Removal of Microplastics Via Drinking Water Treatment

Removal of microplastics via drinking water
treatment: Current knowledge and future

directions
Author links open overlay
panelMaocai Shen , Biao Song , Yuan Zhu , Guangming Zeng, Yaxin
1 1 1
Zhang, Yuanyuan Yang, Xiaofeng Wen, Ming Chen, Huan Yi

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126612Get rights and content
Abstract
The occurrence of microplastics in drinking water systems has
increasingly become a major environmental challenge. Although the
potential impacts of microplastics in drinking water on humans are
not yet fully understood, microplastics attract the public health
concern when they are consumed by humans through drinking water
systems. Current drinking water treatment plants constitute an
obstacle to the entry of microplastics from raw water into daily
drinking water. Therefore, understanding the behaviors of drinking
water treatment process and the fates of microplastics in drinking
water treatment plants are very important. We systematically reviewed
the available knowledge on the global existence of microplastics in raw
water, treated water and tap water in this paper. This will offer a new
perspective for the threat of microplastics in drinking water to human
health and help to formulate effective strategies for microplastic
monitoring. The existing knowledge of microplastic removal by
different treatment processes was also thoroughly discussed.
Additionally, the potential challenges of microplastic removal from
treatment processes and remediation strategies of microplastics in
drinking water were also put forward. The relationship between the
properties and behavior of microplastics during different treatment
processes is suggested to explore in the future.
Graphical abstract
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Introduction
Plastic was once praised as “the great invention of the 20th century”,
but now the harm caused by improper management of plastic products
is increasingly recognized by the masses. Global plastic production has
reached 359 million tons in 2018 (PlasticsEurope, 2019; Shen et al.,
2019b, 2020), and up to 13 million tons of them were discharged into
the oceans (Jambeck et al., 2015). It is expected that a total of 250
million tons of plastics will be discharged by 2025 (Jambeck et al.,
2015). The use value of plastics may range from one to fifteen years,
which depends on how they are used before being treated as plastic
waste (PlasticsEurope, 2017). Plastics in the environment will
gradually be decomposed to microplastics under various conditions
(Auta et al., 2017; Shen et al., 2019, 2019c). Microplastics usually refer
to plastic particles with a size ranging from 0.1 μm–5 mm (Anderson
et al., 2017; Thompson et al., 2004; Wen et al., 2018), while plastic
particles with a size less than 0.1 μm are defined as nanoplastics (Da
Costa et al., 2016; Enfrin et al., 2019; Shen et al., 2019d). However,
this classification of microplastics and nanoplastics has not yet
formally recognized (Frias and Nash, 2019; Hartmann et al., 2019a,
2019b; Stark, 2019).
The presence of microplastics in water environment, such as rivers,
lakes and oceans, has thoroughly been reviewed (Horton et al., 2017;
Jiang, 2018; Mendoza et al., 2018). Freshwater (surface water and
groundwater) is the main source of human drinking water (Yi et al.,
2018). The open and closed freshwater systems can be used as
microplastic pipelines and sink tanks. Evidences have shown that
microplastics have been detected in freshwaters around the world
(Anderson et al., 2017; Di and Wang, 2018; Eriksen et al., 2013; Wang
et al., 2018b), even in remote regions (Free et al., 2014). The
occurrence of microplastics in freshwater ranged from almost zero to
several millions particles per cubic meter.
Drinking water is closely related to human health, therefore, it is
suspected that microplastics from drinking water pose a potential risk
to humans (Novotna et al., 2019). Despite limited information on
human health risk of microplastics (Triebskorn et al., 2019), they
should be considered as emerging pollutants in drinking water, at least
in some ways. Neither governmental legislative standard restriction on
the presence of microplastics nor any direct microplastic removal
techniques in drinking water have been done. Recently, several
techniques and methods, such as coagulation and membrane
separation, have been tried to remove microplastics from drinking
water (Ma et al., 2018, 2019). However, due to the limitations of
technologies, there are still great challenges this aspect. Each removal
process has its own advantages and disadvantages. Evidence showed
that the concentrations of microplastics varied from zero to thousands
particles per litre in drinking water worldwide (Novotna et al., 2019).
As such, the presence of microplastics in drinking water and their
removal cannot be overlooked.
Although a growing studies focus on microplastics in drinking water,
there is a lack of corresponding connection between them.
Understanding the origin of microplastics, the mechanisms of
microplastic removal and the potential risks of microplastics in
drinking water to human health may help to develop new strategies for
monitoring and mitigating microplastic persistence in drinking water
systems (Song et al., 2017). In this paper, the available data of
microplastic occurrence in drinking water systems (tap water, treated
distributed water, and bottled water) and main sources of
microplastics in raw water were systematically and critically
summarized with the purpose of establishing effective monitoring and
mitigating strategies. The removal of microplastics by drinking water
treatment processes and impact on subsequent processing were
discussed. Remediation strategies of microplastics were examined by
reviewing the different aspects including source control, enhancement
of microplastic removal efficiency, and development of new methods
for plastic removal. Lastly, the future directions are also put forward.
This study can provide a guidance to find research needs and
knowledge gaps in drinking water treatment and microplastics.
Section snippets
Microplastic sources and occurrences in drinking water

Freshwater is the main raw water source for agricultural, industry,
energy production and human consumption. Seawater is sometimes
used, as only freshwater sources are scarce. However, seawater
desalination treatment requires high energy and costs. Surface
freshwater, including river, lake and reservoir water, and groundwater
are the main raw sources for drinking water. These raw water sources
are easily contaminated by agricultural and industrial activities, and
animal farming discharges (
Strategies for removing microplastics by drinking water

treatment
Drinking water treatment plants are generally designed to ameliorate
water quality to meet the standard for social consumption. The
purpose of traditional drinking water treatment is to ensure the safety
of drinking water to humans through removing physical, chemical and
biological contaminants, such as suspended particles, heavy metal and
microbes. Therefore, DWTPs play a vital role in preventing
microplastics from transferring into the drinking water from raw
water. However, at present,
Coagulation
Coagulations are widely used in DWTPs to remove pollutants in water.
Due to the high efficiency and low investment, chemical coagulants
such as aluminum salts (AlCl ·6H O, Al (SO ) ·18H O and
3 2 2 4 3 2
KAl(SO ) ·12H O) and iron salts (FeCl ·6H O and Fe (SO ) ·9H O) are
4 2 2 3 2 2 4 3 2
usually used. According to the properties of water, a certain amount of

