MODULE 3

DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

Overview

The educational trend brought out by a number of ground – breaking researches tells
that one can be an effective facilitator of learning if one has a good working knowledge of the
learners’ development. This module aims to help think about and review the theories on
learning.

Advance Organizer

Freud Components of Erikson Pyscho – social Piaget Stages of

Personality/Psychosexual Stages of Development Cognitive Development
Stages of Development
Theories Related to the
Learners’ Development

Kohlberg Stages
Vygotsky andon Language
Theory Bronfenbrener Bio –
Suband
stages
ZoneofofMoral
Proximal Ecological Systems
Development
Development

Learning Objectives/Learning Outcomes

In this chapter, students should be challenged to:

1. Explain the salient concepts and principles of the major development theories;
2. Demonstrate appreciation of how these theories provide a framework for understanding
learners; and
3. Apply these theories to teaching – learning situations.

Topics

Freud Components of Personality/Psychosexual Stages of Development

How does personality develop? According to the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud,

children go through a series of psychosexual stages that lead to the development of the adult
personality. His theory described how personality developed over the course of childhood.
 One important thing to note is that contemporary psychoanalytic theories of personality
development have incorporated and emphasized ideas about internalized relationships and
interactions and the complex ways in which we maintain our sense of self into the models that
began with Freud.

Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which
the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An
erogenous zone is characterized as an area of the body that is particularly sensitive to
stimulation.

During the five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital
stages, the erogenous zone associated with each stage serves as a source of pleasure.

The psychosexual energy, or libido was described as the driving force behind behavior.

Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of

five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence
behavior later in life.

Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth or stifle
development, depending upon how they are resolved. If these psychosexual stages are
completed successfully, a healthy personality is the result.

If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A fixation
is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the
individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A person who is fixated at the oral stage, for example,
may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or
eating.

Sigmund Freud's Remarkable Life and Legacy in Psychology

The Oral Stage

Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating,
and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting
and sucking.

Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for
feeding the child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral
stimulation.

The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less
dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would
have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking,
eating, smoking, or nail-biting.
Trust vs. Mistrust: Learning to Trust the World Around Us

The Anal Stage

Age Range: 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training—the
child has to learn to control their bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of
accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parent’s
approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the
appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive.

Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet training stage serve as the
basis for people to become competent, productive and creative adults.

However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need
during this stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents.

According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If

parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive
personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive
personality.

If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-
retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The Phallic Stage

Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
Erogenous Zone: Genitals

Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the
genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and
females.

Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s
affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and
the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the
father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.

The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings

experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.

Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same – sex parent as means of
vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was
never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage.
 Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate and
demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority
because they cannot give birth to children, a concept she referred to as womb envy.

Initiative vs. Guilt: Developing a Sense of Purpose

The Latent Period

Age Range: 6 to Puberty
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are
suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults
outside of the family.

The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage

begins around the time that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer
relationships, hobbies, and other interests.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed or
dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual
pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and
communication skills and self-confidence.

As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for children to
become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an
inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

Industry vs. Inferiority During Child Development

The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final
stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the
opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.

Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare
of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the
various life areas.

If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well
– balanced, warm, and caring.

Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego and
superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id,
which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants.

Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic urges
against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.
Erikson Pyscho – social Stages of Development

Erik Erikson is one name you might notice come up again and again in the parenting
magazines you leaf through. Erikson was a developmental psychologist who specialized in child
psychoanalysis and was best known for his theory of psychosocial development.

Psychosocial development is just a fancy phrase that refers to how a person’s individual
needs (psycho) mesh with the needs or demands of society (social).

According to Erikson, a person passes through eight developmental stages that build on
each other. At each stage we face a crisis. By resolving the crisis, we develop psychological
strengths or character traits that help us become confident and healthy people.

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development gives us a way to view the development of

a person through an entire lifespan. But like all theories, it has its limitations: Erikson doesn’t
describe the exact way that conflicts are resolved. Neither does he detail how you move from
one stage to the next.

Regardless, as you read through the stages below, you may find yourself nodding in
agreement when you recognize yourself — or your child.

Stage 1: Trust vs. mistrust

Birth to 12–18 months old

The first stage of Erikson’s theory begins at birth and lasts until your baby approaches
their first birthday and a little beyond.

