Module 1

18ARC82 July/Aug 2022

Define modular construction and explain its features. Detail out its components
with suitable sketches.
Modular construction is a construction method where a building is constructed off-site in modules or
sections, which are then transported to the construction site for assembly. These modules are typically
constructed in a factory-like setting, ensuring high quality and consistency in the final product.
Modular Construction Types :

Volumetric - Designed and manufactured as volumetric units

Offsite construction of individual 3-D Units with fittings and finishing

Transportation of 3-D units on site

Lifting and assembling in position to form a building

Connecting to foundation/plinth or other 3-d units

Non-Volumetric - Designed as volumetric units but manufactured as components.

Offsite prefabrication of building components with finishing

Transportation of components to site

Lifting and assembling of components in position to form a building

Connecting to foundation/plinth or other units

Installation/fixing of services etc.

Non volumetric Components :

Structural elements such as frames, beams and columns

Building façade and cladding elements

Wall panels and interior partitions

Floor cassettes and planks

Services/fittings

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 Methods of Modular Construction:

1. Volumetric Modular Construction: Involves the manufacture of three-dimensional modules that

are fully fitted out in a factory-controlled environment before being transported to the construction
site. These modules can be stacked or arranged in various configurations to create a complete
building.

2. Panelized Modular Construction: Involves the prefabrication of building panels, such as walls,
floors, and roofs, in a factory-controlled environment. These panels are then transported to the
construction site and assembled to create the building's structure.

3. Hybrid Modular Construction: Combines elements of both volumetric and panelized construction.
Some parts of the building, such as bathrooms or kitchens, may be constructed as volumetric
modules, while other parts are panelized.

4. Flat Pack Construction: Involves the prefabrication of building components, such as wall panels or
roof trusses, which are then transported to the construction site in a flat pack form and assembled
on-site.

5. Pod Construction: Involves the prefabrication of self-contained units, or pods, such as bathrooms
or kitchens, which are then installed into the building structure on-site.

Stages of Construction

1. Module Frame

2. Inner Partitions

3. Installation of services

4. Roofing and Flooring

5. Wall Paneling and finishing

6. Loading on Trailer

7. Lifting by Cranes

8. Fixing on final position

9. Connecting the services.

Advantages of Modular Construction:

Greater Speed of Construction

Better & Consistent Quality work

Reduction in Wastage

Productivity in Construction

Lesser on site Construction labour

Better Health and Safety conditions

Lesser noise pollution

Lesser air pollution

Less water utilization

Reduced on site time

Limitations

Design Monotony

Lesser flexibility

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 Everything needs to be detailed out thoroughly

Machines/equipment required

No Last minute changes

Size restrictions
Elaborate on Mivan Aluminum formwork with suitable sketches.
Mivan aluminum formwork is a construction technique that uses a series of interlocking aluminum
panels to form the concrete walls and slabs of a building. It is a fast and efficient method that offers
high-quality finishes and can be used for a wide range of building types, including residential,
commercial, and industrial structures.
Components of Mivan Aluminum Formwork:

1. Aluminum Panels: These are the main components of the formwork system and are used to form
the walls and slabs of the building. The panels are lightweight, durable, and easy to handle.

2. Wall Ties: Wall ties are used to hold the aluminum panels together and provide support for the
concrete during pouring. They are typically made of steel and are designed to be easily removable
once the concrete has set.

3. Prop Heads: Prop heads are used to support the aluminum panels and transfer the load of the
concrete to the ground. They are adjustable to accommodate different slab thicknesses.

4. Prop Jacks: Prop jacks are used to adjust the height of the props to ensure that the formwork is
level and plumb. They are typically made of steel and are easy to operate.

5. Release Agents: Release agents are applied to the aluminum panels to prevent the concrete from
sticking to them. This makes it easier to remove the formwork once the concrete has set.

Advantages of Mivan Aluminum Formwork:

1. Speed: Mivan aluminum formwork is a fast construction technique that allows for rapid assembly
and disassembly of the formwork system.

2. Quality: The use of aluminum panels results in high-quality finishes that require minimal finishing
work after the formwork is removed.

3. Cost-effective: Although the initial cost of Mivan aluminum formwork may be higher than
traditional formwork methods, the speed of construction and high-quality finishes can result in
overall cost savings.

