MASTER OF SCIENCE MATHEMATICS

Semester – I

Course Code PGMAT101

Advanced Abstract Algebra

Unit –1: Quotient groups- Fundamental theorem of
homomorphism.
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Preface

The unit on "Quotient Groups - Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism" within

the advanced abstract algebra component of the MSc Mathematics program
delves into profound concepts in group theory. This unit is a crucial exploration
into the fundamental principles that underlie the structure and behavior of groups,
emphasizing quotient groups and the powerful Fundamental Theorem of
Homomorphism.

Beginning with a foundational understanding of groups, this unit introduces the

concept of quotient groups, which serve as a mechanism for understanding group
structures in a more refined manner. The exploration extends to the Fundamental
Theorem of Homomorphism, a key result that establishes a profound connection
between group homomorphisms and the structure of quotient groups.

Throughout the unit, students will explore the properties and applications of
quotient groups, gaining insights into the algebraic structures that emerge when
considering groups modulo a normal subgroup. The Fundamental Theorem of
Homomorphism becomes a central theme, illuminating the relationships between
groups, normal subgroups, and quotient groups.
Table of Content

Learning Objectives………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………….1
Introduction ................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Review of Group Theory Fundamentals ................................................. 3
1.2 Quotient Groups .................................................................................... 4
1.3 Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphisms ........................................ 14
1.4 Summary ............................................................................................. 25
1.5 Review Questions ................................................................................ 27
1.6 Keywords ............................................................................................. 28
1.7 References ........................................................................................... 29
Learning Objectives

After studying this unit, the student will be able to:

• Understand the concept of quotient groups and their role in abstract

algebra.
• Explore the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism and its significance
in group theory.
• Investigate the properties and structure of quotient groups.
• Study the relationship between normal subgroups and quotient groups.
• Analyze the factor group construction and its application to group
homomorphisms.
• Explore the isomorphism theorems for groups and their implications.
• Understand the concept of factor group isomorphism and its role in
simplifying group structures.
• Solve problems involving quotient groups and homomorphisms in abstract
algebra.
• Apply the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism to analyze group
structures.
• Develop proficiency in proving results related to quotient groups and
homomorphisms.

1
Introduction

In the intricate tapestry of advanced abstract algebra, the exploration of quotient

groups and the profound insights derived from the Fundamental Theorem of
Homomorphism constitutes a pivotal cornerstone. As we delve into the first unit of
our MSc mathematics program, we embark upon a journey that transcends the
rudimentary realms of algebraic structures and ventures into the nuanced and
profound domain of quotient groups.

Quotient Groups:

The foundation of this unit rests upon the concept of quotient groups, a
sophisticated abstraction that arises from the fusion of group theory and set
theory. In essence, a quotient group encapsulates the notion of partitioning a
group by an equivalence relation, paving the way for a profound understanding of
the structural intricacies inherent in algebraic systems. Through meticulous
exploration, we aim to unravel the underlying principles governing the formation
and properties of quotient groups, providing a framework to analyze and
comprehend the algebraic landscape with heightened precision.

Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism:

Central to our study is the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism, an elegant

theorem that establishes a profound connection between the structure of groups
and the homomorphisms that interlink them. This theorem not only serves as a
bridge between abstract algebraic concepts but also unveils a deeper
understanding of the relationships that exist within algebraic structures. Through a
rigorous examination of the theorem, we shall decipher its implications, exploring
how homomorphisms can be leveraged to reveal essential structural insights and
relationships between groups.

Learning Objectives:

Our journey through this unit is guided by specific learning objectives. Firstly, we
seek to comprehend the fundamental principles that underlie the formation and

2
properties of quotient groups. This involves a detailed investigation into the
construction of quotient groups, the impact of the choice of equivalence relation,
and the interplay between subgroup structure and quotient group properties.
Subsequently, our focus shifts towards the exploration of the Fundamental
Theorem of Homomorphism, delving into its mathematical nuances and practical
applications in elucidating the relationships between groups.

Importance in Mathematics:

The significance of quotient groups and the Fundamental Theorem of

Homomorphism reverberates across various mathematical disciplines. From
algebraic structures to mathematical logic, these concepts find applications in
diverse fields, underscoring their foundational role in modern mathematics.
Mastery of these concepts not only equips mathematicians with powerful
analytical tools but also enhances their ability to discern and decipher complex
mathematical structures.

As we embark on this intellectual expedition into the heart of advanced abstract

algebra, the study of quotient groups and the Fundamental Theorem of
Homomorphism promises to be both intellectually stimulating and practically
enriching. Through meticulous exploration and rigorous inquiry, we aim not only to
grasp the formalisms but also to appreciate the intrinsic beauty and
interconnectedness that these concepts bring to the realm of abstract algebra.

1.1 Review of Group Theory Fundamentals

Group theory is a fundamental branch of abstract algebra that studies the

algebraic structures known as groups. A group is a set equipped with an operation
satisfying certain axioms. In this review, we will revisit some fundamental concepts
and theorems in group theory.

Definition of a Group

A group 𝐺𝐺 is a set equipped with a binary operation ⋅: 𝐺𝐺 × 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐺𝐺, denoted as 𝑔𝑔 ⋅ ℎ,

satisfying the following properties:

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 • Closure: For all 𝑔𝑔, ℎ ∈ 𝐺𝐺, 𝑔𝑔 ⋅ ℎ is in 𝐺𝐺.

• Associativity: For all 𝑔𝑔, ℎ, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝐺𝐺, (𝑔𝑔 ⋅ ℎ) ⋅ 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑔𝑔 ⋅ (ℎ ⋅ 𝑘𝑘).

• Identity Element: There exists an element 𝑒𝑒 ∈ 𝐺𝐺 such that for all 𝑔𝑔 ∈ 𝐺𝐺, 𝑔𝑔 ⋅
𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒 ⋅ 𝑔𝑔 = 𝑔𝑔.

• Inverse Element: For each 𝑔𝑔 ∈ 𝐺𝐺, there exists an element 𝑔𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐺𝐺 such that
𝑔𝑔 ⋅ 𝑔𝑔−1 = 𝑔𝑔−1 ⋅ 𝑔𝑔 = 𝑒𝑒.

Subgroups

A subgroup 𝐻𝐻 of a group 𝐺𝐺 is a subset of 𝐺𝐺 that forms a group under the same

operation as 𝐺𝐺. It is denoted as 𝐻𝐻 ≤ 𝐺𝐺.

Cosets and Quotient Groups

Given a group 𝐺𝐺 and a subgroup 𝐻𝐻 ≤ 𝐺𝐺, the left coset of 𝐻𝐻 in 𝐺𝐺 is defined as 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =
{𝑔𝑔ℎ ∣ ℎ ∈ 𝐻𝐻} for 𝑔𝑔 ∈ 𝐺𝐺. The set of left cosets is denoted as 𝐺𝐺/𝐻𝐻 and forms a quotient
group.

Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms

A homomorphism between two groups 𝐺𝐺 and 𝐻𝐻 is a map 𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐻𝐻 that preserves

the group operation, i.e., 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔1 ⋅ 𝑔𝑔2 ) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔1 ) ⋅ 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔2 ) for all 𝑔𝑔1 , 𝑔𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺𝐺. An isomorphism
is a bijective homomorphism.

Cyclic Groups

A group 𝐺𝐺 is cyclic if there exists an element 𝑔𝑔 ∈ 𝐺𝐺 such that every element in 𝐺𝐺

can be expressed as a power of 𝑔𝑔. If 𝐺𝐺 is cyclic and generated by 𝑔𝑔, it is denoted
as 𝐺𝐺 = ⟨𝑔𝑔⟩.

1.2 Quotient Groups

In group theory, a quotient group, also known as a factor group, is a mathematical

group obtained by aggregating elements of a larger group using an equivalence
relation that preserves the group structure. Let’s formalize this concept.

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Definition

Let 𝐺𝐺 be a group, and 𝐻𝐻 be a normal subgroup of 𝐺𝐺 denoted by 𝐻𝐻 ⊴ 𝐺𝐺. The set of

left cosets of 𝐻𝐻 in 𝐺𝐺 is denoted by 𝐺𝐺/𝐻𝐻 and is defined as follows:

𝐺𝐺/𝐻𝐻 = {𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ∣ 𝑔𝑔 ∈ 𝐺𝐺}

where 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = {𝑔𝑔ℎ ∣ ℎ ∈ 𝐻𝐻} is the left coset of 𝐻𝐻 in 𝐺𝐺 containing the element 𝑔𝑔.

The elements of 𝐺𝐺/𝐻𝐻 are the left cosets, and the operation on 𝐺𝐺/𝐻𝐻 is defined by:

(𝑔𝑔1 𝐻𝐻) ⋅ (𝑔𝑔2 𝐻𝐻) = (𝑔𝑔1 𝑔𝑔2 )𝐻𝐻

This operation is well-defined since 𝐻𝐻 is normal in 𝐺𝐺. The set 𝐺𝐺/𝐻𝐻 with this
operation forms a group, and it is called the quotient group of 𝐺𝐺 by 𝐻𝐻, denoted as
𝐺𝐺/𝐻𝐻.

Properties

The quotient group 𝐺𝐺/𝐻𝐻 inherits several properties from the original group 𝐺𝐺, and
these properties are crucial in group theory. Some notable properties include:

The order of 𝐺𝐺/𝐻𝐻 is given by |𝐺𝐺/𝐻𝐻| = |𝐺𝐺|/|𝐻𝐻|.

The identity element in 𝐺𝐺/𝐻𝐻 is the coset 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒, where 𝑒𝑒 is the identity element of 𝐺𝐺.

The inverse of the coset 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 is the coset 𝑔𝑔−1 𝐻𝐻.

The definition and properties of quotient groups play a fundamental role in

understanding the structure of groups and their various applications in algebraic
contexts.

Examples and Illustrations of Quotient Groups

In this section, we explore various examples to illustrate the concept of quotient

groups.

Example 1: Integers Modulo n

5
Consider the additive group of integers ℤ and a subgroup 𝐻𝐻 consisting of all
multiples of 𝑛𝑛, denoted by 𝐻𝐻 = 𝑛𝑛ℤ. The quotient group ℤ/𝑛𝑛ℤ is defined as the set
of cosets {𝑎𝑎 + 𝑛𝑛ℤ ∣ 𝑎𝑎 ∈ ℤ}.

Explanation:

The elements of the quotient group are of the form 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑛𝑛ℤ, where 𝑎𝑎 is any integer.
Operations within this quotient group are defined as follows:

(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑛𝑛ℤ) + (𝑏𝑏 + 𝑛𝑛ℤ) = (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) + 𝑛𝑛ℤ,

(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑛𝑛ℤ) − (𝑏𝑏 + 𝑛𝑛ℤ) = (𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏) + 𝑛𝑛ℤ.

Simplification:

Let’s consider a specific example: (2 + 𝑛𝑛ℤ) + (3 + 𝑛𝑛ℤ).

(2 + 𝑛𝑛ℤ) + (3 + 𝑛𝑛ℤ) = (2 + 3) + 𝑛𝑛ℤ = 5 + 𝑛𝑛ℤ.

Example 2: Quotient Group of Dihedral Group

Let 𝐷𝐷2𝑛𝑛 be the dihedral group of order 2𝑛𝑛 (symmetries of a regular 𝑛𝑛-gon). Consider
the subgroup 𝐻𝐻 consisting of all rotations in 𝐷𝐷2𝑛𝑛 . The quotient group 𝐷𝐷2𝑛𝑛 /𝐻𝐻 is
isomorphic to the cyclic group of order 2.

Explanation:

The elements of 𝐷𝐷2𝑛𝑛 /𝐻𝐻 are of the form 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, where 𝑎𝑎 is any element in 𝐷𝐷2𝑛𝑛 and 𝐻𝐻 is
the subgroup of rotations. The operation is defined as (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏) = (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)𝐻𝐻.

Simplification:

Consider a specific example: (𝑟𝑟 2 𝐻𝐻)(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠), where 𝑟𝑟 is a rotation and 𝑠𝑠 is a reflection.

(𝑟𝑟 2 𝐻𝐻)(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠) = (𝑟𝑟 2 𝑠𝑠)𝐻𝐻.

Example 3: Matrix Groups

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Let 𝐺𝐺𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 (ℝ) be the general linear group of invertible 𝑛𝑛 × 𝑛𝑛 matrices over ℝ. The
subgroup 𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 (ℝ), consisting of matrices with determinant 1, forms a quotient
group 𝐺𝐺𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 (ℝ)/𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 (ℝ).

Explanation:

The elements of the quotient group are of the form 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 (ℝ), where 𝑎𝑎 is any
invertible matrix. The operation is matrix multiplication.

Simplification:

Consider a specific example: �𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 (ℝ)��𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 (ℝ)�, where 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵 ∈ 𝐺𝐺𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 (ℝ).

�𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 (ℝ)��𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 (ℝ)� = (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴)𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛 (ℝ).

These examples demonstrate the versatility of quotient groups in different

algebraic structures.

Example 4: Quotient Group of Quaternion Group

Let 𝑄𝑄8 be the quaternion group of order 8. The center of 𝑄𝑄8 , denoted by 𝑍𝑍(𝑄𝑄8 ), is a
subgroup. The quotient group 𝑄𝑄8 /𝑍𝑍(𝑄𝑄8 ) is isomorphic to the Klein four-group.

Explanation:

The elements of 𝑄𝑄8 /𝑍𝑍(𝑄𝑄8 ) are of the form 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞(𝑄𝑄8 ), where 𝑞𝑞 is any quaternion in 𝑄𝑄8 .
The operation is quaternion multiplication.

Simplification:

Consider a specific example: �𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖(𝑄𝑄8 )��𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘(𝑄𝑄8 )� = (−1)𝑍𝑍(𝑄𝑄8 ).