coagulants is added to form flocculent substance to encapsulate
suspended particles and deposit at the bottom of the pond (Fig. 4).
This process is controlled by
Remediation strategies of microplastic pollution in

freshwater environment
Because plastic products are widely used in daily life, the way of
accepting contaminants in water environment is more complex.
Further research on microplastics in drinking water should focus on as
follow:
 1)
Establishing policy and regulation to control microplastic
pollution sources and enhancing the public understanding of
microplastics;
 2)
Strictly supervising the discharge of microplastic wastewater
from relevant enterprises, and upgrading or developing removal
equipment to clean up the
Conclusions
At present, microplastics have been found in drinking water including
tap water and bottled water. However, evidences have shown that the
number of microplastics varies greatly from several to thousands
particles per volume water. In addition to the diversity of samples
investigated, changes in sampling, sample pretreatment, and
analytical methods may also lead to some differences in microplastic
concentrations. Despite the potential health risk of microplastics to
human are not yet understood,
Declaration of competing interest
The authors have no conflict of interest to declare regarding this
article.
Acknowledgements
The study is financially supported by the Program for the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (51521006), the Program for
Changjiang Scholars, Innovative Research Team in University (IRT-
13R17), and The Three Gorges Follow-up Research
Project (2017HXXY-05).
References (94)
Microplastics pollution in wastewater:

Characteristics, occurrence and removal
technologies
Author links open overlay panelXuan-Thanh Bui , Thi-Dieu- a b
Hien Vo , Phuong-Thao Nguyen , Van-Truc Nguyen , Thanh-Son Da

c a b d
o , Phuoc-Dan Nguyen
a b d
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2020.101013Get rights and content
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) are one of the emerging pollutants that have
gained the most attention recently. The widespread distribution and
potential for its adverse impact on human health and the ecosystem
have been warned. MPs have been introduced into the environment by
various routes such as direct disposal through human activities, textile
industry and wastewater treatment systems. Recently, the reduction of
MPs from wastewater treatment systems has been attracted much
attention from the scientific community. There have been many
reviews on the emission sources, distribution and impacts of MP in
environment. However, the better understanding of MPs removal
efficiencies by different wastewater treatment technologies has not
been reviewed and discussed. Therefore, the objective of this review is
to provide technologies to be applied in MPs removal. In addition,
basic knowledge about MPs in water body such as characteristics,
emission sources, transport path and its impact on human health and
the ecosystem was also presented and discussed. This review is
expected to provide useful information to scientists as well as decision
makers to continue researching, developing and proposing an effective
strategy to control and prevent water pollution from MPs.
Graphical abstract

Introduction
According to Statista’s statistical data, global plastic production
increased rapidly from 1.5 million tons in 1950 to 359 million tons in
2018. Although recovered after consumption, a large amount of
plastics is still released into the environment. In Europe, for example,
plastic collection increased by 19% in 2018 compared to 2006.
However, there were still about 25% buried in landfills. According to
report of UNEP (2020), only about 9% of plastic is recycled, 12% is
incinerated and 79% is buried or discharged into the environment. In
2014, there were between 15 and 51 trillion microplastic particles
estimated in the world’s oceans, weighing from 93,000 to 236,000
tons (Ioakeimidis et al., 2016). From the reviewing data, Barnes et al.
(2009) has also shown that there has been a steady increase in the
number of microplastics (MPs) in seawater over the last decade but
there is an increasing trend on the shorelines. MP pollution is a newly
emerged matter upon the world because of the wide consumption of
plastics in most aspects of human activities as well as domestic and
industrial wastewater without proper treatment. MPs worldwide
distribution in aquatic environment was discovered in the recent
years, for example, Northeast Atlantic ocean was discovered in 89% of
water contains a concentration of 2.46 particles/m , also 95% of Arctic
3
Polar Waters contains MPs concentration of 0–1.31

particles/m3 (Lusher et al., 2014); Jade Bay, South–North Sea
contains 1.77 particles/m (Dubaish and Liebezeit, 2013). Due to the
3
widely spread of MPs, especially in aquatic environment, marine life is

threatened by being exposed to MPs with different impact levels
depending on the possibility of leaching toxic chemicals from plastics
additives and adsorbed pollutants such as metals, pesticides or
persistent organic pollutants (Fossi et al., 2014, van Emmerik et al.,
2018). Not only MPs are toxic but it can also serve as reservoirs for
pathogen transmission and threatening marine life (Kor and
Mehdinia, 2020). The phenomenon happened mostly in marine
habitats and yet to be known about the specific effect on human
health. However, marine lives are in the middle of the food chain and
serve as a major source of nutrients for human daily consumption. As
suggested by Goldstein and Goodwin (2013), MPs can be considered
as reservoirs for pathogen transmission so marine lives if containing
pathogens of any kind, then, can also be a threat to human
consumption and health can be at great risk. Some previous studies
showed that the microorganism was negatively affected by the
environment containing MPs (Zhao et al., 2020, Ziajahromi et al.,
2018). To mitigate this risk, in addition to a worldwide campaign to
reduce plastic use and disposal, the ability to remove microplastics
from municipal/industrial wastewater treatment systems is also an
important contribution. MPs were eliminated by many different
technologies, e.g. grit chamber and primary sedimentation (Bayo et
al., 2020, Lares et al., 2018, Murphy et al., 2016), dissolved air
flotation (Talvitie et al., 2017a, Talvitie et al., 2017b), coagulation
(Hidayaturrahman and Lee, 2019), sand filtration (Wang et al., 2020),
rapid (gravity) sand filter (RSF) (Hidayaturrahman and Lee, 2019),
granular activated carbon (GAC) filtration (Wang et al., 2020),
membrane disc-filters (DF) (Talvitie et al., 2017a), activated sludge
process (Edo et al., 2020, Magni et al., 2019), membrane bioreactor
(MBR) (Lares et al., 2018), and ozonation (Chen et al., 2018). Up to
now, some reviews related to MP removal technology from water
solution have been published. For example, Ziajahromi et al. (2016)
presented a review of MPs traces in the output of wastewater
treatment systems, the interaction of MPs with organic matters and
potential risks to the ecosystem. Kang et al. (2018) also conducted an
overview of the shape, size, sources and presence of MPs in the
influent and effluent of the various urban wastewater treatment
systems. Zhang and Chen (2019) had an overview of the impacts of
MPs on the performance of the wastewater and sludge treatment
systems. Hu et al. (2019) reviewed on sources, sampling, pre-
treatment of sample, characteristics for MPs and their occurrence in
the effluent and sludge of wastewater treatment systems. In the review
of Sun et al. (2019), analytical techniques, the presence of MPs in the
inputs and outputs of wastewater treatment systems in different
countries were discussed. In general, the elimination of MPs for each
technology has not been adequately clarified. Thus, in order to have
more overview of MPs pollution in the wastewater treatment
processes, the characteristics and presence of MPs, the removal
efficiency as well as challenges of each MPs treatment technology were
presented in the study. Moreover, characteristics, emission sources,
transport, influence human health and ecosystem of MPs were also
discussed. This review was expected to provide useful information for
a suggestion of improvement and highlight the further research areas
of MPs removal technologies that are possibly to be employed in
wastewater treatment.
Section snippets
Characteristics of microplastics and their emission sources
Potential hazards and risks of MPs to the environment together with
human health depends on their physical and chemical properties. MPs
are defined as plastics with a size smaller than 5 mm (small MPs: 0.3–
1 mm and large MPs: 1–5 mm)(Lebreton et al., 2018). MPs can be
classified into two main types primary and secondary. Primary MPs in
the environment are commonly emitted from MP-containing products
(e.g. toothpaste, soaps, cosmetics, cleansers, etc.), while secondary
MPs were decay from
Fate and transport of microplastics in the environment