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 4. Versatility: Mivan aluminum formwork can be used for a wide range of building types and can be
easily customized to meet specific design requirements.

Stages of Mivan Stages of Mivan Aluminum Formwork:

Aluminum Formwork:
1. Lay temporary support system to place the Mivian Aluminum formwork
and pour concrete into the formwork to form the structural system

2. Remove the formwork and let the structure cure

3. Lay temporary support to make the platform for the upper level and lay
the reinforcement required

4. Repeat step 1.

Compare different types of materials used in formwork. Explain which type of

formwork would be suitable for high-rise buildings. Explain with neat sketches.
Types of Materials Used in Formwork:

1. Timber Formwork: Traditional formwork material, easy to work with, but not as durable or reusable
as other materials. Suitable for small to medium-sized projects.

2. Plywood Formwork: Consists of plywood sheets supported by timber frames. More durable than
traditional timber formwork but still limited in reusability.

3. Steel Formwork: Made of steel sheets or frames, durable and reusable, suitable for large projects.
Can be customized for complex shapes.

4. Aluminum Formwork: Made of lightweight aluminum panels, highly durable and reusable. Provides
high-quality finishes and is suitable for repetitive use in large projects.

5. Plastic Formwork: Made of lightweight plastic panels or molds, easy to handle and assemble.
Suitable for small to medium-sized projects with simple shapes.

Suitability for High-Rise Buildings:

For high-rise buildings, where speed, durability, and quality are essential, aluminum formwork would
be the most suitable choice. Its lightweight yet durable nature allows for easy handling and assembly,
even at great heights. The reusability of aluminum formwork makes it cost-effective for large-scale
projects like high-rise buildings. Additionally, aluminum formwork provides high-quality finishes, which
is crucial for the aesthetic appeal of high-rise structures.

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 18ARC82 Jan/Feb 2023
Explain any five types of innovative concretes used in the construction industry.

1. Self-Healing Concrete
Description: Self-healing concrete contains bacteria or chemical agents that can repair cracks
automatically.

Components: Incorporates bacteria (e.g., Bacillus) or chemical agents (e.g., encapsulated polymers)
that activate upon exposure to water or air.

Applications: Infrastructure exposed to harsh conditions, such as bridges, tunnels, and marine
structures.

Advantages: Extends the lifespan of structures, reduces maintenance costs, and enhances durability.

Example: The Hams Hall project in the UK used self-healing concrete to repair cracks in a concrete
basin.

2. Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC)

Description: UHPC is a type of concrete that has superior strength, durability, and longevity compared
to traditional concrete.

Components: Contains fine powders, such as silica fume, and fibers for reinforcement, along with
high-quality cement and aggregates.

Applications: Bridges, precast concrete elements, high-rise buildings, and structures requiring high
load-bearing capacity.

Advantages: Exceptional strength, high durability, reduced thickness of structural elements, and
improved aesthetic finishes.

Example: The Mars Hill Bridge in Iowa, USA, uses UHPC for its enhanced load-bearing capacity and
durability.

3. Translucent Concrete
Description: Translucent concrete, also known as light-transmitting concrete, allows light to pass
through it.

Components: Integrates optical fibers or plastic fibers within the concrete mix.

Applications: Architectural features, facades, interior walls, and decorative elements.

Advantages: Enhances aesthetics, provides natural lighting, and can be used for energy-efficient
designs.

Example: The Litracon pXL series is a commercial product used in various architectural applications
for its light-transmitting properties.

4. Pervious Concrete

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 Description: Pervious concrete, also known as porous or permeable concrete, allows water to pass
through it, reducing runoff.

Components: Made with a mix of coarse aggregates, cement, water, and little to no fine aggregates.

Applications: Pavements, parking lots, driveways, and walkways.

Advantages: Reduces stormwater runoff, recharges groundwater, prevents flooding, and can help
mitigate urban heat islands.

Example: The use of pervious concrete in the parking areas of the Greenway Commons Shopping
Center in Texas helps manage stormwater efficiently.

5. High-Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (HPFRC)

Description: HPFRC incorporates fibrous materials to enhance concrete's structural integrity.

Components: Contains fibers such as steel, glass, synthetic, or natural fibers mixed into the concrete.