Example 5: Quotient Group of Modular Group

Let 𝐺𝐺 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃(2, ℤ) be the projective special linear group of degree 2 with

coefficients in ℤ. Consider the subgroup 𝐻𝐻 of matrices with even coefficients. The
quotient group 𝐺𝐺/𝐻𝐻 is isomorphic to the cyclic group of order 2.

Explanation:

7
The elements of 𝐺𝐺/𝐻𝐻 are of the form 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, where 𝑔𝑔 is any matrix in 𝐺𝐺. The operation
is matrix multiplication.

Simplification:

1 2 5 6 19 22 1 0
Consider a specific example: � � 𝐻𝐻 ⋅ � � 𝐻𝐻 = � � 𝐻𝐻 = � � 𝐻𝐻.
3 4 7 8 43 50 0 1

Example 6: Quotient Group of Polynomial Ring

Let 𝑅𝑅 = ℝ[𝑥𝑥] be the ring of polynomials with real coefficients. Consider the ideal
𝐼𝐼 = ⟨𝑥𝑥 2 − 1⟩. The quotient ring 𝑅𝑅/𝐼𝐼 is isomorphic to the ring of real numbers.

Explanation:

The elements of 𝑅𝑅/𝐼𝐼 are of the form 𝑓𝑓 + 𝐼𝐼, where 𝑓𝑓 is any polynomial in 𝑅𝑅. The
operation is polynomial addition.

Simplification:

Consider a specific example: (𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 + 3 + 𝐼𝐼) + (4𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝐼) = (5𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 3) + 𝐼𝐼.

Proofs of Theorems Related to Quotient Groups

Proof of Theorem 1. (Quotient Group) Let 𝐺𝐺 be a group and 𝐻𝐻 be a normal

subgroup of 𝐺𝐺. The set of cosets 𝐺𝐺/𝐻𝐻 = {𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔: 𝑔𝑔 ∈ 𝐺𝐺} forms a group under the
operation (𝑔𝑔1 𝐻𝐻)(𝑔𝑔2 𝐻𝐻) = (𝑔𝑔1 𝑔𝑔2 )𝐻𝐻.

Proof: This follows directly from the definition of the operation on cosets. We need
to show that the operation is well-defined, associative, has an identity element,
and each element has an inverse. These properties can be verified
straightforwardly.

Proof of Theorem 2. (Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism) Let 𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐺𝐺′ be

a group homomorphism with kernel 𝑁𝑁. Then, the image of 𝜙𝜙 is isomorphic to the
quotient group 𝐺𝐺/𝑁𝑁, i.e., 𝜙𝜙(𝐺𝐺) ≅ 𝐺𝐺/𝑁𝑁.

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Proof: Define 𝜓𝜓: 𝐺𝐺/𝑁𝑁 → 𝜙𝜙(𝐺𝐺) by 𝜓𝜓(𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔). The proof involves showing that 𝜓𝜓
is well-defined, injective, and surjective.

Well-defined: Suppose 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑔𝑔′𝑁𝑁. Then, 𝜓𝜓(𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔′) = 𝜓𝜓(𝑔𝑔′𝑁𝑁).

Injective: Suppose 𝜓𝜓(𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔) = 𝜓𝜓(𝑔𝑔′𝑁𝑁). Then, 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔′), and by the injectivity of 𝜙𝜙,
we have 𝑔𝑔 = 𝑔𝑔′.

Surjective: For any 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝜙𝜙(𝐺𝐺), there exists 𝑔𝑔 ∈ 𝐺𝐺 such that 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔) = 𝑎𝑎. Then, 𝜓𝜓(𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔) =
𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔) = 𝑎𝑎.

Thus, 𝜓𝜓 is an isomorphism, and 𝜙𝜙(𝐺𝐺) ≅ 𝐺𝐺/𝑁𝑁.

Proof of Theorem 3. (First Isomorphism Theorem) If 𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐺𝐺′ is a group

homomorphism, then ker(𝜙𝜙) is a normal subgroup of 𝐺𝐺, and 𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙) ≅ 𝜙𝜙(𝐺𝐺).

Proof: The proof involves establishing that ker(𝜙𝜙) is a normal subgroup of 𝐺𝐺 and
then using the first isomorphism theorem to conclude the isomorphism.

Normality of ker(𝜙𝜙): For any 𝑔𝑔 ∈ 𝐺𝐺 and 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ker(𝜙𝜙), we have 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔−1 ) =

𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔)𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛)𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔)−1 = 𝑒𝑒, where 𝑒𝑒 is the identity element in 𝐺𝐺′. Thus, 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔−1 ∈ ker(𝜙𝜙),
proving normality.

Isomorphism: Define 𝜓𝜓: 𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙) → 𝜙𝜙(𝐺𝐺) by 𝜓𝜓�𝑔𝑔ker(𝜙𝜙)� = 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔). The proof then
proceeds similarly to the proof of the second isomorphism theorem.

Proof of Theorem 4. (Second Isomorphism Theorem) Let 𝐺𝐺 be a group, 𝐻𝐻 be a

subgroup of 𝐺𝐺, and 𝑁𝑁 be a normal subgroup of 𝐺𝐺. Then, 𝐻𝐻 ∩ 𝑁𝑁 is a subgroup of 𝐻𝐻,
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = {ℎ𝑛𝑛: ℎ ∈ 𝐻𝐻, 𝑛𝑛 ∈ 𝑁𝑁} is a subgroup of 𝐺𝐺, and 𝐻𝐻/(𝐻𝐻 ∩ 𝑁𝑁) ≅ 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻/𝑁𝑁.

Proof: The proof involves showing that 𝐻𝐻 ∩ 𝑁𝑁 is a subgroup of 𝐻𝐻, 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 is a subgroup
of 𝐺𝐺, and then applying the first isomorphism theorem.

𝐻𝐻 ∩ 𝑁𝑁 as Subgroup: The intersection of subgroups is also a subgroup.

𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 as Subgroup: Let ℎ1 𝑛𝑛1 , ℎ2 𝑛𝑛2 ∈ 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻. Then, (ℎ1 𝑛𝑛1 )(ℎ2 𝑛𝑛2 )−1 = ℎ1 𝑛𝑛1 𝑛𝑛2−1 ℎ2−1 ∈ 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻.

9
Define 𝜓𝜓: 𝐻𝐻/(𝐻𝐻 ∩ 𝑁𝑁) → 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻/𝑁𝑁 by 𝜓𝜓�ℎ(𝐻𝐻 ∩ 𝑁𝑁)� = ℎ𝑁𝑁. The proof then proceeds to
show that 𝜓𝜓 is an isomorphism.

Proof of Theorem 5. (Third Isomorphism Theorem) If 𝑁𝑁 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺𝐺

and 𝐻𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺𝐺 containing 𝑁𝑁, then 𝐻𝐻/𝑁𝑁 is a subgroup of 𝐺𝐺/𝑁𝑁, and
(𝐺𝐺/𝑁𝑁)/(𝐻𝐻/𝑁𝑁) ≅ 𝐺𝐺/𝐻𝐻.