You’ve probably noticed that your little one’s totally dependent on you for everything:
food, warmth, comfort. Be there for your baby by giving them not only physical care, but also
plenty of love — no need to hold back the cuddles.

By providing these basic needs, you teach them that they can depend on you. This
builds within them the psychological strength of trust. Feeling secure and safe, your infant will
be ready to experience the world.

What happens when you slip up? Maybe you yell once in a while. Or you don’t want to
read another bedtime story. Don’t worry: Erikson acknowledges that we’re only human.

No infant grows up in a perfect world. Occasional turbulence gives your child a touch of
wariness. With this, when they’re ready to experience the world, they’ll keep an eye out for
obstacles.

But what happens when parents are consistently unpredictable and unreliable? Children
whose needs aren’t met will look at the world with anxiety, fear, and mistrust.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

18 months to 3 years old

 You know that you’ve hit this milestone when your toddler starts to assert their
independence. They realize that they can do some things by themselves — and they insist on
those things.

Pro tip: Instead of worrying if day care will question your ability to parent because your
toddler is wearing their shoes on the wrong feet — after putting them on themselves — be wise
and let them go out like this.

By this stage, your toddler has food preferences. So let them choose their own snacks.
Or let them choose which shirt they want to wear. (Survival tip: Give them two shirts to pick
from.) Sure, there’ll be times when their clothes just don’t match. Grin and bear it because
giving them the space to choose means helping them build their self-esteem.

Here’s another biggie: Your toddler is ready for toilet training. Learning to control their
bodily functions gives them a feeling of independence or autonomy.

Children who come through this stage with flying colors will believe in themselves and
feel secure in their abilities. Children who aren’t given the chance to assert themselves (within
the limits you set) will battle with feelings of inadequacy and self-doubt, according to Erikson.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. guilt

3 to 5 years old

These are the preschool years. As your child interacts socially and plays with others,
they learn that they can take the initiative and control what happens.

You can encourage your child to plan, achieve goals, and take responsibility by making
sure they have plenty of opportunities to interact with others. Let them explore the world within
the limits you set up. Take them to visit older adults and give out chocolates. Set up playdates
for them with their peers.

And don’t forget that you can be a playmate, too. Give your child a chance to direct the
show by letting them be the teacher, doctor, or sales clerk while you act the student, patient, or
customer.

Here’s when your child starts asking endless questions. Sometimes your miniature
philosopher will wonder where dogs go after they die when you’ve just settled down to watch the
show you missed because you took them to a second playdate. Breathe in. By addressing these
questions with genuine interest, you’re investing in your child’s positive self-image.

This stage is about much more than just calling the shots. Through both interacting with
others socially and through play, your child develops self-confidence and learns to enjoy having
a sense of purpose.

However, if parents are controlling or don’t support their child when they make decisions,
the child may not be equipped to take the initiative, may lack ambition, and could be filled with
guilt. Overpowering feelings of guilt can prevent a child from interacting with others and deter
their creativity.

Stage 4: Industry vs. inferiority

5 to 12 years old

Your child has hit elementary school. Here’s where they learn new skills. It’s also where
their circle of influence widens.

Your child has plenty of teachers and peers. They may start comparing themselves to
others. If they decide that they’re doing well scholastically, on the sports field, at the arts, or
socially, your child will develop feelings of pride and accomplishment. (Watch out: They’ll also
be comparing their family to other families.)

If you notice that your child struggles in one area, look for another area in which they can
shine. Help your kiddo develop their strengths in areas where they have a natural flair.

They may not be math whizzes, but perhaps they can draw or sing. Are they naturally
patient with younger kids? Let them help out with taking care of their siblings.

When your child succeeds, they’ll feel industrious and believe they can set goals — and
reach them. However, if children have repeated negative experiences at home or feel that
society is too demanding, they may develop feelings of inferiority.

Stage 5: Identity vs. confusion

12 to 18 years old

Adolescence. Here’s your chance to revamp the deep breathing skills you developed
when your child was a toddler.

At this psychosocial development stage, your child faces the challenge of developing a

sense of self. They form their identity by examining their beliefs, goals, and values.

