INGLÉS Creatividad léxica 1

TEMA 11: La palabra como signo lingüístico. Homonimia. Sinonimia.

Antonimia. “False friends”.Creatividad léxica.
Revisado: Fernando Colomer Serna
Contents:
1. Words as meaningful units.

2. Lexical relations.
2.1. Homonymy.
2.2. Synonymy.
2.3. Antonymy.
2.4. “False friends”.

3. Lexical creativity.
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3.1. The existence of productivity.

3.2. Productivity and creativity.

4. The future in Language teaching

5. Conclusions

6. Bibliography.

1. WORDS AS MEANINGFUL UNITS

It is generally agreed that the words, phrases and sentences of natural
languages have meaning, that sentences are composed of words (and
phrases), and that the meaning of a sentence is the product of the
words (and prases) of which it is composed.
But what is a word? And do all natural languages, in fact, have words?
These questions are not as easy to answer as they might appear to be
at first sight. One reason is that the term `word´ is ambiguous, both in
everyday usage and also as it is employed technically by linguists.
Words may be considered purely as forms, whether spoken or
written, or, alternatively, as composite expressions, which combine form
and meaning. Another reason why it is not as easy to say whether
something is or is not a word as non-linguists might think - or to say
whether all natural languages have words - is that several different
criteria come into play in the definition of words, both as forms and as
expressions, and these criteria are often in conflict. Moreover, some of
the criteria employed by linguists, taken separately, are such that they
REV.: 03/24

do not sharply divide words from non-words.

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Knowing that the word `word´ is ambiguous since it may be considered

either as forms or as expressions, we are going to begin then by
asking in what sense of `word´ it is true to say that sentences are
composed of words. There are, in fact, two quite different distinctions to
be taken into account, as we address this question. It is important not to
confuse the one with the other. The first is what the American
philosopher C.S.Peirce (1839-1914) referred to as the distinction
between words as tokens and words as types. This is readly explained
by means of a simple example. Consider the following sentence:

(1) ` He who laughs last laughs longest´.

From one point of view, it can be said to contain six words: it is six
words long. From another point of view, however, it can be said to
contain only five words, since two of the words - the third and the fifth
(laughs) - are identical: they are different tokens (or instances) of the
same type. Put like this, the notion of type/token identity is not difficult to
grasp. And, generally speaking, it is clear enough in everyday life
when the term `word´ is to be understood in the one sense rather than
the other with respect to Peirce´s distinction.

There is, however, a second distinction to be taken into account, which

is more relevant to our present concerns. This distinction too may be
explained by means of a simple example.

How many words are there in the following sentence:

(2) `If he is right and l am wrong, we are both in trouble´?

Once again, there are two correct answers to the question. But the fact
that this is so has nothing to do with the type/token distinction. It rests
upon the difference between words as forms and words as expressions.
There are thirteen forms in the sentence in question, and each of them
instantiates a different type. From this point of view, however, three
of the words - is, am, and are - would traditionally be regarded as
different forms as the same words. In one sense of `word´, therefore,
sentence (2) is composed of thirteen words; in another, equally common
and equally correct, sense of the term, it is composed of only eleven
words.
Let us express this difference in the meaning of `word´ by saying that
the sentence is composed of thirteen word-forms and eleven word-
expressions. It is word-expressions, not word-forms, that are listed and
defined in a conventional dictionary. And they are listed according to an
alphabetic ordering of their citation-forms: i.e., what are commonly
referrred to as the headwords of dictionary entries.
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In order to assign a meaning to the word-forms of which a sentence is

composed, we must be able to identify them, not merely as tokens, or
instances, of particular types, but as forms of particular expressions.
And tokens of the same type are not necessarily forms of the same
expression. For example, in the sentence
(3) `They have found it impossible to found hospitals or charitable
institutions of any kind without breaking the law´, the third and seventh
word-tokens (found) are tokens of the same type, but not forms of the
same expression.
The expressions of a language fall into two sets. One set, finite in
number, is made up of lexically simple expressions: lexemes. These are
the expressions that one would expect to find listed in a dictionary: they
are the vocabulary-units of a language, out of which the members of the
second set, lexically composite expressions, are constructed by
meansof the grammatical rules of the language.
Most word-expressions, in all languages that have words, are lexically
simple. However, in many languages, there are productive (derivational)
rules for what is traditionally called word-formation, which enable their
users to construct new word-expressions out of pre-existing lexically
simpler expressions.

