LEVEL 1: PRECONVENTION MORALITY

o Children conform to rules imposed by authority figures in order to
obtain rewards and avoid punishment. Moral decisions are based on
CONSEQUENCES of an act, not intentionality
 • Stage 1: punishment and obedience orientation
 Goodness or badness of an act is based on its consequences.
 The child will defer to authority figure and obey their
commands in order to avoid punishment. BUT there is no
true conception of rules, it is only bad if get caught.
• Stage 2: instrumental orientation
 person conforms to rules in order to gain rewards or to
satisfy personal needs,
 doing things for others is “right” if the actor will benefit in
the long run

LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL MORALITY

o The individual strives to obey the rules set forth by others in order to
win praise and recognition or to maintain social order.
 Stage 3: “Good-boy / good-girl” orientation
 moral behavior is that which pleases, helps, or is approved
by others
 actions are evaluated on the basis of intent
 one objective is to be thought of as a “nice” person
 Stage 4: Authority and social-order-maintaining morality
 Accepts and conforms to social rules and conventions
because of a belief that rules and laws maintain an order
which is judged good or moral.
 Law and order mentality

LEVEL 3: POST-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY

o Moral standards are internalized and become the person's own.
 Stage 5: Social contract morality.
 flexibility begins in moral reasoning
 moral actions are those that express the will of the
majority of individuals
 a sense of having to live up to the law, but an
understanding that laws can be wrong.
 Stage 6: Universal ethical principles
 “highest” stage of moral reasoning
 right and wrong defined on a personal belief or self-
chosen ethics
 belief in abstract principles which override all others
(life, liberty, equality)
  risk jail or social ostracism rather than violate
personal ethics
 This last stage is often considered to be a hypothetical
construct because very few people ever demonstrate
this level of “saintliness”.

Domain Theory by Elliot Turiel

• The child's concepts of morality and social convention emerge out of the
child's attempts to account for qualitatively differing forms of social
experience associated with these two classes of social events.
• Morality is structured by concepts of harm, welfare, and fairness.
• In contrast, actions that are matters of social convention have no intrinsic
interpersonal consequences.
• These conventions, while arbitrary in the sense that they have no intrinsic
status, are nonetheless important to the smooth functioning of any social group.
• Conventions provide a way for members of the group to coordinate their social
exchanges through a set of agreed upon and predictable modes of conduct.
• Concepts of convention are structured by the child's understandings of social
organization.

Gender and Moral Development by Carol Gilligan

• Gilligan suggests that women are trained to be more interpersonal-bound
whereas men are raised to be more rule-bound.
• MAN: world held together by a system of rules and consensus
• WOMAN: world held together by human relationships and caring
• Dilemmas can be resolved through LOGIC.
• Women are not more or less moral than men, they are different in morals as
compared with men.
• Came up with 3 levels of moral development.
 LEVEL 1: Orientation to individual survival
• TRANSITION 1: selfishness to responsibility
• conflict arises between their own wants and what
is ”right” Transitional conflict between selfishness
and responsibility necessary to move on.
LEVEL 2: Goodness as self-sacrifice
• TRANSITION 2: goodness to truth
• question logic of self sacrifice. In spite of
consequences, it is not always right to hurt oneself
in the name of morality
LEVEL 3: Morality of non-violence
• An injunction against hurting becomes the basic premise
underlying all moral judgments. Looking after the welfare of
people is now self-chosen and UNIVERSAL obligation.
Personal and interpersonal obligations are noted.

Attachment Theory

 John Bowlby applied ethological principles to his theory of attachment.

 An enduring emotional tie to a special person, characterized by a tendency to
seek and maintain closeness, especially during times of stress.
 John Bowlby applied ethology to infants
 Infant’s innate behaviors are evolved responses which promote survival
 Importance of Attachment
o Implications for infant's sense of security
o Affects internal working model
o Freud, Erikson, Behaviorists described its impact on development
 Bowlby’s Four Stages of Attachment
o Preattachment phase
 Birth - 6 weeks
 Baby’s innate signals attract caregiver
 Caregivers remain close by when the baby responds positively
 o Attachment in the Making
 6 wks to 6-8 months
 Develops a sense of trust that caregiver will respond when
signaled
 Infants respond more positively to familiar caregiver
 Babies don't protest when separated from parent
o Clear-cut Attachment
 6-8 months to 18-24 months
 Babies display separation anxiety
 Babies protest when parent leaves
o Formation of Reciprocal Relationship
 18 mo - 2yrs
 Toddlers increase their understanding of symbols and language
improves
 Toddlers understand that parents will return
 Factors which Affect Attachment
o Opportunity for attachment
o Quality of caregiving
o Respond promptly and consistently
o Interactional synchrony – the sensitively tuned “emotional dance”
o Infant characteristics
 infant's temperament, special needs, prematurity, or illnesses
o Family circumstances
o Stress can undermine attachment
o Parents’ internal working models
o Parents’ own attachment experiences
o Parents’ ability to accept their past
 Attached infant will:
o Use mother as a secure base
o Be soothed by the mother during the reunion

 Secure attachment
o Uses caregiver as a secure base
o May show distress at separation, but the baby can be soothed at
reunion
 Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
o Unresponsive to parent when she is present
o Not distressed by parting
 o Avoids or slow to greet parent on return
 Insecure-Resistant Attachment
o Infants remain close to parents and not eager to explore
o Distressed by separation
o During reunion, infants are both clingy and resistant

 Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment
o No coherent strategy for handling separations or reunions
o Baby looks dazed and confused

 Attachment between an infant and her caregiver can insure the infant’s
survival.

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