Applications: Bridges, high-rise buildings, industrial floors, and structures requiring enhanced
toughness and resistance to cracking.

Advantages: Increased tensile strength, enhanced durability, improved resistance to cracking and
impact, and better performance under dynamic loads.

Example: The Seonyu Footbridge in Seoul, South Korea, uses HPFRC for its improved structural
performance and durability under dynamic pedestrian loads.
Explain the construction methods of underground buildings

Construction Methods of Underground Buildings

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 1. Cut and Cover Method
Description: The cut and cover method involves
excavating a trench, constructing the
underground structure within the trench, and
then covering it with soil.

Steps:

1. Excavation: A trench is excavated to the

required depth.

2. Construction: The underground structure,

typically a tunnel or basement, is constructed
within the trench using conventional
construction techniques.

3. Backfilling: The trench is backfilled with the

excavated material or other suitable fill
material, and the surface is restored.

Applications: Used for constructing shallow

tunnels, subways, and underpasses.
Advantages:

Simple and cost-effective for shallow depths.

Allows easy access for construction.

Disadvantages:

Disruptive to surface activities.

Limited to relatively shallow structures.

Example: Subway tunnels in urban areas.

2. Pipe Jacking
Description: Pipe jacking involves pushing pre-
fabricated pipes through the ground from a
launching shaft to a reception shaft.

Steps:

1. Shaft Construction: Launching and reception

shafts are constructed at either end of the
proposed tunnel.

2. Jacking: Hydraulic jacks are used to push

the pipes through the ground from the
launching shaft to the reception shaft.

3. Excavation: Soil is excavated from inside the

pipes, often using a mechanical excavator or
manual labor.

Applications: Used for installing utility tunnels,

sewer lines, and other small-diameter pipelines.
Advantages:

Minimal surface disruption.

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 Suitable for installing pipelines under roads
and railways.

Disadvantages:

Limited to relatively short distances.

Requires precise alignment and control.

Example: Sewer installations in urban areas.

3. Box Jacking
Description: Box jacking involves pushing a pre-
fabricated concrete box through the ground.
Steps:

1. Excavation: A shallow trench is excavated at

the launch site.

2. Box Construction: A reinforced concrete box

is constructed at the surface.

3. Jacking: Hydraulic jacks are used to push

the box through the ground.

4. Excavation: Soil is excavated from inside the

box as it advances.

Applications: Used for constructing

underpasses, culverts, and subways.
Advantages:

Minimal disruption to surface activities.

Suitable for short distances.

Disadvantages:

Requires precise control and alignment.

Limited to relatively shallow depths.

Example: Underpasses for roads or railways.

4. Tunnel Boring

Description: Tunnel boring involves using a

tunnel boring machine (TBM) to excavate tunnels
through soil or rock.
Steps:

1. TBM Setup: A TBM is set up at the tunnel

entrance.

2. Excavation: The TBM advances through the

ground, excavating soil or rock and
transporting it to the surface.

3. Lining Installation: As the TBM advances,

precast concrete segments are installed to

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 line the tunnel.

Applications: Used for constructing long tunnels,

such as subway tunnels, road tunnels, and water
tunnels.
Advantages:

Suitable for long distances and deep tunnels.

Minimal surface disruption.

Disadvantages:

High initial cost and complex setup.

Requires specialized equipment and

expertise.

Example: Subway tunnels in large cities.

5. Immersed Tube Method

Description: The immersed tube method
involves constructing tunnel sections offsite,
floating them to the site, and sinking them into
place.
Steps:

1. Fabrication: Tunnel sections are

prefabricated in a dry dock or fabrication
yard.

2. Transportation: The sections are floated to

the tunnel site.

3. Immersion: The sections are sunk into a pre-

dredged trench and connected underwater.

4. Backfilling: The trench is backfilled to secure

the tunnel in place.

Applications: Used for constructing underwater

tunnels, such as road and rail tunnels under
rivers or harbors.
Advantages:

Rapid construction compared to traditional

tunneling.

Minimal disruption to the waterway.

Disadvantages:

Requires precise dredging and placement.

Limited to relatively shallow water depths.

Example: The Øresund Tunnel between Denmark

and Sweden.