Proof: The proof involves showing that 𝐻𝐻/𝑁𝑁 is a subgroup of 𝐺𝐺/𝑁𝑁 and applying the
first isomorphism theorem.

Define 𝜓𝜓: 𝐺𝐺/𝑁𝑁 → 𝐺𝐺/𝐻𝐻 by 𝜓𝜓(𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔) = 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔. The proof then proceeds to show that 𝜓𝜓 is
an isomorphism.

Proof of Theorem 6. (Correspondence Theorem) Let 𝐺𝐺 be a group, and let 𝑁𝑁 be a

normal subgroup of 𝐺𝐺. There is a one-to-one correspondence between the set of
subgroups of 𝐺𝐺 containing 𝑁𝑁 and the set of subgroups of 𝐺𝐺/𝑁𝑁. The
correspondence is given by 𝐻𝐻 ↦ 𝐻𝐻/𝑁𝑁.

Proof: The proof involves establishing the one-to-one correspondence between

the set of subgroups of 𝐺𝐺 containing 𝑁𝑁 and the set of subgroups of 𝐺𝐺/𝑁𝑁. The
correspondence is given by 𝐻𝐻 ↦ 𝐻𝐻/𝑁𝑁. The detailed proof includes showing that
this map is well-defined, injective, surjective, and preserves the group structure.

Group Homomorphisms: Definition and Properties

Definition 1. Let 𝐺𝐺 and 𝐺𝐺′ be groups. A function 𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐺𝐺′ is called a group
homomorphism if, for all 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐺𝐺, the following holds:

𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎)𝜙𝜙(𝑏𝑏).

Proposition 2. Let 𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐺𝐺′ be a group homomorphism. Then:

• 𝜙𝜙(𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺 ) = 𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺′ , where 𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺 and 𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺′ are the identity elements of 𝐺𝐺 and 𝐺𝐺′,
respectively.

• For any 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐺𝐺, 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎−1 ) = [𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎)]−1.

Proof.

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 1. Consider 𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺 ∈ 𝐺𝐺, the identity element of 𝐺𝐺. Then, 𝜙𝜙(𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺 ) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺 𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺 ) =
𝜙𝜙(𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺 )𝜙𝜙(𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺 ). Left-cancelling 𝜙𝜙(𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺 ), we get 𝜙𝜙(𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺 ) = 𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺′ .

2. For any 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐺𝐺, we have 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎)𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎−1 ) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎−1 ) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺 ) = 𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺′ . Similarly,

𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎−1 )𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎) = 𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺′ . Therefore, 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎−1 ) = [𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎)]−1.

Proposition 3. Let 𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐺𝐺′ be a group homomorphism. If 𝐻𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺𝐺,

then 𝜙𝜙(𝐻𝐻) is a subgroup of 𝐺𝐺′.

Proof. Let 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝜙𝜙(𝐻𝐻). This means there exist ℎ1 , ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻𝐻 such that 𝜙𝜙(ℎ1 ) = 𝑎𝑎 and
𝜙𝜙(ℎ2 ) = 𝑏𝑏. Since 𝐻𝐻 is a subgroup, ℎ1 ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻𝐻, and thus 𝜙𝜙(ℎ1 ℎ2 ) = 𝜙𝜙(ℎ1 )𝜙𝜙(ℎ2 ) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∈
𝜙𝜙(𝐻𝐻). Also, 𝜙𝜙(𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺 ) = 𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺′ is in 𝜙𝜙(𝐻𝐻) because 𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺 ∈ 𝐻𝐻. Finally, for any 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝜙𝜙(𝐻𝐻), its
inverse 𝑎𝑎−1 = [𝜙𝜙(ℎ)]−1 for some ℎ ∈ 𝐻𝐻, and since 𝐻𝐻 is a subgroup, ℎ−1 ∈ 𝐻𝐻, and
𝜙𝜙(ℎ−1 ) = [𝜙𝜙(ℎ)]−1 = 𝑎𝑎−1 ∈ 𝜙𝜙(𝐻𝐻). Therefore, 𝜙𝜙(𝐻𝐻) is a subgroup of 𝐺𝐺′.

Proposition 4. Let 𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐺𝐺′ be a group homomorphism. If 𝐾𝐾 is a normal subgroup

of 𝐺𝐺, then 𝜙𝜙(𝐾𝐾) is a normal subgroup of 𝐺𝐺′.

Proof. Let 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝜙𝜙(𝐾𝐾), i.e., 𝑎𝑎 = 𝜙𝜙(𝑘𝑘) for some 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝐾𝐾. For any 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐺𝐺′, we need to show
that 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝜙𝜙(𝐾𝐾). Since 𝐾𝐾 is a normal subgroup, 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐾𝐾 for all 𝑘𝑘 ∈ 𝐾𝐾. Therefore,
𝜙𝜙(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 −1 ) = 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏(𝑘𝑘)𝑏𝑏 −1 = 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝜙𝜙(𝐾𝐾), showing that 𝜙𝜙(𝐾𝐾) is a normal subgroup of
𝐺𝐺′.

Examples and Counterexamples of Group Homomorphisms

Example 1

Let 𝐺𝐺 and 𝐺𝐺′ be groups, and consider the trivial homomorphism 𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐺𝐺′ defined
by 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔) = 𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺′ for all 𝑔𝑔 ∈ 𝐺𝐺, where 𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺′ is the identity element of 𝐺𝐺′. This is a group
homomorphism since

𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔1 𝑔𝑔2 ) = 𝑒𝑒𝐺𝐺′ for all 𝑔𝑔1 , 𝑔𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺𝐺.

Example 2

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Consider the groups 𝐺𝐺 = (ℤ, +) and 𝐺𝐺′ = (ℤ3 , +), where ℤ3 is the additive group of
integers modulo 3. Define a function 𝜙𝜙: ℤ → ℤ3 by 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛) = 𝑛𝑛 mod 3. This is a group
homomorphism because

𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑛𝑛2 ) = (𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑛𝑛2 ) mod 3 = (𝑛𝑛1 mod 3 + 𝑛𝑛2 mod 3) mod 3
= 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛1 ) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛2 ) for all 𝑛𝑛1 , 𝑛𝑛2 ∈ ℤ.

Example 3

Let 𝐺𝐺 = (ℝ, +) and 𝐺𝐺′ = (ℝ>0 ,⋅) be the groups of real numbers under addition and
positive real numbers under multiplication, respectively. Define 𝜙𝜙: ℝ → ℝ>0 by
𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 . This is a group homomorphism since

𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 ) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥1+𝑥𝑥2 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥1 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥1 )𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥2 ) for all 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ∈ ℝ.

Example 4

Consider the group 𝐺𝐺 = (ℤ, +). Define the function 𝜙𝜙: ℤ → ℤ by 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛) = 2𝑛𝑛. This is
not a group homomorphism because

𝜙𝜙(1 + 1) = 𝜙𝜙(2) = 4, while 𝜙𝜙(1) + 𝜙𝜙(1) = 2 + 2 = 4.

The equality 𝜙𝜙(1 + 1) ≠ 𝜙𝜙(1) + 𝜙𝜙(1) violates the homomorphism property.