For example, `politeness´ is constructed from the lexically simpler

expression, `polite´, by means of a productive rule of English word-
formation. Although many conventional dictionaries do in fact list
`politeness´ as a vocabulary-unit (i.e., provide for it a separate entry
with its own headword and definition), it is unnecessary to do so,
since both its meaning and its grammatical properties (as well as its
pronunciation) are fully predictable by rule.

Most phrasal expressions, in contrast with word-expressions, are

lexically composite. Indeed, all natural languages would appear to
contain rules for the construction of an infinite number of lexically
composite phrasal expressions. And it is an important principle of
modern formal semantics that the meaning of all such lexically
composite expressions should be systematically determinable on the
basis of the meaning of the simpler expressions of which they are
composed. Lexically simple phrasal expressions (i.e., phrasal lexemes)
include idiomatic phrasal lexemes.

The meaning of the lexically simple, idiomatic, phrase is not

systematically determinable (by rule) from the meaning of its constituent
lexemes. The distinction that has just been drawn between lexically
simple expressions (lexemes) and lexically composite expressions will
depend upon the model or theory of grammar with which the linguist is
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operating. But at whatever point the distinction is drawn between the

grammar of a language and its vocabulary (or lexicon), there will always
be borderline cases of expressions which can be classified, with equal
justification, as lexically composite. But some such distinction is, and
must be, drawn in the grammatical and semantic analysis of natural
languages.

Different forms of the same lexeme will generally, though not

necessarily, differ in meaning: they will share the same lexical meaning,
but differ in respect of their grammatical meaning. For example, the
forms girl and girls have the same lexical meaning (or meanings); but
they differ in respect of their grammatical meaning, in that one is the
singular form (of a noun of a particular subclass) and the other is the
plural form (of a noun of a particular subclass); and the difference
between singular forms and plural forms, or - to take another example -
the difference between the past, present and future forms of verbs, is
semantically relevant: it affects sentence-meaning. The meaning of a
sentence is determined partly by the meaning of the words (i.e.,
lexemes) of which it is composed and partly by its grammatical
meaning.

On the other hand, the relation between lexical and grammatical

meaning varies from language to language: what is encoded lexically
(lexicalized) in one language may be encoded grammatically
(grammaticalized) in another. The grammaticalization of meaning is not
simply, or primarily, a matter of inflection (even in languages whic,
unlike English, have a very rich inflectional system). Far more important
are the syntactic differences between one grammatical construction and
another.

At this point, however, it may be noted that, when word-forms are

considered, not just as forms, but as forms invested with grammatical
meaning, yet another sense both of `form´ and of `word´ comes to light.
Consider, for example, the following sentences:

(4) `That sheep over there belongs to the farmer next door´
(5) `Those sheep over there belong to the farmer next door´.

Is the second word-form of (4) the same as the second word-form of

(5)? The distinction that we have drawn between forms and expressions
does not, of itself, suffice to answer the question in a case like this.
Let usgrant immediately that the two word-forms are identical in respect
both of their phonological form (in the spoken language): they are
formally identical. But they are not grammatically identical.

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Whether we say that the second word-form of (4) is the same as

the second word-form of (5) depends, therefore, on whether, in putting
this question, we are concerned with formal identity alone - phonological
or orthographic, as the case may be - or with both formal and
grammatical identity. he two word-forms that occur in the second
position of (4) and
(5) are formally identical, but grammatically distinct, forms of the same
lexeme. More precisely, they are inflectionally, or morphosyntactically,
distinct forms of the same lexeme. The way in which this phenomenon
is handled by grammarians will differ according to the model of
grammar which they adopt.