6. Shaft Method

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 Description: The shaft method involves
constructing vertical shafts to access deep
underground areas, then excavating horizontally
to create tunnels or underground structures.
Steps:

1. Shaft Construction: Vertical shafts are

excavated to the desired depth.

2. Horizontal Excavation: Horizontal tunnels or

chambers are excavated from the bottom of
the shafts.

3. Construction: The underground structures

are constructed within the excavated space.

Applications: Used for deep underground

facilities, such as subway stations, utility tunnels,
and mining operations.
Advantages:

Suitable for deep underground construction.

Provides access to deep areas without

extensive surface disruption.

Disadvantages:

High cost and complexity.

Requires specialized equipment and

expertise.

Example: Deep subway stations in cities like New

York and London.

Enumerate four types of enclosure systems that are also used as structural
support for multistoried buildings.
In the context of high-rise buildings, an enclosure system refers to the exterior envelope or skin of the
building that separates the interior from the exterior environment. It serves several functions, including
providing protection from weather elements, regulating temperature and humidity, and enhancing the
building's aesthetic appeal.
Primary Types of Enclosure Systems Used in High-Rise Construction:

1. Curtain Wall Systems: Curtain walls are non-structural exterior cladding systems that are attached
to the building's frame. They are typically made of glass, metal, or stone panels and provide a
lightweight and efficient solution for enclosing high-rise buildings.

2. Window Wall Systems: Window wall systems are similar to curtain walls but incorporate operable
windows within the system. They offer the benefits of natural ventilation and daylighting while
maintaining the sleek appearance of a curtain wall.

3. Precast Concrete Panels: Precast concrete panels are manufactured off-site and then transported
to the construction site for installation. They provide a durable and cost-effective solution for
enclosing high-rise buildings.

4. Metal Panels: Metal panels, such as aluminum composite panels or corrugated metal panels, are
lightweight and versatile. They can be used as a cladding material for high-rise buildings, providing
a modern and industrial aesthetic.

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 5. Stone Cladding: Stone cladding involves attaching thin slices of natural or engineered stone to the
building's exterior. It provides a durable and elegant finish for high-rise buildings but can be heavy
and costly.

6. Brick Cladding: Brick cladding involves attaching brick veneers to the building's exterior. It
provides a traditional and timeless look but can be labor-intensive and costly.

The choice of enclosure system for a high-rise building depends on factors such as climate, building
design, budget, and aesthetic preferences. Each type of system has its advantages and limitations,
and the selection should be based on a comprehensive analysis of these factors to ensure a
successful and efficient enclosure solution for the building.
Describe any five types of formworks used for construction of high-rise
buildings.
Formwork in high-rise construction refers to the temporary molds or structures used to support and
shape concrete until it hardens and gains enough strength to support itself. Formwork is essential in
high-rise construction to create the structural elements such as walls, columns, slabs, and beams.

1. Traditional Timber Formwork: Timber formwork is the oldest method and is still used in some
situations. It's suitable for small to medium-sized projects but can be labor-intensive and time-
consuming.

2. Engineered Formwork Systems: These systems use prefabricated modules made of metal, plastic,
or composite materials. Examples include Peri, Doka, and Meva systems. They are efficient, offer
good quality finishes, and are suitable for high-rise buildings.

3. Climbing Formwork Systems: Also known as jump forms, these systems are used for vertical
structures like high-rise cores. The formwork "climbs" up the building as each floor is completed,
reducing the need for dismantling and re-assembly.

4. Slip Formwork: Similar to climbing formwork, slip formwork is a continuous method used for tall
structures with a consistent shape, like chimneys and silos. The formwork is slowly moved upward
as the concrete is poured.

5. Tunnel Formwork: This method is used for repetitive structures like apartment buildings. It involves
forming walls and slabs in one continuous pour, creating a tunnel-like structure that is efficient and
cost-effective.

Common Formwork-Related Constraints in High-Rise Construction:

1. Verticality and Alignment: Ensuring the formwork is accurately aligned and vertical is crucial for
maintaining the structural integrity and aesthetics of the building. Any deviation can result in
uneven surfaces or structural issues.

2. Concrete Pressure: In high-rise construction, the pressure exerted by the wet concrete on the
formwork increases with the height of the building. Proper design and construction of formwork
are essential to withstand this pressure and prevent failure.