The questions they face aren’t easy to answer: “Who am I?”, “What do I want to work
as?”, “How do I fit into society?” Throw into all this confusion the question of “What’s happening
to my body?” and you’ll probably remember the turmoil that you felt during adolescence. On
their journey to self, most adolescents will explore different roles and ideas.

How can you help your adolescent successfully resolve this psychosocial conflict?

While Erikson isn’t clear, know that the encouragement and reinforcement you give your
child are vital to shaping their personal identity. In addition, your child’s experiences and social
interactions mold their behavior and ideals.

Adolescents who successfully weather this crisis will come away with a strong sense of
identity. They’ll be able to uphold these values despite the challenges that they’ll face in the
future.
 But when adolescents don’t search for their identity, they may not develop a strong
sense of self and won’t have a clear picture of their future. The same confusion may reign
supreme if you, as their parent, try to pressure them to conform to your own values and beliefs.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. isolation

18 to 40 years old

This is where you probably start nodding as you recognize yourself. Remember we said
that each stage builds on the next? People with a strong sense of identity are now ready to
share their lives with others.

This is the time to invest in commitment to others. The psychosocial challenge now —
according to Erikson — is to build long-term loving relationships that feel safe.

When people complete this stage successfully, they come away with safe relationships
filled with commitment and love.

People who didn’t manage to complete the previous stage successfully and don’t have a
strong sense of identity are generally unable to build committed relationships, according to this
theory.

Lacking the security and warmth of a loving relationship, they’re more likely to
experience loneliness and depression.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. stagnation

40 to 65 years old

This seventh stage is characterized by a need to give to others. On the home front, this
means raising your children. It can also mean contributing to community charities and events
that better society.

On the work front, people strive to do well and to be productive. Don’t stress if you can’t
find the time to fit it all in — you may just have to wait awhile till the little people in your house
are no longer quite so demanding.

People who complete this stage successfully have the satisfaction of knowing that you’re
needed. They feel that they’re contributing to their families and community and work place.

Without the positive feedback in these areas, though, people may experience
stagnation. Frustrated that they’re unable to raise a family, succeed at work, or contribute to
society, they may feel disconnected. They may not feel motivated to invest in personal growth or
in productivity.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. despair

Over 65 years old

 This is the stage of reflection. During late adulthood, when the pace of life slows down,
people look back on their lives to assess what they’ve achieved. People who are proud of what
they’ve done experience genuine satisfaction.

However, people who didn’t complete the previous stages may have feelings of loss and
regret. If they see their lives as unproductive, they become dissatisfied and depressed.

Interestingly, this last stage, according to Erikson, is one of flux. People often alternate
between feelings of satisfaction and regret. Looking back on life to get a sense of closure can
help to face death without fear.

Summary of Erikson’s stages

Stage Conflict Age Desired outcome

Birth to 12–18
1 Trust vs. mistrust A sense of trust and security
months

Autonomy vs. shame 18 months to 3 Feelings of independence lead to belief in

2
& doubt years yourself and your abilities

Self-confidence; the ability to take the

3 Initiative vs. guilt 3 to 5 years
initiative and make decisions

Industry vs.
4 5 to 12 years Feelings of pride and accomplishment
inferiority

A strong sense of identity; a clear picture of

5 Identity vs. confusion 12 to 18 years
your future

Safe relationships filled with commitment

6 Intimacy vs. isolation 18 to 40 years
and love

Generativity vs. The desire to give to family and

7 40 to 65 years
stagnation community, and to succeed at work

Pride in what you’ve achieved leads to

8 Integrity vs. despair Over 65 years
feelings of satisfaction

Piaget Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how
children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's
stages are:

 Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
  Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like
little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As
kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon
existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

The Stages

Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual

development that included four distinct stages:

The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations.
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking
and listening.
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot see (Object
Permanence).
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them.
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them.

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire
knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience
at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.

It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic growth
and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they are continually making new
discoveries about how the world works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively
short period of time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform
physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about language from
the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage down into a number of different
sub stages. It is during the final part of the sensorimotor stage that early representational
thought emerges.

Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the

understanding that objects continue to exist when they cannot be seen, was an important
element at this point of development.

By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an
existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach
names and words to objects.

The Preoperational Stage

 Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and developmental Changes:

 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent
objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about
things in very concrete terms

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous
stage, but it is emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational
stage of development.

Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development,
yet continue to think very concretely about the world around them.

At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the
point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.
For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then
give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a
compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat
shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though the two
pieces are exactly the same size.

The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 to 11 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

 During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a
short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general
principle.

While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in
development, they become more adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the previous stage
begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how people might view a situation.

While thinking becomes much logical during the concrete operational state, it can also
be very rigid kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical
concepts.

During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how
other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to
understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares
their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.
The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and up

Major Characteristics and Development Changes

 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems.
 Abstract thought emerges.
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social and political issues
that require theoretical and abstract reasoning.
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information.

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use
deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas.3 At this point, people become
capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the
world around them.

The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the
formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the
future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this
stage.

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a
quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their
existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is
a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four stages.
A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did at age 2; there
is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.

Kohlberg Stages and Substages of Moral Development

Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and

post-conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral
development.

Level 1: Preconventional

Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled.

Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers.  A child
with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions
regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that
certain actions may bring.

Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation
 Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For
example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the
worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be.

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is defined
by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a
limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it might further the individual’s
own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but
rather a “you scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours” mentality. An example would be when a
child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it for me?” and the parents
offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.

Level 2: Conventional

Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and
societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now
due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order.
Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s
appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.

Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval. Emphasis
is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying
rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important. Moral reasoning
in stage four is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three. If one person
violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws
and rules. Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still
predominantly dictated by an outside force.

Level 3: Postconventional

Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms

of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and
should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals
are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their
own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—principles that
typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful
but changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be obeyed without
question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a
situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be
confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that
many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.

Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such
perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are
regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general
welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number
of people. This is achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic
government is theoretically based on stage five reasoning.

Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation

In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical

principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas
such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice,
and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. People choose
the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty. In
this way, the individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not because he or she
wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously
agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify
individuals who consistently operated at that level.

Vygotsky Theory on Language and Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky created the concept of the zone of proximal development, often abbreviated as
ZPD, which came to be a central part of his theory. Language is the way that a child
communicates with others after they are born and they continue to learn by interacting with
those around them. Building on his idea of social interaction as the basis for learning, he
broached the value of a mentor or teacher in the life of a student.
 Vygotsky declared some controversial statements that went against prominent
educational research at the time. He dismissed the idea that there was no ideal age for learning
and instead introduced ideal stages for learning, a similar opinion as Piaget. He also explained
that the cognitive growth increased less for students with a higher intelligence than a lower
intelligence when they entered school. He coined this term relative achievement, a method that
highlights the departure point of student learning and not just the end result. This led Vygotsky
into the idea of the ‘zone of proximal development,’ as it assessed the change in cognitive
development of students and not just the final outcome. Students benefit directly from the social
interactions in class, and ideally, reach their learning potential with the help of their teacher.

Vygotsky consistently defines the zone of proximal development as the difference

between the current level of cognitive development and the potential level of cognitive
development. He maintains that a student is able to reach their learning goal by completing
problem-solving tasks with their teacher or engaging with more competent peers. Vygotsky
believed that a student would not be able to reach the same level of learning by working alone.
As a student leaves his zone of current development, he travels through the zone of proximal
development towards his learning goal.

The zone of proximal development consists of two important components: the student’s
potential development and the role of interaction with others. Learning occurs in the zone of
proximal development after the identification of current knowledge. The potential development is
simply what the student is capable of learning.

Scaffolding

To help learners achieve independence, Vygotsky outlined scaffolding as a tool for

growth. Learners complete small, manageable steps in order to reach the goal. Working in
collaboration with a skilled instructor or more knowledgeable peers help students make
connections between concepts.
 As learners grow within their zone of proximal development and become more confident,
they practice new tasks with the social support that surrounds them. Vygotsky maintains that
learning occurs through purposeful, meaningful interactions with others.