2. LEXICAL RELATIONS
There are a number of different types of lexical relation, as we shall see.
A particular lexeme may be simultaneously in a number of these
relations, so that it may be more accurate to think of the lexicon as a
network, rather than a listing of words as in a published dictionary.
An important organizational principle in the lexicon is the lexical
field. This is a group of lexemes which belong to a particular activity or
area of specialist knowledge. One effect of lexical fields is that lexical
relations are more common between lexemes in the same field.
When we look at words as meaningful units we also have to deal with
the fact that, on the one hand, a single form may be combined with
several meanings and, on the other, the same meaning may be
combined with several word-forms. This fact is well recognized in
traditional grammar and lexicography and will be discussed later from a
fairly traditional point of view, in terms of the concepts of homonymy,
synonymy and antonymy.
2.1. Homonymy
Homonyms are unrelated senses of the same phonological word. Some
authors distinguish between homographs, senses of the same written
word, and homophones, senses of the same spoken word.
We can distinguish different types depending on their syntactic
behaviour, and spelling, for example:
1) lexemes of the same syntactic category, and with the same
spelling:
e.g. lap `circuit of a course´ and lap `part of body when sitting down´.
2) of the same category, but with different spelling: e.g. the verbs
ring and wring.

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3) of different categories, but with the same spelling: e.g. the verb
keep and the noun keep; of different categories, and whith different
spelling: e.g. not, knot.

Of course variations in pronunciation mean that not all speakers have

the same set of homonyms. Some English speakers for example
pronounce the pairs click and clique, or talk and torque, in the same
way, making these homonyms which are spelled differently.
Homonyms are traditionally defined as different words with the same
form. This definition can be immediately improved by substituting
`lexeme´ for `word´. But the definition is still defective in that it fails
to take account of the fact that, in many languages, most lexemes have
not one, but several, forms. Also, it says nothing about grammatical
equivalence.

Let us begin, therefore by establishing a notion of absolute

homonymy. Absolute homonyms will satisfy the following three
conditions (in addition to the necessary minimal condition for all kinds of
homonymy - identity of at least one form):
(1) they will be unrelated in meaning;
(2) all their forms will be identical;
(3) the identical forms will be grammatically equivalent.

Absolute homonymy is common enough: `bank1´, `bank2´;

`sole1´(“bottom of foot or shoe”), `sole2´ (“kind of fisk”); etc.

But there are also many different kinds of what is called as partial
homonymy: i.e., cases where:

▪ there is identity of (minimally) one form and

▪ one or two, but not all three, of the above conditions are satisfied.
For example, the verbs `find´ and `found´ share the form found, but
not finds, finding, or founds, founding, etc., and found as a form of
`find´ is not grammatically equivalent to found as a form of `found´. In
this case, as generally in English, the failure to satisfy (2) correlates
with the failure to satisfy (3). However, it is important to realize that
the last two conditions of absolute homonymy made explicit in the
previous paragraph are logically independent.
2.2. Synonymy
Expressions with the same meaning are synonymous. Two points
should be noted about this definition.
First it does not restrict the relation of synonymy to lexemes: it allows for
the possibility that lexically simple expressions may have the same
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meaning as lexically complex expressions. Second, it makes identity,

notmerely similarity, of meaning the criterion of synonymy.

In this latter respect, it differs from the definition of synonymy that will be
found in many standard dictionaries and the one with which
lexicographers themselves customarily operate. Many of the expressions
listed as synonymous in ordinary or specialized dictionaries (including
Roget´s Thesaurus and other dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms)
are what may be called near-synonyms: expressions that are more or
less similar, but not identical, in meaning. Near-synonymy is not to be
confused with various kinds of partial synonymy, which meet the
criterion of identity of meaning, but which, for various reasons, fail to
meet the conditions of what is generally referred to as absolute
synonymy. Typical examples of near-synonyms in English are `mist´ and
`fog´, `stream´ and `brook´, and `dive´ and `plunge´.