Based on the origin, plastic is divided into two main categories such as
primary and secondary. For instance, the primary MPs usually from
domestic products which are from personal care products, facial
scrubs, toothpaste, etc. are transported into wastewater treatment
plants before entering to the rivers or ocean as well. Secondary plastics
are decomposed from large pieces of plastic under physicochemical
and biological conditions. These types of plastics are eliminated
unconsciously (illegal
How microplastics influence human health and ecosystem

Nowadays, plastic pollution is one of the most serious environmental
issues worldwide (Chae and An, 2017) and its occurrence and impacts
are of environmental, ecological and human health concerns. There
have been more investigations on the influences of microplastics than
macroplastics on organism focusing on aquatic animals. Large
organisms (e.g. large fish, reptiles, birds, mammals) are impacted by
both micro- and macroplastics whereas smaller organisms
(e.g. zooplankton, worms, coral,
Removal technologies for microplastics

This study was based on the various criteria analysis of the MPs
removal efficiency of present treatments, which is mainly applied to
remove MPs. It also highlights the advantages and disadvantages of
friendly environmental, technological and economic aspects of each
method such as skimming and sedimentation, coagulation, ozonation,
rapid sand filter, dissolved air flotation, conventional activated sludge
and membrane bioreactor (MBR) (Table 3).
Conclusions and future perspectives

Plastics production and consumption are on the rise, resulting in
increased risks to human health and the ecosystem. In addition to the
plan to reduce the consumption of plastics and to find alternative
sources of material, a better understanding of the technologies to
eliminate microplastics (MPs) is essential and has been discussed in
this work. From the review results, an average of 70% of the MPs were
removed in the primary treatment. At this step, the function of
dissolved air flotation
Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by Ho Chi Minh City University of
Technology, Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh under the
grant number Tc-MTTN-2019-07. This study has been conducted
under the framework of CARE-RESCIF initiative. In addition, the
authors would like to thank for literature data summary of Mr. Minh-
Thanh Lai, Ms. Ngoc-Bao-Tran Nguyen, Ms. Ngoc-Huyen Pham, Ms.
Tuong-Khanh Nguyen, Mr. Quoc-Thai Pham, Ms. Quynh-Chi Nguyen,
Mr. Quang-Vinh Tran, Ms. Laura Stocco Blanche and other
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.125982Get rights and content
Abstract
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are the primary recipients of
microplastics (MPs), prior to their discharge into natural waterbodies.
The aim of this article is to summarize the generation process of MPs
and the efficiency of their removal by treatment technologies currently
adopted by WWTPs, as well as the influence of sludge treatment on
the fragmentation of MPs. WWTPs mainly remove MPs by means of
adhesion, sedimentation, and filtration. The average removal
efficiency of MPs is less than 90% and is affected by the choice
of wastewater treatment process and the properties of MPs (such as
the size, density and morphology). The secretion of biological enzymes
by microbes and the metabolites of biofilm may promote
the hydrolysis of microbial carrier materials, resulting in the release of
endogenous MPs under shear force. Furthermore, during wastewater
pumping, disinfection and sludge thermal hydrolysis treatment, MPs
may form sub-micron-scale secondary MPs through mechanical,
ultraviolet, ozone and thermal degradation processes. Processes such
as thermal drying of sludge and lime stabilization have been found to
lead to the fragmentation of MPs increase the specific surface area and
number of MPs, leading to an increase in the potential ecological
threat posed by MPs in sludge. Currently, the level of MP pollution
throughout the environment is continually increasing. This review will
help improve wastewater and sludge treatment processes, effectively
reducing the risk of MPs entering the natural water bodies and soil
through WWTPs.
Graphical abstract

Introduction
In recent years, microplastics (MPs) have attracted increasing
research attention. MPs are plastic particles and fragments smaller
than 5 mm in diameter (Thompson et al., 2009), which can be
categorized as either primary or secondary MPs. Primary MPs include
fragments or particles with an initial diameter of 5 mm or less before
entering the environment (Cheung and Fok, 2017), such as
microbeads in personal care products and synthetic textile fibers
(Napper et al., 2015). Larger plastic fragments (such as bottles,
packaging and bags) exposed to sunlight and other environmental or
mechanical stress can break up to form secondary MPs (Fok and
Cheung, 2015). Plastics are rarely pure polymers, as during their
manufacture a suite of additives such as plasticizers, flame retardants,
and pigments, are usually added to them. Therefore, MPs can serve as
a carrier for various toxic pollutants, including heavy metals,
polybrominated diphenyl ethers, polychlorinated biphenyls, and other
contaminants such as polyfluoroalkyl substances, pharmaceuticals and
personal care products (Hossain et al., 2020). And it is hard for MPs
to be degraded through weathering, ageing and microbial processes,
which leading to their massive accumulation in the environment
(Hossain et al., 2020).
Since Browne et al. (2011) first reported the similarity between MPs in
shoreline sediment samples and those in sewage generated by
wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), there has been increasing
evidence that WWTP effluents are an important source of MPs in the
aquatic environment (Li et al., 2018). Primpke and Gerdts (2017)
investigated the composition of MPs in 12 WWTPs with an annual
wastewater treatment volume of approximately 1.85 × 10 to 5
1.3 × 10 m , estimating that each sewage treatment plant released