Example 5

Consider the groups 𝐺𝐺 = (ℝ, +) and 𝐺𝐺′ = (ℝ,⋅), where ℝ denotes the real numbers.
Define 𝜙𝜙: ℝ → ℝ by 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 . This is not a group homomorphism since

𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 ) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥1+𝑥𝑥2 ≠ 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥1 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥1 )𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥2 ) for some 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ∈ ℝ.

The equality 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 ) ≠ 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥1 )𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥2 ) violates the homomorphism property.

Example 6

Let 𝐺𝐺 = (ℤ6 , +) and 𝐺𝐺′ = (ℤ3 , +), where ℤ6 and ℤ3 are the additive groups of integers
modulo 6 and 3, respectively. Define a function 𝜙𝜙: ℤ6 → ℤ3 by 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛) = 𝑛𝑛 mod 3. This
is a group homomorphism since

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 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑛𝑛2 ) = (𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑛𝑛2 ) mod 3 = (𝑛𝑛1 mod 3 + 𝑛𝑛2 mod 3) mod 3
= 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛1 ) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛2 ) for all 𝑛𝑛1 , 𝑛𝑛2 ∈ ℤ6 .

Example 7

Consider the groups 𝐺𝐺 = (ℝ, +) and 𝐺𝐺′ = (ℝ≠0 ,⋅), where ℝ≠0 is the set of nonzero
real numbers under multiplication. Define 𝜙𝜙: ℝ → ℝ≠0 by 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 . This is a group
homomorphism since

𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 ) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥1+𝑥𝑥2 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥1 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥1 )𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥2 ) for all 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ∈ ℝ.

Example 8

Let 𝐺𝐺 = (ℤ, +). Define the function 𝜙𝜙: ℤ → ℤ by 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛) = 3𝑛𝑛. This is a group
homomorphism because

𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑛𝑛2 ) = 3(𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑛𝑛2 ) = 3𝑛𝑛1 + 3𝑛𝑛2 = 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛1 ) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛2 ) for all 𝑛𝑛1 , 𝑛𝑛2 ∈ ℤ.

Example 9

Consider the groups 𝐺𝐺 = (ℝ, +) and 𝐺𝐺′ = (ℝ≥0 ,⋅), where ℝ≥0 is the set of
nonnegative real numbers under multiplication. Define 𝜙𝜙: ℝ → ℝ≥0 by 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 .
This is not a group homomorphism since

𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 ) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥1+𝑥𝑥2 ≠ 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥1 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥1 )𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥2 ) for some 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ∈ ℝ.

Example 10

Let 𝐺𝐺 = (ℤ, +). Define the function 𝜙𝜙: ℤ → ℤ by 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛) = 𝑛𝑛2 . This is not a group
homomorphism since

𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑛𝑛2 ) = (𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑛𝑛2 )2 ≠ 𝑛𝑛12 + 𝑛𝑛22 = 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛1 ) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛2 ) for some 𝑛𝑛1 , 𝑛𝑛2 ∈ ℤ.

The equality 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑛𝑛2 ) ≠ 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛1 ) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛2 ) violates the homomorphism property.

The Importance of Homomorphisms in Abstract Algebra

Abstract Algebra, as a branch of mathematics, investigates algebraic structures

and their properties. Homomorphisms play a crucial role in this field, providing a

13
powerful tool for understanding and analyzing various algebraic structures. In this
section, we explore the significance of homomorphisms and their applications.

Preserving Structure

Homomorphisms are structure-preserving maps between algebraic systems. In

the context of groups, rings, and fields, homomorphisms preserve the
fundamental algebraic operations. For instance, a group homomorphism ensures
that the group operation is consistent between the domain and codomain,
reflecting the underlying structure.

Quotient Structures

Homomorphisms are intimately connected to quotient structures. The concept of

a quotient group, ring, or module relies on the existence of group, ring, or module
homomorphisms. Quotient structures are essential in simplifying complex
algebraic systems and understanding their inherent properties.

1.3Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphisms

The Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphisms establishes a fundamental

connection between the domain, codomain, and the image (range) of a
homomorphism. It provides insights into the algebraic structure of the quotient
object and helps decompose complex structures into simpler, more manageable
components.

Kernel and Image

Homomorphisms are characterized by their kernel and image. The kernel

represents the set of elements mapped to the identity in the codomain, capturing
the failure of injectivity. The image, on the other hand, is the subset of the
codomain spanned by the elements in the domain, giving insight into the
surjectivity of the homomorphism.

Algebraic Connectivity

14
Homomorphisms establish a bridge between different algebraic structures. By
defining suitable homomorphisms, mathematicians can connect diverse algebraic
systems, paving the way for the study of algebraic connectivity. This
interconnectedness enables mathematicians to apply techniques and results from
one area to another.

Universal Algebra

Homomorphisms are central to the study of universal algebra, providing a unified

framework for investigating various algebraic structures. Universal algebra seeks
to identify common algebraic properties shared by different classes of algebraic
systems, and homomorphisms play a key role in this pursuit.

Applications in Coding Theory and Cryptography

In the realm of applied mathematics, homomorphisms find applications in coding

theory and cryptography. Algebraic structures, often represented by groups or
rings, are utilized to design error-correcting codes and cryptographic protocols.
Homomorphisms play a critical role in ensuring the security and efficiency of these
applications.

In conclusion, homomorphisms serve as a cornerstone in Abstract Algebra,

facilitating the study and understanding of algebraic structures. Their ability to
preserve structure, connect different algebraic systems, and simplify complex
structures makes them a fundamental concept in the algebraic landscape.

Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphisms

In abstract algebra, the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphisms establishes a

crucial relationship between the kernel, quotient group, and the image of a group
homomorphism.

Theorem Statement

15
Let 𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐻𝐻 be a group homomorphism. The Fundamental Theorem of
Homomorphisms states that the kernel of 𝜙𝜙 and the quotient group 𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙) are
related to the image of 𝜙𝜙 by an isomorphism:

𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙) ≅ Im(𝜙𝜙)

Proof

Define the Homomorphism

Consider a group homomorphism 𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐻𝐻.

Define the Kernel

Define the kernel of 𝜙𝜙 as ker(𝜙𝜙) = {𝑔𝑔 ∈ 𝐺𝐺 ∣ 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔) = 𝑒𝑒𝐻𝐻 }.

Define the Quotient Group

Consider the quotient group 𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙) with cosets 𝑔𝑔ker(𝜙𝜙) for 𝑔𝑔 ∈ 𝐺𝐺.

Define the Homomorphism to the Quotient Group

Define a map 𝜓𝜓: 𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙) → Im(𝜙𝜙) by 𝜓𝜓�𝑔𝑔ker(𝜙𝜙)� = 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔).