Absolute synonymy, in contrast not only with near-synonymy, but also

with the broader notion of synonymy, covers both absolute and partial
(i.e., non-absolute) synonymy. It is by now almost a truism that absolute
synonymy is extremely rare - at least as a relation between lexemes - in
natural languages. / It is not rare of course as a relation between lexically
composite expressions.) Two (or more) expressions are absolutely
synonymous if, and only if, they satisfy the following three conditions:

(1) all their meanings are identical;

(2) they are synonymous in all contexts;
(3) they are semantically equivalent (i.e., their meaning or meanings
are identical) on all dimensions of meaning, descriptive and non-
descriptive.
Although one or more of these conditions are commonly mentioned in
the literature, in discussions of absolute synonymy, it is seldom pointed
out that they are logically independent of one another; and non-absolute,
or partial synonymy is not always clearly distinguished from near-
synonymy.
Other definition of synonyms is that of different phonological words which
have the same or very similar meanings. Some examples might be the
pairs below:

couch / sofa boy / lad lawyer / attorney toilet / lavatory large /big
Even these few examples show that true or exact synonyms are very
rare. As Palmer (1981) notes, the synonyms often have different
distributions along a number of parameters. They may have belonged to
different dialects and then become synonyms for speakers familiar with
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both dialects, like Irish English press and British English cupboard. Or
the words may belong to different registers, those styles of language,
colloquial, formal, literary, etc. that belong to different situations.
Thus wife or spouse are more formal than old lady or missus.

The synonyms may portray positive or negative attitudes of the speaker:

for example naive or gullible seem more critical than ingenuous.

One or other of the synonyms may be collocationally restricted. For

example the sentences below might mean roughly the same contexts:

▪ She called out to the young lad.

▪ She called out to the young boy.

In other contexts, however, the words lad and boy have different
connotations; compare:

▪ He always was a bit of a lad.

▪ He always was a bit of a boy.

Or we might compare the synonymous pair (6) with the very different
pairin (7):

(6) a big house: a large house

(7) my big sister: my large sister.

As an example of such distributional effects on synonyms, we might

take the various words used for the police around the English-speaking
world:police, officer, cop, copper, etc. Some distributional constraints on
these words are regional, like Irish English the guards (from the Irish
garda), British English the old Bill, or American English the heat.

Formality is another factor: many of these words are of course slang

terms used in colloquial contexts instead of more formal terms like
police officer. Speaker attitude is a further distinguishing factor: some
words, like fuzz, flatfoot, pigs or the slime, reveal negative speaker
attitudes, while others like cop seem neutral.

Finally, as an example of collocation effects, one can find speakers

saying a police car or a cop car, but not very likely are a guards car or
anOld Bill car.

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2.3. Antonymy

In traditional terminology, antonyms are words which are opposite in

meaning. It is useful, however, to identify several different types of
relationship under a more general label of opposition.
There are a number of relations which seem to involve words which
areat the same time related in meaning yet incompatible or contrasting:

1) Simple antonyms: This is a relation between words such that the

positive of one implies the negative of the other. The pairs are also
sometimes called complementary pairs or binary pairs. In effect, the
words form a two-term classification. Examples would include:

dead / alive (of e.g. animals)

pass / fail (a test)
hit / miss ( a target)

So, using these words literally, dead implies not alive, etc. which
explainsthe semantic oddness of sentences like:

▪ My pet python is dead but luckily it´s still alive.