7 3
between 9 × 10 and 4 × 10 MP particles and fibers into the receiving

7 9
water body annually. Furthermore, Mainland China alone discharges

209.7 trillion microbeads (about 306.9 tons) into natural waterbodies
annually (Cheung and Fok, 2017). Of this total discharge, about 80%
of MPs are transferred to the surface water environment via WWTPs,
with WWTP sludge samples found to contain high concentrations of
MPs. For example, a study showed that isolated MPs from sludge at
concentrations ranging from 4.2 to 15.4 × 10 MP/kg (dry sludge)
3
(Mahon et al., 2017). At present, land use is one of the most important
methods of sludge disposal (Singh and Agrawal, 2008). Various EU
countries have diverted sludge from landfill and incineration for use in
agriculture, resulting in large volumes of dewatered sludge entering
the soil environment. In some countries, such as Ireland, up to 80% of
urban sludge is reused for agricultural purposes (Singh and Agrawal,
2008), leading to the widespread accumulation of MPs in farmland
soils, which presents a major challenge for sustainable agricultural
development and food security.
This article aims to provide a comprehensive review to better
understand fate of MPs in WWTPs. The specific objectives are: (i) MP
removal mechanisms and effects using different WWTP treatment
processes; (ii) Possible stages of MP production in WWTPs and the
formation mechanisms of secondary and endogenous MPs; (iii) The
morphological changes in MPs enriched in sludge during treatment
and potential removal methods. This review lays the foundation for a
comprehensive understanding of MP removal mechanisms in WWTPs,
supporting the improvement of MP removal rates by WWTPs and
providing a reference for understanding the conversion of MPs in
WWTPs.
Section snippets
Methodology
The literature search performed for this review used the following
databases: ScienceDirect (http://www.sciencedirect.com), Web of
Science (https://webofknowledge.com), SpringerLink
(http://link.springer.com), ACS Publications (http://pubs.acs.org),
and RSC Publishing (http://pubs.rsc.org). The keywords used in the
search were: microplastic, wastewater, wastewater treatment plants,
plastic fragments, microdebris, plastic waste. We also examined the
reference lists of articles identified in the
Removal of MPs in WWTPs

In recent years, studies have shown that WWTPs can effectively
remove MPs in sewage through primary, secondary and tertiary
treatment processes. Talvitie et al. (2017a) reported that the rate of
removal of MPs by Kenkäveronniemi WWTP (Mikkeli, Finland)
reached up to 99.9%, although the removal efficiency by different
WWTPs varies significantly. As shown in Table 1, the removal rate of
MPs by some WWTPs has been reported to be less than 50% and
numerous studies have reported that the removal
Formation of secondary and endogenous MPs during

wastewater treatment
At present, the main sources of MPs in WWTPs are considered to be
microbeads from personal care products (Napper and Thompson,
2016), polyester, nylon and other fibers (Napper et al., 2015), as well
as primary MPs from packaging materials and textile industry raw
materials (Xu et al., 2019). However, studies have largely ignored
another important sources of MPs, secondary MPs and the production
of MPs by WWTP treatment processes. Sand filtration, ultraviolet
disinfection and biological
Fragmentation of MPs during sludge disposal

As shown in Table 1, WWTPs generally provide a high MP removal
rate, with a large proportion of MPs trapped during WWTPs
processes. Therefore, a majority of the remaining MPs are transferred
to WWTP sludge, which is often directly applied in green construction
and as an agricultural fertilizer, resulting in sludge being a significant
route for the release of MPs into soils and aquatic environments. On
average, with each successive application of sewage sludge the MP
load of soils is increased
Conclusions
WWTPs are an important route for the release of MPs from domestic
and industrial wastewater into the natural environment. The average
MP removal rates observed in the current study do not reach the
previously reported levels of 99%, with the removal rates reported in
some studies being less than 30%. The removal effect of MPs is
affected by the choice of wastewater treatment process applied in
WWTPs, as well as factors such as the material, morphology, size and
density of MPs. For the same

Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the funding provided by
the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
No. 21876044), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central
Universities (Grant No. B200202110), and the Priority Academic
Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions.
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Wastewater treatment plants as a source of microplastics to an urban
estuary : removal efficiencies and loading per capita over one year
Water Res. X
(2019)
 I. Donelli et al.
Surface structure and properties of poly-(ethylene terephthalate)
hydrolyzed by alkali and cutinase
Polym. Degrad. Stabil.
(2010)
 E.M. Eckert et al.
Microplastics increase impact of treated wastewater on freshwater
microbial community
Environ. Pollut.
(2018)
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Author links open overlay panelAmir Hossein Hamidian , Elnaz a b
Jafari Ozumchelouei , Farzaneh Feizi , Chenxi Wu , Yu Zhang , Mi

c a d e b e
n Yang a b e
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Abstract
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are known to be one of the
main and most important sources of microplastics discharge into the
environment. Although the occurrence and distribution of
microplastics (MPs) in various environments have been extensively
investigated, their characteristics in certain environmental matrices
remain almost unknown. This paper aims to review strategies for
sampling, sample pretreatment, and characterization of MPs detected
in WWTPs and sewage sludge. In addition, this paper will review the
efficiency of WWTPs in the removal of microplastic particles as well as
their fate and implications as a source of toxic chemicals. According to
literature, microplastics in water samples are mostly comprised of
secondary ones (fibers and fragments) with the main polymers
composed of polyethylene
terephthalate (PET), polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP), and
polyethylene (PE). A significant proportion of particles are removed
during the initial stages of primary and secondary treatment, while
membrane bioreactor (MBR) is found to be the most efficient tertiary
treatment technology. The removal rate is affected by the
characteristics of MPs such as size, shape, and density. The majority of
microplastics eliminated during wastewater treatment are prone to be
found in sewage sludge. Thus, billions of MPs are released into the
environment via sewage sludge applications each year. Microplastics
can also act as a specific layer that adsorbs and transports distinct
pathogenic/bacterial taxa assemblages and promotes the persistence
of antibiotic resistance genes in wastewater treatment plants.
Therefore, the current study provides an overview of recent research
regarding MPs occurrence and removal in WWTPs and sewage sludge.
Introduction
Aquatic environments are currently under pressure from many
anthropogenic activities (Hamidian et al., 2019) with numerous direct
(Mirzajani et al., 2016) and indirect (Rezaei Kalvani et al., 2019)
effects on both organisms (Mirzajani et al., 2015) and ecosystems
(Rajaei et al., 2012). World plastics production has experienced
continuous growth increasing from 5 Mt (Mega ton) during the 1950s
to more than 300 Mt in 2015. Asia’s share is more than 49% of the
world plastics production (Plastics Europe, 2015). Lebreton and
Andrady (2019) calculated that 60 to 99 Mt of plastic wastes were
produced globally in 2015 approximately and it can be increased to
155–265 Mt y by 2060. In the future, the plastic waste discharge load
−1
will continue to be extremely high, even on the Asian and African