Show Well-Definedness

Assume 𝑔𝑔1 ker(𝜙𝜙) = 𝑔𝑔2 ker(𝜙𝜙), we need to show that 𝜓𝜓�𝑔𝑔1 ker(𝜙𝜙)� = 𝜓𝜓�𝑔𝑔2 ker(𝜙𝜙)�.
This is true since if 𝑔𝑔1 ker(𝜙𝜙) = 𝑔𝑔2 ker(𝜙𝜙), then 𝑔𝑔1−1 𝑔𝑔2 ∈ ker(𝜙𝜙), and 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔1−1 𝑔𝑔2 ) = 𝑒𝑒𝐻𝐻 ,
implying 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔1 ) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔2 ).

Show Injectivity

Assume 𝜓𝜓�𝑔𝑔1 ker(𝜙𝜙)� = 𝜓𝜓�𝑔𝑔2 ker(𝜙𝜙)�, we need to show that 𝑔𝑔1 ker(𝜙𝜙) = 𝑔𝑔2 ker(𝜙𝜙).
This is true since if 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔1 ) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔2 ), then 𝑔𝑔1−1 𝑔𝑔2 ∈ ker(𝜙𝜙), implying 𝑔𝑔1 ker(𝜙𝜙) =
𝑔𝑔2 ker(𝜙𝜙).

Show Surjectivity

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For surjectivity, take any element ℎ in the image of 𝜙𝜙 (i.e., ℎ = 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔) for some 𝑔𝑔 ∈ 𝐺𝐺).
Consider the coset 𝑔𝑔ker(𝜙𝜙) in 𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙). We have 𝜓𝜓�𝑔𝑔ker(𝜙𝜙)� = 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔) = ℎ, so 𝜓𝜓 is
surjective.

Show Isomorphism

Combining the above results, we see that 𝜓𝜓 is a well-defined, injective, surjective

map. Therefore, it is an isomorphism.

Conclude

Conclude that 𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙) ≅ Im(𝜙𝜙).

The Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphisms establishes a deep connection

between the kernel, quotient group, and the image of a homomorphism. It
provides valuable insights into the algebraic structure induced by
homomorphisms.

Applications and Consequences of the Fundamental Theorem of

Homomorphisms

The Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphisms (FTOH) has profound applications

and consequences in abstract algebra. Let’s explore some of them.

Applications

Isomorphism Theorems

The FTOH leads to the celebrated Isomorphism Theorems. Let 𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐻𝐻 be a

group homomorphism with kernel ker(𝜙𝜙). The Isomorphism Theorems state:

• First Isomorphism Theorem: 𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙) ≅ Im(𝜙𝜙).

• Second Isomorphism Theorem: If 𝑁𝑁 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺𝐺 and 𝐻𝐻 is a

subgroup of 𝐺𝐺, then (𝑁𝑁 ∩ 𝐻𝐻)/𝑁𝑁 ≅ 𝐻𝐻/(𝑁𝑁 ∩ 𝐻𝐻).

• Third Isomorphism Theorem: If 𝑁𝑁 and 𝑀𝑀 are normal subgroups of 𝐺𝐺 such

that 𝑁𝑁 ⊆ 𝑀𝑀, then (𝐺𝐺/𝑁𝑁)/(𝑀𝑀/𝑁𝑁) ≅ 𝐺𝐺/𝑀𝑀.

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These theorems provide insights into the structure of groups and the relationships
between normal subgroups, quotients, and factor groups.

Cayley’s Theorem

Cayley’s Theorem, a fundamental result in group theory, is a consequence of the

FTOH. It states that every group is isomorphic to a subgroup of a symmetric group.
This theorem highlights the connection between algebraic structures and
permutations.

Consequences

Kernel Determines Structure

The kernel of a homomorphism carries crucial information about the structure of

the group. It identifies the elements that map to the identity in the target group,
providing insights into the ’failure’ of the homomorphism.

Understanding Quotients

The FTOH illuminates the relationship between quotient groups and

homomorphisms. Quotient groups arise naturally in the study of group
homomorphisms, and the FTOH offers a bridge between these two concepts.

Group Factorization

The isomorphism theorems provide a way to ’factorize’ a group into simpler pieces.
This factorization aids in the study of group properties, making complex groups
more manageable.

Algebraic Structures

The FTOH extends to various algebraic structures beyond groups, such as rings
and modules. The concept of kernels and factorization plays a crucial role in these
broader algebraic contexts.

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The Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphisms is a cornerstone result with far-
reaching applications and consequences in abstract algebra. It provides a lens
through which algebraic structures can be understood, factorized, and analyzed.

Relationship Between Quotient Groups and Homomorphisms

In abstract algebra, the connection between quotient groups and homomorphisms

is a fundamental aspect that unveils deep insights into group theory. Let’s delve
into this relationship.

Understanding Quotient Groups

Quotient groups are a natural construction in group theory, formed by partitioning

a group into cosets of a normal subgroup. Let 𝐺𝐺 be a group, and 𝑁𝑁 be a normal
subgroup of 𝐺𝐺. The quotient group, denoted as 𝐺𝐺/𝑁𝑁, represents the set of cosets
of 𝑁𝑁 in 𝐺𝐺.

Cosets and Equivalence Classes

Each coset of 𝑁𝑁 in 𝐺𝐺 acts as an equivalence class. Elements in the same coset are
considered equivalent with respect to the subgroup 𝑁𝑁. The cosets form a partition
of 𝐺𝐺, establishing an equivalence relation.

The Role of Homomorphisms

Homomorphisms provide a bridge between groups, preserving the algebraic

structure. A group homomorphism 𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐻𝐻 maps elements of 𝐺𝐺 to elements of 𝐻𝐻
in a way that respects the group operations.

The Kernel

For a homomorphism 𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐻𝐻, the kernel ker(𝜙𝜙) is a crucial concept. It consists of
elements in 𝐺𝐺 that map to the identity element in 𝐻𝐻. The kernel is always a normal
subgroup of 𝐺𝐺.

Quotient Groups via Homomorphisms

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The Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphisms establishes a correspondence
between quotient groups and kernels of homomorphisms. If 𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐻𝐻 is a group
homomorphism, then ker(𝜙𝜙) is a normal subgroup of 𝐺𝐺, and 𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙) is isomorphic
to Im(𝜙𝜙).

Concrete Examples

Let’s consider a more detailed example to illustrate this relationship:

Example: Modular Arithmetic Revisited

Consider the homomorphism 𝜙𝜙: ℤ → ℤ/𝑛𝑛ℤ defined by 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎) = 𝑎𝑎 mod 𝑛𝑛. This
homomorphism captures the essence of modular arithmetic. The kernel is
precisely 𝑛𝑛ℤ, the set of all multiples of 𝑛𝑛 in ℤ. The quotient group 𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙) is
isomorphic to ℤ/𝑛𝑛ℤ, forming a cyclic group of order 𝑛𝑛.

This example showcases the power of homomorphisms in capturing the essential

features of algebraic structures, providing a deeper understanding of the
relationship between quotient groups and homomorphisms.

The relationship between quotient groups and homomorphisms is a central theme

in group theory. Homomorphisms offer a way to understand and connect groups,
providing a powerful tool for exploring the structure of algebraic systems.

How the Fundamental Theorem Connects Quotient Groups and

Homomorphisms

The Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphisms is a cornerstone result in group

theory, providing a deep connection between quotient groups and
homomorphisms. Let’s explore how this fundamental theorem establishes a
profound relationship between these two concepts.