Of course speakers can creatively alter these two-term classifications
for special effects: we can speak of someone being half dead; or we
know that in horror films the undead are not alive in the normal sense.
2) Gradable antonyms: This is a relationship between opposites where
the positive of one term does not necessarily imply the negative of the
other, e.g. rich / poor, fast / slow, young / old, beautiful / ugly.
This relation is typically associated with adjectives and has two major
identifying characteristics: firstly, there are usually intermediate terms
so that between the gradable antonyms hot and cold can find:
(8) hot (warm tepid cool) cold

This means of course that something may be neither hot nor cold.
Secondly, the terms are usually relative, so a thick pencil is likely to be
thinner than a thin girl; and a late dinosaur fodssil is earlier than an early
Elvis record.
A third characteristic is taht in some pairs one term is more basic and
common, so for example of the pair long / short, it is more natural to ask
of something How long is it? than How short is it? For other pairs there
is no such pattern: How hot is it? and How cold is it? are equally natural
depending on context. Other examples of gradable antonyms are: tall /
short, clever / stupid, near / far, interesting / boring.
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3) Reverses: The characteristic reverse relation is between terms

describing movement, where one term describes movement in one
direction, , and the other the same movement in the opposite
direction, ; for example the terms push and pull on a swing door,
which tell you in which direction to apply force. Other such pairs are
come / go, go / return, ascend / descend. When describig motion the
following can be reverses: (go) up / down, (go) in / out, (turn) right /
left.
By extension, the term is also applied to any process which can be
reversed: so other reverses are inflate / deflate, expand / contract, fill /
empty or knit / unravel.

4) Converses: These are terms which describe a relation between

two entities from alternate viewpoints, as in the pairs:

(9) own / belong to

above / below
employer /
employee

Thus if we are told Alan owns this book then we know automatically
This book belongs to Alan. Again, these relations are part of a
speaker´s semantic knowledge and explain why the two sentences
below are paraphrases, i.e. can be used to describe the same
situation:

(10) My office is above the library.

(11) The library is below my office.

5) Taxonomic sisters: The term anotonymy is sometimes used to

describe words which are at the same level in a taxonomy.
Taxonomies are classification systems; we take as an example the
colour adjectivesin English, and give a selection below:

(12)(12)red orange yellow green blue purple brown

We can say that the words red and blue are sister-members of the
same taxonomy and therefore incompatible with each other. Hence one
can say:

(13) His car isn´t red, it´s blue.

Other taxonomies might include the days of the week: Sunday, Monday,
Tuesday, etc., or any of the taxonomies we use to describe the natural
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world, like types of dog: poodle, setter, bulldog, etc. Some taxonomies
are closed, like days of the week: we can´t easily add another day,
without changing the whole system. Others are open, like the flavours
of icecream sold in an ice cream parlour: someone can always come
upwith a new flavour and extend the taxonomy.

2.4. “False Friends”

“False friends” or “false cognates” are words or expressions which have

the same form but different meaning. They may occur inside a same
language (intralinguistics) or between two or more languages
(extralinguistics).

Its origin is very diverse and the reason may be cause of changes of
sense through the time (“gay” = a cheerful person, has changed to
have a completely different meaning = homosexual), to geographical
distances ( “biscuit” has the meaning of “galleta” in British English and
“bizcocho” in American English), or to cultural phenomena (“feminist” in
Japanese is generally used for describing a man who is too respected
with women).

Although the translator must not be afraid of the literal translation of the
words which seem to mean the same in both languages; however it is
necessary that the translator knows the “false friends” which are
produced inside the language and between the two languages in
contact,for taking them into account in the translation.

The last ones, that is to say, the extralinguistic false friends, are
interferences which contaminate the idiom, and which may produce
totally wrong translations. The examples below show that a word in
Spanish is not equivalent to one word in English only by its physical
similarity; the spelling is equal, but the meaning is different.

“Actual” does not mean “actual” in Spanish, but “efectivo” or “real”; or

“eventually” does not mean in Spanish “eventualmente”, but “por fin”,
“a la larga” or “en definitiva”, while the corresponding English term for
the Spanish “eventual” will be “casual, provisional”. Let us see several
examples:
(14) “A happy occurrence” = “Un acontecimiento feliz”.
(15) “A very novel style of dressing” = “Un estilo muy original de
vestir”.
(16) “What are you miserable about? = “¿Por qué estás tan triste?”.
(17) “A miserable life” = “Una vida desgraciada”.
(18) “He is making his life a misery” = “Le está amargando la vida”.
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(19) “Peculiar situation” = “Situación especial (rara, insólita)”.