continents (Lebreton and Andrady, 2019). The plastics pollution issue
has become very important in which 2018 was called the year of
overcoming plastics pollution. Synthetic polymers are light and
resistant combinations with excellent thermal and electric
characteristics that can be shaped in almost any form. A large majority
of plastics is used in the packaging industry. The extensive use of these
materials has resulted in a significant increase in plastics garbage,
while its recycling rate remains very low. In 2012, only 26.3% of all
plastics garbage in Europe was recycled (Plastics-the facts, 2013).
The efforts of the scientific community turned toward the MPs
pollution field in the early 21st century. Initially, MPs were considered
very small pieces of plastics in the sea (Tan et al., 2019). MPs were
later defined as particles up to 5 mm (Hidalgo-Ruz et al., 2012). MPs
are classified into different types on the basis of size, form, polymeric
combination, and source. Based on the source, they are further
categorized into primary and secondary microplastics. Sources of
primary microplastics are domestic products such as facial cleanser,
body scrubs, cosmetics, small balls of scrubber used in cleanser
products, powders, and industrial products such as abrasive plastic
balls used to clean ships, etc. in both marine (Moore, 2008) and
freshwater (Wagner et al., 2014) environments. Secondary sources of
MPs include household products, industrial products, automobile
tires, color flakiness, and plastics production fragmentation (Nizzetto
et al., 2016). In other words, secondary sources of microplastic involve
the breakdown of bigger plastic objects, when they enter the
environment (Napper et al., 2015); however, primary sources include
particles and fibers deriving from the erosion of products while they
are in use, as well as the direct insert of microplastic sized materials,
for instance, microbeads applied in cosmetics and pre-manufactured
pellets (Napper and Thompson, 2016).
Synthetic clothes can be considered as microplastic fibers in both
primary and secondary sources. Boucher and Friot (2017)
approximated that 35% of all primary microplastics in oceans
worldwide come from synthetic textile laundry (Boucher and Friot,
2017). The release of microplastic-sized fibers resulting from textile
washing has been extensively recorded as a possible source of
microplastics (Essel et al., 2015). Indeed, this fragmentation of large
objects such as clothes does not primarily happen in the environment
but the laundry washing machines (Browne et al., 2011); hence,
clothes can be considered primary and secondary sources. It has been
reported that fiber-size MPs are released daily as a result of textile
cleaning (GESAMP, 2015). Generally, secondary microplastics are
created as a result of macroplastic degradation due to UV radiation,
mechanical erosion, and biologic analysis (Horton et al., 2017). This
process will be continued creating much smaller particles, down to
nano sizes (Imhof et al., 2013).
The occurrence and distribution of MPs in diverse environments have
been investigated extensively. However, their origins and fates in some
environmental matrices remain uncertain. WWTPs are known to be
one of the biggest sources of MPs (Ziajahromi et al., 2017). While the
effects (Khazaee et al., 2015) and removal methods for other
pollutants (Taheri et al., 2013) have been extensively studied, gaps
remain in the field of emerging pollutants (Padash Barmchi et al.,
2015) including MPs. The aim of this paper was to conduct a holistic
review on the literature concerning the materials and methods to spot
MPs and to characterize their physicochemical properties and
abundance in both influent and effluent of WWTPs and sewage sludge,
and finally to detect their possible major sources and fate. Moreover,
the efficiency of WWTPs/various technologies in removing
microplastic particles and the impact of these plants as a source and
media for toxic chemical formation and release were reviewed.
Section snippets
Methods for microplastic detection in WWTPs

Microplastic identification in WWTPs typically involves three stages:
sample collection, sample pretreatment, and microplastics
characterization/measurement, although the techniques applied in
each step are not systematized yet.
Wastewater treatment plants as a source of microplastic

Many studies have been conducted in different countries to evaluate
the impact of WWTPs in discharging MP pollution. In spite of the high
efficiency of wastewater treatment plants, all studies found the
presence of MPs in their effluents (Table 1). WWTPs have been
regarded as a substantial source of MPs, but different technologies
applied in WWTPs can impact the microplastic removal efficiency.
The release of 0.34–0.68 g microplastics per capita in treated
wastewater is reported annually that
Treatments and removal of microplastic in WWTPs

Wastewaters usually undergo four treatment stages; preliminary,
primary, secondary, and tertiary or advanced treatment (Mojoudi
et al., 2018). Preliminary treatment removes materials that can
damage or suppress the function of downstream processes including
rags, sticks, floatables, grit and grease (Burton et al., 2014). The
preliminary treatment is based on physical removal of pollutants, and
primary treatment is on the basis of physical and chemical removal of
floating and settable substances
Microplastic abundance in WWTPs

Considering the high MPs removal efficiency of wastewater treatment
plants, negligible concentrations (mainly lower than 0.5particle/L)
have been reported in many studies around the world (e.g. Brown
et al., 2017 in the USA; Razeghi et al., 2021 in Iran and Lv et al., 2019
in China). But considering the continuous and large discharge of water
from WWTPs into the environment; a significant concentration of
MPs are released in urban areas every day. Long et al. (2019)
estimated that ∼6.5 × 10 8
Size distribution and its relation with MP type

Studies indicate that there is a relationship between size distribution
and microplastic type in WWTPs. In a full-scale WWTP, the
predominant sizes of MPs were reported >500 μm (40%) and 62.5 and
125 μm (29%) (Lv et al., 2019). Fiber is reported as the major
microplastic type between small and large particles (Le Tarte et al.,
2019). Large particles (1 mm) are comprised of 22%, 17%, 17%, 13%,
and 31% of fibers, fragments, films, pellets/beads, and foams,
respectively (Le Tarte et al., 2019),
Sewage sludge
Sewage sludge is a sink for microplastic pollution in wastewater
treatment facilities, but if mismanaged it is also a source for MPs in
terrestrial environments. MPs are trapped in the sewage sludge
through the process of sedimentation in both primary and secondary
treatments (Table 1).
Removal of MP additives in WWTPs