How Vygotsky Impacts Learning

Many psychologists, including Piaget and Bandura, have assessed the cultural influences

on learning, however, only Vygotsky claims that they are inherently woven together. He felt that
studies should be analyzing the individual within the society and not the individual itself. Only
then could you observe the level of growth, as it is social interaction itself that promotes mental
development. While morals, values, and thoughts are believed to be influenced by society, the
process of learning is not seen as something that is mimicked. Vygotsky outlined that
interactions with others created growth by making connections between concepts. To
summarize, Vygotsky’s views on cognitive development can be grouped into four main points,
outlined as follows:

 the relationship between the student and the teacher is central to learning;
 society and culture influence the attitudes and beliefs of a student towards learning and
education;
 language is the primary tool used in the development of learning in children, including
the transfer of sociocultural influences; and
 students benefit greatly in programs that are student-led, as they can use the social
interaction to grow towards their potential level of development.

Curriculum – Learning goals and curriculum outlines should be designed around social
interaction between students and tasks.

Instruction – The idea of scaffolding is the basis of instruction. Students can achieve their
learning potential with guided instruction from their teacher. The teacher constantly reassesses
the levels of achievement of the student and creates the next task as a building block to the
goal. As an added benefit, the student also learns problem-solving skills from performing leveled
tasks on their own.

Assessment – Evaluations are catered to each student based on their zone of proximal
development. As teachers strive to see the potential level of cognitive development in all
students, assessments must cover a range of abilities. Some students may achieve a higher
level with support from their teacher than others.

On a more practical note, many wonder how this type of learning can be implemented in
schools. Scaffolding seems to be a cycle – the teacher is constantly evaluating the progress of a
student throughout a learning activity and consistently responding according to their needs. This
means that the teacher adjusts the difficulty of the tasks and learning goals in order for the
student to meet the expectations. The zone of proximal development indicates the level of task
that the student can accomplish independently, which, in turn, demonstrates the actual activity
that can be accomplished with guided support from the teacher. As they create learning goals,
teachers must keep in mind the fact that each student will have unique personality traits that will
affect their zones.
 To summarize, students require many opportunities to demonstrate their point of
learning in order for the teacher to create the next steps and support each need. The gradual
release of responsibility, which we know as scaffolding, allows students to gain independence in
learning tasks as they reach their goals. The teacher begins by offering a strong presence and
close guidance; this may include demonstrations, facilitating activities, or explicit teaching of
ideas. As the student moves through the zone of proximal development towards the goal, the
teacher gradually releases control to the student as they approach their level of potential
learning. The tasks become progressively more difficult as the student gains more knowledge
and comes closer to reaching their potential level of cognitive development. Some suggest that
all tasks should be on the higher end towards the optimal level of the zone of proximal
development in order to main the interest of the student. Scaffolding is used as a tool to achieve
the potential learning outcomes of a student.

The question remains then: is the theoretical idea of zones of proximal development
really that different from what experienced teachers do in the classroom? Vygotsky’s theory is
centered on the idea that social interaction is critical to cognitive development. With the
exception of some large classes, students actively engage with their teacher and with each
other. Collaborating with peers is encouraged but cannot be over-used, as it may actually cause
stagnant growth in some cases. Additionally, the teacher is the most educated on the learning
process, automatically assessing many factors related to the student’s potential growth.

Language tasks in education are still the best indicator in cognitive development. Such
activities allow chain reactions to occur that begin with solid communication skills, lead to
clarification of inner speech and continues with growth in thought patterns. However, one must
not view language activities as exclusive: it does not mean that a student possesses a low level
of cognitive ability if they are unable to orally express themselves. Language is complex, and
some do not grasp the subtle meanings present in communication. Other types of intelligence,
such a musical and bodily-kinesthetic, are not necessarily compatible with learning-centered on
language. It is important to note, however, that early development of language offers an
advantage to children in our society, as it offers favoritism towards other educational skills.

Currently, the value of educational software has been inconsistent in relation to

Vygotsky’s theory. As there is such a broad variance in computer-based programs available, it
is challenging to evaluate its effect on learning. Social interaction looks different when on a
computer; now students may be interacting with a human-like software program. Some artificial
intelligence systems offer great responses to questions and misunderstandings, but others are
not as advanced. There is great hope that a sophisticated program could assess a student’s
zone of proximal development and respond appropriately, but for now, the wide range of
programs available are too unpredictable.