Understanding the Fundamental Theorem

The Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphisms states the connection between

the kernel of a homomorphism and the structure of the quotient group. Let 𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 →
𝐻𝐻 be a group homomorphism.

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Statement of the Fundamental Theorem

The kernel of 𝜙𝜙, denoted as ker(𝜙𝜙), is a normal subgroup of 𝐺𝐺. The quotient group
𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙) is isomorphic to the image of 𝜙𝜙 in 𝐻𝐻. Mathematically,

𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙) ≅ Im(𝜙𝜙).

Proof and Intuition

Let’s delve into the proof of the Fundamental Theorem to gain insights into its
implications.

Proof Sketch

Proof. Consider the homomorphism 𝜙𝜙: 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐻𝐻. We need to show two main results:

1. ker(𝜙𝜙) is a normal subgroup of 𝐺𝐺.

2. 𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙) ≅ Im(𝜙𝜙).

1. Normality of ker(𝜙𝜙): The kernel is the set of elements in 𝐺𝐺 that map to the
identity element in 𝐻𝐻. It can be shown that ker(𝜙𝜙) is a normal subgroup of 𝐺𝐺.

2. Isomorphism: The Second Isomorphism Theorem implies that 𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙) ≅

�ker(𝜙𝜙)�/�ker(𝜙𝜙) ∩ ker(𝜙𝜙)�. Since ker(𝜙𝜙) ∩ ker(𝜙𝜙) = ker(𝜙𝜙), we have 𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙) ≅
Im(𝜙𝜙).

End of Proof.

Intuition

The kernel represents elements that are mapped to the identity in 𝐻𝐻. The quotient
group 𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙) captures the essential structure of 𝐺𝐺 modulo the elements that
collapse to the identity in 𝐻𝐻. The isomorphism with Im(𝜙𝜙) ensures that the image
of 𝜙𝜙 in 𝐻𝐻 is a faithful representation of the quotient structure.

Illustrative Example

Let’s consider a concrete example to illustrate the Fundamental Theorem in

action:

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Example: Homomorphism in Modular Arithmetic

Consider the homomorphism 𝜙𝜙: ℤ → ℤ/𝑛𝑛ℤ defined by 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎) = 𝑎𝑎 mod 𝑛𝑛. The kernel
of 𝜙𝜙 is 𝑛𝑛ℤ, and by the Fundamental Theorem, 𝐺𝐺/ker(𝜙𝜙) ≅ Im(𝜙𝜙). This isomorphism
reveals a deep connection between modular arithmetic and the structure of the
quotient group.

The Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphisms is a powerful tool in group theory.

It not only establishes the normality of the kernel but also reveals the intricate
relationship between quotient groups and homomorphisms. This connection
provides a profound understanding of the algebraic structures involved and is a
key result in advanced abstract algebra.

Real-world Applications of Quotient Groups and Homomorphisms

Group theory, particularly the concepts of quotient groups and homomorphisms,

finds remarkable applications in various real-world scenarios. This section
explores some instances where these abstract algebraic concepts have practical
significance.

Error Detection and Correction in Communication

Consider a scenario where information is transmitted over a noisy communication

channel. To ensure the accuracy of the transmitted data, error detection and
correction codes are employed. These codes often involve the use of quotient
groups.

Application of Quotient Groups

Let 𝐺𝐺 be the set of all possible transmitted codewords, and 𝐻𝐻 be the set of valid
codewords. The cosets of 𝐻𝐻 in 𝐺𝐺 represent different possible error patterns. The
quotient group 𝐺𝐺/𝐻𝐻 characterizes the space of possible errors. By analyzing the
cosets, error detection and correction algorithms can be designed.

Cryptography and Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

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In modern cryptography, group theory plays a crucial role, especially in protocols
like the Diffie-Hellman key exchange. The use of homomorphisms becomes
apparent in cryptographic protocols.

Homomorphisms in PKI

Public Key Infrastructure relies on homomorphisms to establish secure

communication. Homomorphisms ensure that operations performed on encrypted
data produce the same result as if performed on the decrypted data. This property
enables secure computations without revealing sensitive information.

Topology and Knot Theory

In mathematics, particularly in topology and knot theory, fundamental groups and

covering spaces involve quotient groups.

Quotient Groups in Topology

Consider a topological space 𝑋𝑋 and a covering space 𝑌𝑌 of 𝑋𝑋. The set of deck
transformations, which are homeomorphisms from 𝑌𝑌 to itself that preserve the
covering map, forms a group. The quotient of this group by the subgroup of
covering transformations corresponding to the fundamental group of 𝑋𝑋 is crucial
in understanding the topology of 𝑋𝑋.

The applications of quotient groups and homomorphisms extend far beyond

abstract algebra classrooms. From error correction in communication systems to
ensuring secure communication in cryptography and unraveling the topology of
spaces, these algebraic concepts find real-world relevance. As technology
continues to advance, the understanding and application of group theory
principles become increasingly valuable.

Connections of Quotient Groups and Homomorphisms to Other Areas of

Mathematics

Quotient groups and homomorphisms, while deeply rooted in abstract algebra,

have profound connections to various branches of mathematics. This section

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explores how these concepts extend their influence into other mathematical
domains.

Algebraic Geometry

In algebraic geometry, the study of algebraic varieties, quotient groups and

homomorphisms appear in the context of polynomial rings and algebraic
equations.

Quotient Groups in Algebraic Geometry

Consider the ring of polynomials 𝐾𝐾[𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 ], where 𝐾𝐾 is a field. The quotient
ring obtained by factoring out an ideal corresponds to the algebraic set defined by
the equations represented by that ideal. This connection is fundamental in
algebraic geometry, linking algebraic objects to geometric shapes.

Functional Analysis

In functional analysis, which deals with infinite-dimensional spaces and operators,

the notions of quotient spaces and linear operators find applications.

Homomorphisms in Functional Analysis

Consider a Banach space 𝑋𝑋 and its subspace 𝑌𝑌. The homomorphism from 𝑋𝑋 to the
quotient space 𝑋𝑋/𝑌𝑌 defined by 𝑥𝑥 ↦ 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑌𝑌 preserves the linear structure. This
concept is used in functional analysis to study the relationships between different
function spaces.

Number Theory

Quotient groups and homomorphisms have connections to number theory,

particularly in the study of modular arithmetic and congruences.

Quotient Groups in Modular Arithmetic

In modular arithmetic, the integers modulo 𝑛𝑛 form a quotient group under addition.
This group captures essential information about divisibility and congruences.

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Homomorphisms between quotient groups correspond to relationships between
different modular arithmetic systems.

The connections of quotient groups and homomorphisms extend beyond algebra,

touching on algebraic geometry, functional analysis, number theory, and more. As
bridges between abstract algebra and various mathematical disciplines, these
concepts provide a unified language to describe structures and relationships
across diverse mathematical landscapes.