Plastics may contain up to 4% of their weight as additives such as
plasticizers, antioxidants, lubricants, adhesives, corrosion inhibitors,
heat stabilizers, or flame retardants (Bayo et al., 2018). In spite of the
high removal efficiency, WWTP can act as a source and sink of
additives associated with MPs (Turner et al., 2019). During the life
cycle of the plastic products, these additives can seep out and become
a threat to the ecosystem, even though part of them can be removed in
WWTPs during
MP biofilms and bacterial assemblage

One of the developing concerns about microplastic particles is related
to the formation of biofilm communities on MPs in wastewater and
freshwater matrices. Bacterial assemblage composition changes as a
function of source water, physicochemical properties of MPs (such as
surface roughness and hydrophobicity), microparticle
type/morphology, physiological properties of colonizing bacteria, etc.
(McCormick et al., 2016). Parrish and Fahrenfeld (2019) claimed that
the discrepancies found between
Toxicological hazard of MPs

Microplastic particle pollution represents a toxicological threat
because of their ability to accumulate and transport toxic metals,
persistent organic pollution, pharmaceuticals, and personal care
products. During the wastewater treatment process, alternations in
MP physicochemical characteristics (more porous and rougher
surface), surface degradation features, pH value, and sludge inorganic
and organic constituents also have an impact on adsorption of MPs on
metals, pharmaceuticals, and
Conclusion
WWTPs are considered an important rout of MPs entering the aquatic
environment and consequently posing threat to both humans and the
ecosystem. Methods for sample collection, pre-treatment, and
characterization of microplastics in WWTPs remarkably vary among
studies and there is a lack of standardized methods for the
investigation of MPs in WWTP-derived samples, causing difficulties in
comparing different studies. Up to now, analyzing with FTIR or
Raman techniques is the best option to identify
Suggestions for future studies

Since MPs sampling and detection approaches can considerably
impact the outcome of its quantification and characterization, it is
necessary to be standardized. Additionally, current studies
investigating MPs in WWTPs mostly evaluate the MPs >20 μm.
Reports, however, demonstrate that smaller microplastic particles are
observed in large numbers in water matrices and may be more
biotoxic due to their ability to penetrate into the circulatory system of
aquatic organisms. As a result, it is

Acknowledgement
This manuscript was supported by Iran National Science
Foundation (INSF) under the contract No. 97002416 and CHINESE
ACADEMY OF SCI CAS President’s International Fellowship
Initiative. Grant No. 2016VMC033.
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plants: Detection, occurrence and removal
panelJing Sun , Xiaohu Dai , Qilin Wang , Mark C.M. van
a b a b c
Loosdrecht , Bing-Jie Ni
d a b
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.12.050Get rights and content
Abstract
Microplastics have aroused increasing concern as they pose threats to
aquatic species as well as human beings. They do not only contribute
to accumulation of plastics in the environment, but due to absorption
they can also contribute to spreading of micropollutants in the
environment. Studies indicated that wastewater treatment
plants (WWTPs) play an important role in releasing microplastics to
the environment. Therefore, effective detection of the microplastics
and understanding their occurrence and fate in WWTPs are of great
importance towards microplastics control. In this review, the up-to-
date status on the detection, occurrence and removal of microplastics
in WWTPs are comprehensively reviewed. Specifically, the different
techniques used for collecting microplastics from both wastewater
and sewage sludge, and their pretreatment and characterization
methods are reviewed and analyzed. The key aspects regarding
microplastics occurrence in WWTPs, such as concentrations, total
discharges, materials, shapes and sizes are summarized and
compared. Microplastics removal in different treatment stages and
their retention in sewage sludge are explored. The development of
potential microplastics-targeted treatment technologies is also
presented. Although previous researches in microplastics have
undoubtedly improved our level of understanding, it is clear that much
remains to be learned about microplastics in WWTPs, as many
unanswered questions and thereby concerns still remain; some of
these important future research areas are outlined. The key challenges
appear to be to harmonize detection methods as well as microplastics
mitigation from wastewater and sewage sludge.
Graphical abstract

Introduction
Microplastics, often defined as plastic particles < 5 mm (Thompson,
2015), have aroused increasing concerns as they pose threat to aquatic
species as well as human beings. Microplastics can be directly
manufactured, known as primary microplastics, and be used in many
personal care and cosmetic products (PPCPs) (Napper et al., 2015;
Van Wezel et al., 2016). Also, they can be formed by erosion of large
plastic debris via exposure to environmental stressors such as water,
wind and sunlight, which are defined as secondary microplastics
(Galgani et al., 2013; Singh and Sharma, 2008). The massive usage of
plastic products and poor management of plastic waste disposal lead
to microplastics being ubiquitously found in aquatic water bodies,
including rivers, lakes, estuaries, coastlines and marine ecosystems
(Eerkes-Medrano et al., 2015; Li et al., 2018a; Thompson, 2015; Van
Cauwenberghe et al., 2015).
Microplastics do not pose acute fatal effects on living organisms, they
could however cause chronic toxicity, which is considered as a key
issue in long term exposure (Li et al., 2018a). Microplastics induce
toxic effects through several mechanisms. Firstly, the toxicity could be
directly caused by the polymer materials used for manufacturing
plastic products. Polystyrene (PS) is a good example, which is widely
used in protective packaging, containers, bottles and lids, but is found
to be able to translocate in blood circulation and cause reproductive
disruption for marine filter feeders (Chen et al., 2006; Sussarellu
et al., 2016). Secondly, microplastics could inflict damage on
organisms and cause inflammation due to their small size and sharp
ends. It has been observed that ingestion of tiny microplastics could
cause malnutrition and alterations in reproduction for some
organisms (Besseling et al., 2014). A study also indicated that small
microplastics (<10 μm) could be translocated from the gut into the
circulatory system of aquatic species (Browne et al., 2008). In
addition, additives incorporated into plastics to improve their
properties could also be toxicants to organisms. For instance,
phthalates and polybrominated diphenyl ethers are two common
additives to improve plasticity and fire resistances of the plastics.
However, they are also well known as endocrine disrupting
compounds (EDCs). Studies have confirmed these chemicals were
present in human bodies and were anticipated to be accumulated
through bioaccumulation processes (Talsness et al., 2009; Teuten
et al., 2009). Furthermore, due to large surface area to volume ratio
and hydrophobic nature of the microplastics, they are effective in
adsorbing persistent organic pollutants (POPs), such as
polychlorinated biphenyles (PCBs) (Bakir et al., 2012). The POPs
adsorbed to plastics could reach up to 1 million times higher
concentrations than ambient concentrations and these compounds
can be further desorbed inside organisms, exacerbating POPs
bioaccumulation at higher trophic levels (Browne et al., 2013; Rios
et al., 2010).
A recent study indicated that wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs)
potentially played an important role in releasing microplastics to the
environment (Browne et al., 2011). Microbeads added into facial
cleanser, toothpaste can be directly discharged into wastewater
through human activities (Cheung and Fok, 2017; Fendall and Sewell,
2009). Also, synthetic clothing, such as polyester (PES) and nylon,
might shed thousands of fibers into wastewater during the washing
process (Browne, 2015; Napper and Thompson, 2016). The WWTP
may remove some of the microplastics depending on the treatment
units employed. However, it has been shown that microplastics could
bypass the WWTP, entering into the aquatic water bodies and finally
accumulated in the environment (Carr et al., 2016; Murphy et al.,
2016). The issue of releasing of microplastics from WWTP has drawn
attention of a growing number of researchers more recently, with the
publication number growing exponentially in last three years
according to the search in the database of “Web of Science”
(http://apps.webofknowledge.com/) (Fig. S1(A), Supporting
Information). A large proportion of these studies worked on the
development of approaches suitable for sampling and identifying
microplastics in WWTPs (Fig. S1(B), SI). Wastewater and sewage
sludge samples were mainly collected using a container or a separate
pump and the microplastics were then extracted through various
steps. Spectroscopic techniques have been developed and optimized to
characterize the extracted microplastics. Another part of the studies
investigated the occurrence and removal of microplastics in WWTPs
(Fig. S1(B), SI). The reported concentrations of microplastics in
wastewater and sludge varied greatly in different WWTPs and the
polymer materials covered a wide range. The removal efficiencies of
microplastics by different treatment units were also evaluated
recently. However, so far, no attempt has been made to provide a
comprehensive summary on these findings.
This article aims to provide a comprehensive review to better
understand key aspects on WWTPs as an important pathway of
microplastics introducing to the environment, which includes: (1)
techniques applied to sample and detect microplastics in WWTPs; (2)
the occurrence of microplastics in WWTPs and their properties; and
(3) the removal of microplastics in WWTPs with different treatment
processes. Based on the review, the outlooks on key future research
directions are also discussed.
Section snippets
Techniques for microplastics detection in WWTPs