3. Safety: Working at heights poses significant safety risks for construction workers. Formwork
systems must be designed and installed to ensure the safety of workers and prevent accidents.

4. Material and Equipment Availability: High-rise construction requires large quantities of formwork
materials and equipment. Ensuring their availability and timely delivery is crucial to avoid delays in
construction.

5. Cost: Formwork can account for a significant portion of the overall construction cost in high-rise
buildings. Optimizing formwork design and material usage is essential to minimize costs.

6. Time Constraints: High-rise construction projects often have tight schedules. Formwork must be
installed, poured, and removed efficiently to meet project deadlines.

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 18ARC82 June/July 2023
Explain prefabrication, its advantages and disadvantages.
Pre-fabrication refers to the process of manufacturing building components or modules off-site in a
controlled environment before transporting them to the construction site for assembly. This approach
contrasts with traditional on-site construction, where building components are typically fabricated on-
site.
The need for pre-fabrication in the construction industry arises from several factors:

1. Speed and Efficiency: Pre-fabrication can significantly reduce construction time by allowing
multiple components to be manufactured simultaneously, thereby accelerating the overall
construction process.

2. Cost-Effectiveness: By streamlining the manufacturing process and reducing on-site labor

requirements, pre-fabrication can lead to cost savings for construction projects.

3. Quality Control: Manufacturing building components in a controlled environment can result in

higher quality products with fewer defects compared to traditional on-site construction methods.

4. Safety: Pre-fabrication can improve safety on construction sites by minimizing on-site work and
reducing the risk of accidents.

5. Sustainability: Pre-fabrication can be more environmentally friendly than traditional construction

methods, as it can reduce waste and energy consumption during the construction process.

Elaborate on comparative analysis between aluminum form work and

conventional timber form work.

Aluminum Formwork Timber Formwork

Durability: Less durable than aluminum.

Durability: Highly durable and resistant to
Susceptible to moisture, warping, and insect
corrosion. Can be used repeatedly for many
Material damage. Typically used for fewer cycles (5-10
cycles (up to 200-300 uses).
Properties and uses).
Durability:
Weight: Lightweight, which makes it easier
Weight: Heavier than aluminum, which can make
to handle and reduces labor fatigue.
handling and transportation more labor-intensive.

Initial Cost: Higher initial investment due to

the cost of aluminum and manufacturing. Initial Cost: Lower initial investment.

Cost:
Long-Term Cost: More cost-effective in the Long-Term Cost: Higher long-term costs due to
long run due to its high reuse potential and frequent replacements and repairs.
durability.

Setup and Dismantling: Faster assembly and

disassembly due to the precision- Setup and Dismantling: More time-consuming due
Construction engineered panels and modular system. to the need for custom cutting and fitting on-site.
Speed and
Efficiency: Efficiency: Consistent and precise Efficiency: More prone to human error, which can
construction, reducing errors and increasing slow down the construction process.
overall efficiency.

Surface Finish: May result in a rougher surface

Surface Finish: Provides a smooth and high-
finish, often requiring additional plastering or
quality surface finish, reducing the need for
finishing.
Quality of further plastering or finishing.
Finish:
Consistency: Variable quality due to natural
Consistency: Ensures consistent quality
imperfections in timber and the potential for
across all concrete surfaces.
human error.

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 Sustainability: Timber is a renewable resource,
Sustainability: Aluminum is recyclable and
but frequent replacement increases deforestation
has a long lifecycle, reducing waste.
and waste.
Environmental
Impact: Energy Use: Production of aluminum is
Energy Use: Lower energy use in production, but
energy-intensive, though this is offset by its
frequent disposal and replacement contribute to a
durability and reusability.
higher overall environmental impact.

Design Flexibility: Less flexible for complex

Design Flexibility: Highly adaptable and flexible
or non-standard shapes due to its
for custom shapes and sizes.
prefabricated nature.
Flexibility and
Adaptability: Adaptability: Easy to modify and adjust on-site,
Adaptability: Requires precise planning and
making it suitable for complex or irregular
design; modifications on-site are
designs.
challenging.

Safety: Lightweight nature reduces the risk

Safety: Heavier to handle, increasing the risk of
of handling injuries. The modular system
Safety: lifting injuries. Wood can splinter, posing
ensures stability and safety during
additional safety hazards.
assembly.