Vygotsky made it his mission to analyze the effects of socialization of cognitive

development. We can see how language is the central approach of his theory, and how the
cultural and societal relationships affect learning. In real-life applications, we discussed the
utilization of the zone of proximal development by the teacher, which also emphasizes the need
for student-directed learning in the educational system. As we move towards remote learning
and computer-based applications, we need to evaluate the impact of the social world and the
attention required for students.
Bronfenbrener Bio – Ecological Systems

Urie Bronfenbrenner's theory on how the social environment affects human development
has had a far-reaching impact on psychological research. His theory isn't perfect, but it’s one of
the best explanations we have on the subject. Keep reading to learn about why this theory is so
important.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system theory is one of the most accepted explanations

regarding the influence of social environments on human development. This theory argues that
the environment you grew up in affects every facet of your life. Social factors determine your way
of thinking, the emotions you feel, and your likes and dislikes.

From the beginning, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory has been a starting
point for researchers in many different disciplines. For example, developmental psychology and
sociology draw directly from this theory. Bronfenbrenner shared his idea with the world for the
first time in 1979 in his book titled The Ecology of Human Development.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

Urie Bronfencrenner notices that a child’s nature depends on the context they grew up in.
Thus, he decided to study what factors had the most effect on childhood development.
Bronfenbrenner considered that the environment was made up of four interrelated systems. He
added a fifth system later on in his career.
 Because the five systems are interrelated, the influence of one system on a child’s
development depends on its relationship with the others. Bronfenbrenner organized them in
order of how much of an impact they have on a child.

If you change your environment, you’ll change. If you move to another country with a
different culture, your identity will certainly change. The same can happen if your social role
within one of the systems changes.

Here are the five systems of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory:

1. Microsystem

The microsystem is made up of the groups that have direct contact with the child. Family
and school are some of the most important ones, although there can be many other groups. The
relationship between this system and a child’s development is obvious. However, the influence
can go both ways.

The parents’ beliefs certainly affect who the child will end up becoming. But the child is
also capable of changing their family members’ beliefs as well. The same thing happens at
school and all the other groups that make up the microsystem.

2. Mesosystem

The second system in Bronfenbrenner’s theory is made up of the relationships between

the groups from the first system. The parent – teacher relationship, for example, has a direct
impact on the child.

3. Exosystem

The third level also involves factors that affect a child’s life. However, the elements of this
system don’t have a direct relationship with them. One example of exosystem would be the
company where the child’s parents work. This would affect the parent’s point of view, how much
free time have, and their well-being. Consequently, the company impacts the child’s
development as well.

4. Macrosystem

It contains those cultural elements that affect the child and everyone around them. A
couple of examples would be cultural values or an official region.

In this case, the macrosystem influences development because it determines how the
other systems can express themselves. Again, this is a case of indirect influence. It affects
development because it changes the groups that directly affect the child.

5. Chronosystem

Bronfenbrenner added this system to his theory later on. It refers to the stage of life that
the person is in regarding the situations they’re going through. For example, the death of a loved
one has a very different impact on a young person as opposed to an elderly person.
 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory isn’t perfect, but you can apply it to
numerous field of study. In spite of the fact that it doesn’t take biological factors into account, it’s
one of the best explanations regarding the influence of social environment on an individual’s life.

Activity

Chapter Exercise

Identify one concept from the theories reviewed and describe how this can be applied in
teaching and learning.

Theory/Concept Application

Action Station: Developing Students Casebook

Teacher Ann is an elementary teacher at the public school. One day she observes that Lina, a
grade 4 student became hesitant to recite and prefers to stay out of the group that her
classmates have. Base on the theories on developmental growth relate Lina’s behavior.
Freud Components of Personality/Psychosexual Stages of Development

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Erikson Pyscho – Social Stages of Development

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Piaget Stages of Cognitive Development

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Kohlberg Stages and Substages of Moral Development

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
 ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Vygotsky Theory on Language and Zone of Proximal Development

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Bronfenbrener Bio – Ecological Systems

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Reflective Activities

From the review of theories related to learners’ development. I realize that………

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
 _________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

References

https://www.verywellmind.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-2795962

https://www.healthline.com/health/parenting/erikson-stages#8-reflection

https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/kohlbergs-stages-of-moral-
development/

https://educationaltechnology.net/vygotskys-zone-of-proximal-development-and-scaffolding/

https://exploringyourmind.com/bronfenbrenners-ecological-systems-theory/