The detection of microplastics in WWTPs usually contains three steps,
i.e., sample collection, sample pretreatment and microplastics
characterization/quantification, as summarized in Fig. 1, though the
methods used in each step are not standardized yet. Different
techniques may be applied according to sample characteristics, since
microplastics can be present in both wastewater and sewage sludge.
Also, the techniques for identification of microplastics can result in
different dimensions in the
Microplastics concentrations in influent and effluent of

WWTPs
Microplastics were readily detected in both influent and effluent of
WWTPs, with their typical appearances as shown in Fig. 4 (A and B).
Table 1 summarizes the reported microplastics concentrations in the
influent and effluent of different WWTPs. The concentrations in each
individual WWTP are listed in Table S1 (SI). Microplastics in the
influent were only measured in a few WWTPs, with the particle
concentrations reported varying from 1 to 10044 particle/L. The
measured microplastics
Removal of microplastics in WWTPs

The removal of the microplastics by the WWTP was calculated based
on their concentrations in both the influent and effluent (Table 1).
Except for the study reported by (Leslie et al., 2017), the overall
microplastics removal efficiencies of WWTPs without tertiary
treatment were above 88% and the number increased to over 97% in
the WWTPs with tertiary treatment. The relatively low removal
efficiency reported by Leslie et al. (2017) was possibly because they
collected only 2 L of wastewater for
Conclusions and perspectives

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are regarded as an important
pathway of microplastics entering natural aquatic systems. In this
work, the detection, occurrence and removal of microplastics in
WWTPs are comprehensive reviewed. The key conclusions are:
 (1)
Methods for sampling and detection of microplastics in
wastewater treatment plants vary greatly among studies, which
results in difficulties in comparing results between studies.
Sample collection through separate pumping and filtration can
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Recruitment Program of Global
Experts, the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (No. 51578391 and No. 51608374), the Program for Young
Excellent Talents in Tongji University, the Fundamental Research
Funds for the Central Universities (No. 2016KJ012), and the State Key
Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse
Foundation (No. PCRRK18007).
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2021.105463Get rights and content
Abstract
The ubiquitous appearance of microplastics (MPs) in aquatic
environments brings about a growing concern for plastic pollution.
Although the MPs occurrence, transportation, fate, and impacts have
been summarized thoroughly, it calls for a better understanding of the
control and removal strategies for aquatic MPs. Herein, we
emphasized the positive effect of source control for MPs removal.
Besides, we systematically reviewed the published
removal technologies, including filtration, membrane technology,
density separation, coagulation, agglomeration, adsorption removal,
magnetic separation, oil film separation, froth flotation, and advanced
oxidation processes. We also put forward potential challenges and
possible improvement protocols for removal strategies and treatment
processes of MPs. Exploring MPs characteristics may facilitate the
removal technologies of MPs. A specific removal technology
contributes to the high removal efficiency under experimental
conditions, but in aquatic environments, a desirable extraction
requires large-scale experiments. At last, the removal strategies of
MPs can borrow separation methods with high-performance from
other fields.
Graphical Abstract