Write short notes on box Caisson's and Coffer dam.

Box Caissons
Introduction
Box caissons are large watertight structures used in the construction of foundations for bridges, piers,
and other marine structures. These caissons are typically prefabricated off-site and then floated to the
desired location, where they are sunk into place and filled with concrete to form a permanent
foundation. Box caissons are crucial in scenarios where building directly on the waterbed is impractical
due to deep water or soft soil conditions.
Design and Construction
Box caissons are designed as hollow, box-like structures with an open bottom and closed top. The
walls are typically made of reinforced concrete or steel. The caisson's buoyancy allows it to be floated
to the construction site, where it is then gradually sunk by allowing water to enter its chambers.

1. Prefabrication: The caisson is constructed in a dry dock or fabrication yard. The materials used for
construction can vary, but reinforced concrete is common due to its strength and durability. Steel
caissons are also used, especially in situations where lighter weight and ease of transport are
important.

2. Transportation: Once the caisson is completed, the dry dock is flooded, allowing the caisson to
float. It is then towed to the construction site. This transportation can involve significant logistical
planning, especially for large structures.

3. Sinking: At the construction site, water is gradually allowed to enter the caisson’s chambers,
causing it to sink. The process is carefully controlled to ensure that the caisson sinks evenly and
settles correctly on the prepared foundation bed.

4. Placement and Anchoring: The caisson is carefully positioned using guide cables or other
positioning systems to ensure it settles in the exact desired location. Once in place, it is anchored
by filling it with concrete or other heavy materials to provide the necessary stability and weight.

5. Sealing and Dewatering: After placement, the caisson’s interior is sealed, and any remaining water
inside is pumped out. This creates a dry working environment inside the caisson, allowing
construction crews to work on the foundation or other internal structures.

Applications
Box caissons are used in various marine construction projects, including:

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 Bridge Foundations: Providing stable foundations for piers and abutments in deep water.

Port and Harbor Construction: Supporting piers, wharves, and other marine structures.

Offshore Structures: Serving as foundations for oil rigs and other offshore installations.

Pumping Stations and Water Intake Structures: Facilitating the construction of structures in deep
water environments.

Advantages

Stability: Box caissons provide a stable and robust foundation in deep water and challenging soil
conditions.

Prefabrication: Construction in a controlled environment ensures high quality and precision.

Rapid Installation: Once transported to the site, the installation process can be relatively quick.

Durability: Constructed from durable materials, box caissons can provide long-lasting support.

Disadvantages

High Initial Cost: Prefabrication and transportation can be expensive.

Logistical Challenges: Transporting large caissons can be complex and require specialized
equipment.

Sinking Process: Requires careful control to ensure proper placement and avoid tilting or sinking
incorrectly.

Coffer Dams
Introduction
Cofferdams are temporary enclosures built within or across bodies of water to create a dry work
environment for the construction of permanent structures. These structures are essential in civil
engineering projects involving bridge piers, dams, and other water-based constructions. Cofferdams
allow construction activities to proceed in areas that would otherwise be submerged, by diverting
water or creating a barrier to isolate the work site.
Design and Types
Cofferdams can be made from various materials and come in several designs, depending on the
specific project requirements and site conditions.

1. Sheet Pile Cofferdams: These are the most common type, consisting of interlocking steel sheet
piles driven into the ground to form a continuous barrier. The sheet piles are driven deep enough to
prevent water from seeping underneath the cofferdam.

2. Earth-filled Cofferdams: Constructed using earth or rock fill, these cofferdams are suitable for
large areas where the water depth is not very significant. The fill material is placed and compacted
to create a barrier.

3. Rock-filled Cofferdams: Similar to earth-filled, but using rock as the fill material, providing more
stability and resistance to water pressure.

4. Braced Cofferdams: These involve a framework of horizontal and vertical braces supporting the
sheet piles or other materials. Braced cofferdams are often used in deep water or where additional
stability is required.

5. Cellular Cofferdams: Made up of interconnected steel cells filled with earth or rock. These are
typically used for larger projects where significant water depth and pressure are involved.

Construction Process

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 1. Site Preparation: The site is surveyed and prepared, which may involve dredging or leveling the
seabed or riverbed.