(20) “l cannot resist ice-creams” = “Me encantan los helados”.
(21) “This food is very rich” = “Esta comida es muy pesada”.
(22) “A sensible answer” = “Una respuesta sensata (razonable)”.
(23) “l do really sympathize” = “Lo siento de verdad”.
As can be seen by the examples, similar significants of both languages
have different meanings, for what the suitable expression must be
chosen to define the idea that the speech requires.

3. LEXICAL CREATIVITY
3.1. The existence of productivity
So far it has been implicit that word-formation is productive, but this
position has not been argued for. In fact, it is probably not
controversial to claim that it is productive according to Adams (1973),
Jespersen (1942), Bauer (1978), Quirk (1972), etc. Nevertheless,
productivity remains one of the most contested areas in the study of
word-formation, and several articles and books have written specifically
on this area. This is not because there is dispute over whether particular
processess of word-formation are productive; the dispute concerns the
extent to which word-formation can be said to be productive in general.

It is worth reiterating that certain processes of word-formation, at least,

are clearly productive. In German, any infinitive can be used as a noun,
independent of whether it has previously been used that way or not. In
English, -er can be added to any new verbal base to give a new lexeme
which means `the person who carries out the action of the verb´.

Also in English the suffix -ful can be added to the name of any container
to provide a noun: canful, pocketful, skipful, etc.
The productivity of word-formation has, over the centuries, been a major
factor in providing the huge vocabulary of English, and the fact that the
process of creating new lexemes with new forms has not faded out can
be seen by consulting a dictionary of neologisms, such as Barnhart et
al. (1973).
New forms also occur regularly in the press (particularly in headlines
and advertisements), and letters to the editors such prestigious journals
as The Times often show just how aware the reading public is of new
forms and new uses of old forms. In this sense the productivity of word-
formation can be taken as a fact which any theory of word-formation will
be called upon to explain.
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3.2. Productivity and creativity

Following Lyons, a distinction will be drawn here between productivity

and creativity. Productivity is one of the defining features of human
language, and is that property of language which allows a native
speaker to produce an infinitely large number of sentences, many (or
most) of which have never been produced before. It is assumed that
productivity is to be accounted for by the rules of a generative
grammar. Creativity, on the other hand, is the native speaker´s ability
to extend the language system in a motivated, but unpredictable (non-
rule-governed) way.

Both productivity and creativity give rise to large numbers of

neologisms.

4. THE FUTURE IN LANGUAGE TEACHING

The different aspects of word meaning mentioned in this study are also
relevant to learning Foreign language vocabulary. Differences between
learners' native vocabulary Language (L1) and foreign language (L2)
can lead to the following types of problems: First, false friends are
cases in which L1 and L2 predicates have identical (or similar)
butdifferent forms.
Second, differences in L2 are not performed at the first level (i.e.
city/village vs City/Ciudad).This study considers the word as a linguistic
sign within the scope of lexical semantics in order to establish it.
The relative similarities between the two languages will be useful to
Spanish-speaking students to learn English if their attention is drawn to
these links. ESL Spanish for adults and students often notice that there
is a big gap between Spanish and English, but he gets it

5.BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Adams, V. (1973). “An Introduction to Modern English Word-
Formation”. Longman. London.
 Bauer, L. (1989). “English Word-Formation”. Cambridge University
Press. London: New York.
 de la Cruz, l. (1999). “La Homofonía en Inglés Contemporáneo:
Estudio Histórico”. Servicio de Publicaciones. Universidad de Alcalá.
Madrid.
 Jespersen, O. (1942). “A Modern English Grammar on Historical
Principles. Part Vl. Morphology”. George Allen et al (eds). London.

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 INGLÉS Creatividad léxica 14

 Lyons, J. (1995). “Linguistic Semantics. An Introduction”. Cambridge

University Press. London.
 Lyons, J. (1997). “Semantics”. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press.
London.
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