1.4 Summary

In the panoramic expanse of advanced abstract algebra, the first unit dedicated to
the exploration of Quotient Groups and the Fundamental Theorem of
Homomorphism stands as a foundational pillar. This comprehensive summary
endeavors to distill the intricacies and key insights encapsulated within this unit,
shedding light on the profound implications and applications of these abstract
algebraic concepts.

Quotient Groups: Unveiling Structural Complexity

At the crux of our study lies the concept of quotient groups, a sophisticated
construct that emerges from the amalgamation of group theory and set theory. A
quotient group, in essence, is a group formed by partitioning an existing group with
respect to an equivalence relation. Our exploration commences with a meticulous
examination of the construction of quotient groups, elucidating the inherent
interplay between the structure of the original group, the chosen equivalence
relation, and the resultant quotient group. The implications of this partitioning
process are manifold, as it not only facilitates the analysis of algebraic structures
with enhanced precision but also underscores the profound connection between
group theory and set theory.

Diving deeper into the intricacies of quotient groups, our journey encompasses an
exploration of normal subgroups as kernels of homomorphisms. The foundational
understanding of normal subgroups becomes instrumental in comprehending the

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structure-preserving transformations encapsulated within homomorphisms,
setting the stage for the subsequent exploration of the Fundamental Theorem of
Homomorphism.

Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism: Bridging Algebraic Realms

The linchpin of our unit, the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism, serves as

a unifying force, establishing a profound connection between the structure of
groups and the homomorphisms that bridge them. At its core, the theorem posits
that the kernel of a homomorphism is a normal subgroup of the domain group, and
the image of the homomorphism is isomorphic to the quotient group formed by
the domain group and its kernel. Our scrutiny of this theorem unfolds through an
intricate analysis of its mathematical underpinnings and its ramifications in
elucidating the relationships and structures inherent in algebraic systems.

Furthermore, the unit delves into the classification of homomorphisms, examining

surjective, injective, and bijective homomorphisms, each offering unique
perspectives on the relationships between groups. The exploration extends to the
First Isomorphism Theorem, a direct corollary of the Fundamental Theorem of
Homomorphism, which establishes a profound isomorphism between the quotient
group and the image of a homomorphism.

Learning Objectives Realized: A Profound Mathematical Fluency

Through the comprehensive study of Quotient Groups and the Fundamental

Theorem of Homomorphism, our learning objectives crystallize into a robust
understanding of the structural intricacies inherent in algebraic systems. Mastery
of the unit entails a nuanced appreciation of the role of equivalence relations in
quotient group formation, a keen insight into the significance of normal subgroups,
and a profound comprehension of the structural revelations afforded by
homomorphisms.

The unit's significance extends beyond its theoretical framework, finding

applications in various mathematical disciplines. The ability to navigate and

26
manipulate quotient groups and homomorphisms equips mathematicians with
powerful tools to discern and decipher complex mathematical structures. From
cryptographic protocols to representation theory, these abstract algebraic
concepts find resonance in diverse mathematical applications, underscoring their
foundational role in modern mathematics.

As we conclude our exploration of Quotient Groups and the Fundamental

Theorem of Homomorphism, the synthesis of theoretical depth and practical
applicability becomes evident. The unit not only enriches our mathematical toolkit
but also fosters a profound appreciation for the elegance and interconnectedness
inherent in the realm of advanced abstract algebra. Through rigorous inquiry and
meticulous exploration, we emerge with a heightened mathematical fluency that
transcends the formalism, embracing the intrinsic beauty and depth that these
abstract algebraic concepts bestow upon the discerning mathematician.

1.5Review Questions

1. Define the quotient group G/N and explain its significance in group theory
when G is a group and N is its normal subgroup.

2. For a group homomorphism ϕ:G→H, if K is the kernel of ϕ, prove that K is a

normal subgroup of G.

3. Discuss the concept of cosets in the context of a subgroup H of a group G.

How are left cosets related to right cosets?

4. Explain Cayley's Theorem and how it establishes a connection between

groups and permutations. Provide an illustrative example.

5. Given a group homomorphism ψ:G→K, where K is a group, define the image

and kernel of ψ and state the First Isomorphism Theorem.

6. Discuss the significance of normal subgroups in forming quotient groups.

Provide an example to illustrate the process of constructing a quotient
group.

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 7. Prove that the composition of two group homomorphisms is also a group
homomorphism. Highlight any conditions necessary for this result.

8. Given a group G and its subgroup H, define the left and right cosets of H in
G. Under what conditions are left and right cosets equal?

9. State and prove the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism. What role

does this theorem play in understanding the structure of quotient groups?

10. Explore the concept of factor groups (quotient groups) and discuss their
application in solving problems related to group theory. Provide an example
to illustrate.

1.6 Keywords

• Quotient Group: A mathematical structure formed by partitioning a group

using an equivalence relation, providing insights into the group's internal
structure.

• Homomorphism: A function between two algebraic structures that

preserves the group operation, playing a crucial role in understanding
relationships between groups.

• Isomorphism Theorem: Establishes a correspondence between the kernel

of a homomorphism and the structure of the quotient group, providing
insights into group isomorphisms.

• Kernel: The set of elements mapped to the group's identity element by a

homomorphism, serving as a key concept in the Isomorphism Theorem.

• Image: The subset of the codomain of a homomorphism that consists of all

possible outputs, reflecting the range of the homomorphism.

• Cayley's Theorem: Asserts that any group can be represented as a group

of permutations, a foundational result connecting groups and permutations.

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 • Normal Subgroup: A subgroup that is invariant under conjugation, leading
to the formation of quotient groups and providing essential insights into
group structure.

• Coset: Sets obtained by multiplying a subgroup by individual elements of

the group, crucial in forming quotient groups and understanding group
cosets.

• Factor Group: Synonymous with a quotient group, formed by partitioning a

group based on a normal subgroup.

• Group Homomorphism: A structure-preserving mapping between groups,

capturing essential relationships and providing a basis for the Fundamental
Theorem.

• Canonical Homomorphism: A specific type of homomorphism that

naturally arises in the context of forming quotient groups.

• Epimorphism: A surjective homomorphism that covers the entire codomain,

playing a role in the study of quotient groups.

• Monomorphism: An injective homomorphism, highlighting the preservation

of distinctiveness in group structures.

• Automorphism: An isomorphism from a group to itself, representing

symmetries within the group and providing a deeper understanding of
group properties.

• First Isomorphism Theorem: Reveals the structure of the quotient group

formed by the kernel of a homomorphism, offering insights into the
relationships between groups.

1.7 References

• Joseph A. Gallian, (1999), Contemporary Abstract Algebra, Narosa

Publishing House, New Delhi.

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• Artin M., (2011), Algebra, Prentice Hall India, New Delhi.

• Ramanathan K.G., (1954), Lectures in Abstract Algebra, TIFR.

• Jacobson N., (1964), Lectures in Abstract Algebra, Vol. III, Van Nostrand,
Princeton.

• Dummit D.S. and Foote R.M., (2008), Abstract Algebra, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.

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