2. Driving Piles or Placement: For sheet pile cofferdams, steel piles are driven into the ground using
pile drivers. For earth or rock-filled cofferdams, the fill material is placed and compacted to form a
barrier.

3. Bracing and Support: In the case of braced cofferdams, a framework of braces is installed to
support the structure and ensure stability.

4. Sealing: The cofferdam is sealed to prevent water from entering. This may involve additional piling
or the use of waterproof membranes.

5. Dewatering: Pumps are used to remove water from within the cofferdam, creating a dry work
environment. The dewatering process must be maintained throughout the construction period.

6. Construction Activities: With the dry work area established, construction of the permanent
structure can proceed.

Applications
Cofferdams are used in various construction scenarios, including:

Bridge Piers and Abutments: Providing dry conditions for constructing foundations in rivers or
lakes.

Dam Repairs: Allowing repair work to be carried out on existing dams.

Marine Construction: Facilitating the construction of piers, wharves, and other marine structures.

Water Intakes and Outfalls: Enabling the construction of structures for water supply or wastewater
discharge.

Advantages

Dry Work Environment: Essential for construction activities that require dry conditions.

Flexibility: Can be designed and constructed to suit various site conditions and project
requirements.

Reusability: Components such as steel sheet piles can be reused for multiple projects.

Disadvantages

Cost: Can be expensive, especially for large or complex projects.

Environmental Impact: Construction and dewatering can have significant impacts on the local
environment and water quality.

Time-Consuming: The installation and removal of cofferdams can add time to the overall project
schedule.

18ARC82 Dec’23/Jan’24
Explain any four environmental and any four structural factors of enclosure
systems of multistoried buildings.
In the context of high-rise buildings, an enclosure system refers to the exterior envelope or skin of the
building that separates the interior from the exterior environment. It serves several functions, including
providing protection from weather elements, regulating temperature and humidity, and enhancing the
building's aesthetic appeal.
Primary Types of Enclosure Systems Used in High-Rise Construction:

1. Curtain Wall Systems: Curtain walls are non-structural exterior cladding systems that are attached
to the building's frame. They are typically made of glass, metal, or stone panels and provide a

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 lightweight and efficient solution for enclosing high-rise buildings.

2. Window Wall Systems: Window wall systems are similar to curtain walls but incorporate operable
windows within the system. They offer the benefits of natural ventilation and daylighting while
maintaining the sleek appearance of a curtain wall.

3. Precast Concrete Panels: Precast concrete panels are manufactured off-site and then transported
to the construction site for installation. They provide a durable and cost-effective solution for
enclosing high-rise buildings.

4. Metal Panels: Metal panels, such as aluminum composite panels or corrugated metal panels, are
lightweight and versatile. They can be used as a cladding material for high-rise buildings, providing
a modern and industrial aesthetic.

5. Stone Cladding: Stone cladding involves attaching thin slices of natural or engineered stone to the
building's exterior. It provides a durable and elegant finish for high-rise buildings but can be heavy
and costly.

6. Brick Cladding: Brick cladding involves attaching brick veneers to the building's exterior. It
provides a traditional and timeless look but can be labor-intensive and costly.

The choice of enclosure system for a high-rise building depends on factors such as climate, building
design, budget, and aesthetic preferences. Each type of system has its advantages and limitations,
and the selection should be based on a comprehensive analysis of these factors to ensure a
successful and efficient enclosure solution for the building.
Explain any two types of formwork used for construction of high rise buildings.
Formwork in high-rise construction refers to the temporary molds or structures used to support and
shape concrete until it hardens and gains enough strength to support itself. Formwork is essential in
high-rise construction to create the structural elements such as walls, columns, slabs, and beams.

1. Traditional Timber Formwork: Timber formwork is the oldest method and is still used in some
situations. It's suitable for small to medium-sized projects but can be labor-intensive and time-
consuming.

2. Engineered Formwork Systems: These systems use prefabricated modules made of metal, plastic,
or composite materials. Examples include Peri, Doka, and Meva systems. They are efficient, offer
good quality finishes, and are suitable for high-rise buildings.

3. Climbing Formwork Systems: Also known as jump forms, these systems are used for vertical
structures like high-rise cores. The formwork "climbs" up the building as each floor is completed,
reducing the need for dismantling and re-assembly.

4. Slip Formwork: Similar to climbing formwork, slip formwork is a continuous method used for tall
structures with a consistent shape, like chimneys and silos. The formwork is slowly moved upward
as the concrete is poured.

5. Tunnel Formwork: This method is used for repetitive structures like apartment buildings. It involves
forming walls and slabs in one continuous pour, creating a tunnel-like structure that is efficient and
cost-effective.

Common Formwork-Related Constraints in High-Rise Construction:

1. Verticality and Alignment: Ensuring the formwork is accurately aligned and vertical is crucial for
maintaining the structural integrity and aesthetics of the building. Any deviation can result in
uneven surfaces or structural issues.

2. Concrete Pressure: In high-rise construction, the pressure exerted by the wet concrete on the
formwork increases with the height of the building. Proper design and construction of formwork
are essential to withstand this pressure and prevent failure.

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 3. Safety: Working at heights poses significant safety risks for construction workers. Formwork
systems must be designed and installed to ensure the safety of workers and prevent accidents.

4. Material and Equipment Availability: High-rise construction requires large quantities of formwork
materials and equipment. Ensuring their availability and timely delivery is crucial to avoid delays in
construction.

5. Cost: Formwork can account for a significant portion of the overall construction cost in high-rise
buildings. Optimizing formwork design and material usage is essential to minimize costs.

6. Time Constraints: High-rise construction projects often have tight schedules. Formwork must be
installed, poured, and removed efficiently to meet project deadlines.
Explain any four types of innovative concretes used in the construction industry.

1. Self-Healing Concrete
Description: Self-healing concrete contains bacteria or chemical agents that can repair cracks
automatically.

Components: Incorporates bacteria (e.g., Bacillus) or chemical agents (e.g., encapsulated polymers)
that activate upon exposure to water or air.

Applications: Infrastructure exposed to harsh conditions, such as bridges, tunnels, and marine
structures.

Advantages: Extends the lifespan of structures, reduces maintenance costs, and enhances durability.

Example: The Hams Hall project in the UK used self-healing concrete to repair cracks in a concrete
basin.

2. Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC)

Description: UHPC is a type of concrete that has superior strength, durability, and longevity compared
to traditional concrete.

Components: Contains fine powders, such as silica fume, and fibers for reinforcement, along with
high-quality cement and aggregates.

Applications: Bridges, precast concrete elements, high-rise buildings, and structures requiring high
load-bearing capacity.

Advantages: Exceptional strength, high durability, reduced thickness of structural elements, and
improved aesthetic finishes.

Example: The Mars Hill Bridge in Iowa, USA, uses UHPC for its enhanced load-bearing capacity and
durability.

3. Translucent Concrete
Description: Translucent concrete, also known as light-transmitting concrete, allows light to pass
through it.

Components: Integrates optical fibers or plastic fibers within the concrete mix.

Applications: Architectural features, facades, interior walls, and decorative elements.

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 Advantages: Enhances aesthetics, provides natural lighting, and can be used for energy-efficient
designs.

Example: The Litracon pXL series is a commercial product used in various architectural applications
for its light-transmitting properties.

4. Pervious Concrete
Description: Pervious concrete, also known as porous or permeable concrete, allows water to pass
through it, reducing runoff.

Components: Made with a mix of coarse aggregates, cement, water, and little to no fine aggregates.

Applications: Pavements, parking lots, driveways, and walkways.

Advantages: Reduces stormwater runoff, recharges groundwater, prevents flooding, and can help
mitigate urban heat islands.

Example: The use of pervious concrete in the parking areas of the Greenway Commons Shopping
Center in Texas helps manage stormwater efficiently.

5. High-Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (HPFRC)

Description: HPFRC incorporates fibrous materials to enhance concrete's structural integrity.

Components: Contains fibers such as steel, glass, synthetic, or natural fibers mixed into the concrete.

Applications: Bridges, high-rise buildings, industrial floors, and structures requiring enhanced
toughness and resistance to cracking.

Advantages: Increased tensile strength, enhanced durability, improved resistance to cracking and
impact, and better performance under dynamic loads.

Example: The Seonyu Footbridge in Seoul, South Korea, uses HPFRC for its improved structural
performance and durability under dynamic pedestrian loads.
Explain the construction methods of underground buildings.

Construction Methods of Underground Buildings

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