Introduction
Plastic production reached 348 million tons in 2017 after a sharp
growth [1]. The global production of plastic waste would increase to
ca. 12,000 million tons by 2050 [2]. Consequently, numerous plastic
waste is released, transported, and degraded in aquatic environments
[3]. Based on particle size, the plastic wastes impeded in environments
are macroplastics (> 25 mm), mesoplastics (5–25 mm), microplastics
(100 nm–5 mm), and nanoplastics (< 100 nm) [4]. The ubiquitous and
eternal occurrence of microplastics (MPs) in the abiotic and biotic
environments has gained much attention in the scientific and public
community due to their potential risks of toxicity, ingestion, and
inhalation [5], [6]. Despite proposing other upper size limits for
classification, such as 10 mm [7], 6 mm [8], 2 mm [9], and 1 mm [10],
MPs are recognized as the < 5 mm plastic debris generally.
It is crucial to understand MPs sources to prevent environmental
impacts from MPs [11]. MPs can originate from primary and
secondary sources. Primary MPs are intentionally manufactured with
a microscopic size, working as scrubbing particles in air-blasting,
exfoliants in cosmetics [12], [13], and drug vectors in medicine [14].
Primary MPs are inevitably subjected to further degradation that can
change their size, morphology, crystallinity, color, densities, and
surface functional groups [15]. Secondary MPs derive from the
breakdown of macro- and meso-plastic fragments under in-situ
chemical, physical, and biological degradation, which may be affected
by UV radiation, physical stress, and temperature [16]. Notably, the
microfibers from abrasion and shedding of textiles and tires are
identified as sources of secondary MPs as well [17], [18], [19].
Additionally, the MPs can also be classified as land-based MPs from
littering, using, and waste disposal [20] and ocean-based MPs from
commercial fishing. Land-based MPs contribute ca. 80% of plastic
litters in the ocean [21]. As shown in Table 1, the MPs have
increasingly hybrid characteristics from abundance, densities, and
appearance (film, bead, fiber, fragment, foam, and pellet) [22], which
impedes the source identification of MPs.
As shown in Fig. 1, we summarized the possible source, distribution,
and transportation of MPs in atmospheric, terrestrial, and marine
spaces, such as rivers, estuaries, oceans, atmosphere, and soil [25].
Urban activities (tires abrasion, paint shedding, and plastic/textile
industries) and household items (cosmetics, exfoliants, scrubbers, and
textiles) contribute the most MPs in wastewater treatment plants
(WWTPs) [26]. Microfibers in textiles can release to air via daily use,
becoming the major source of atmospheric MPs [27], [28]. The
suspended MPs in the atmosphere can also settle back to the surface of
land, rivers, and oceans by wet or dry deposition [29]. Rainfall is a
considerable power for MPs relocation because surface runoff can
transport more plastic debris by land erosion [30]. Therefore,
mismanaged plastic waste should be considered for evaluating MPs
pathways to aquatic environments [31]. He et al. provided preliminary
evidence that landfill seems a potential source for aquatic MPs rather
than a final site [32]. Plastic films, soil conditioners, and organic
fertilizers are documented as the main MPs source for soil
contamination [33], [34]. As alternatives for organic fertilizers, the
sewage sludge from WWTPs conveys MPs downstream during
skimming and settling processes [35].
As an anthropogenic contaminant, synthetic polymers with high
stability against environments pose long-term risks because they can
float and transport significant distances with high bioavailability [40],
[41]. Herein, we present MPs risks as physical damages and chemical
toxicities [42]. For physical damages, entanglement by derelict fishing
gear and ingestion/adherence of MPs fragments may kill ocean life or
block digestive systems [43], [44], [45], [46], [47]. From the
perspective of chemical toxicities, MPs can be the sources and sinks of
chemicals [48], [49], [50]. Myriad toxic chemicals can impose
deleterious effects to biodiversity via the adsorption-desorption cycle,
such as diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) [51], atrazine [52], triclosan
[53], Bisphenol A [54], perfluoroalkylates [55], [56], [57], and
chlorobenzene [58]. MPs may invade the food chain by direct
exposures, and trophic transfer in the food chain is key to the potential
hazards to human health. MPs have appeared in bottled mineral water
[59], [60], [61], commercial salt [62], [63], milk [64], beer [65], tap
water [66], and air [27].
In general, current researches appreciably documented the sources,
distribution, transportation, and impacts of MPs, but few researchers
designed schemes to ameliorate the MPs impacts. Therefore, we
provided a review of source control and removal strategies of MPs.
Source control becomes a preventive method to reduce MPs releasing
[67]. Additionally, scientists had sporadically contributed to the MPs
removal from aquatic environments [68], [69], [70]. But a passive
disposal strategy might only change the temporal and spatial
distribution of MPs [71], and the application of removal methods was
out of the evaluation. In this context, we critically reviewed the
removal strategies, including the analysis, recovery, and purification
methods of MPs. Besides, we introduced high-performance separation
methods from other fields, which may attract much more interest in
the scientific community. Because MPs removal is an emerging
scientific scope, it is an expedient approach to consider more
engineering aquatic environments than the natural counterparts.
Section snippets
Source control of MPs

The source control of MPs can be divided into production, application,
and discharge stages. More production and application of plastic
products may imply more plastic waste [72]. Therefore, each
procedure undertakes reducing MPs generation. For source control of
MPs, Lv et al. suggested banning the use of microbeads, styrofoam
products, and plastic bags, eliminating microfibers from laundry
facilities, and reducing MPs from WWTPs [73]. Besides, a concerted
effort of enterprises and governments
Techniques of MPs removal

Various techniques have been developed to separate solid particles
from aqueous systems, such as filtration, coagulation, adsorption,
froth flotation, and magnetic separation. Furthermore, researchers
devoted their attention to quantitative analysis by developing bench-
scale methods of extracting MPs. These techniques may become
potential candidates for MPs removal. We presented prospects of MPs
removal technologies based on tentative results and considered the
unique MPs characteristics to
Perspectives
Despite numerous studies for MPs occurrence and effect, there are few
critical reviews for the removal strategies of MPs. On the one hand, the
scientific community always pays attention to the available and
comparable preparation of MPs samples. On the other hand, the
researches on MPs removal usually derive from wastewater treatment
plants (WWTPs). More bench-scale experiments and less processing
exploration lead to the lack of continuous remediation methods in
bulk, which does not match the
Conclusions
Removal strategies of microplastics (MPs) are of importance for the
remediation of plastic contamination. We organized this review from
source control and removal technologies. The former aims to stop MPs
from entering aquatic environments at three stages of production,
application, and discharge. It suggests that policy arrangement, plastic
substitutes, processes improvement, and particle retention are
effective protocols for the source control of MPs. The latter evaluates
the application of
Declaration of Competing Interest
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (21878343 and 51804276), the China Postdoctoral Science
Foundation (2019T120639), and the Fundamental Research Funds for
the Central Universities of Central South University (2020zzts063).
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Removal of microplastics via drinking water

treatment: Current knowledge and future

Zhang, Yuanyuan Yang, Xiaofeng Wen, Ming Chen, Huan Yi

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Microplastic sources and occurrences in drinking water

Strategies for removing microplastics by drinking water

usually used. According to the properties of water, a certain amount of

Remediation strategies of microplastic pollution in

Microplastics pollution in wastewater:

Hien Vo , Phuong-Thao Nguyen , Van-Truc Nguyen , Thanh-Son Da

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Polar Waters contains MPs concentration of 0–1.31

widely spread of MPs, especially in aquatic environment, marine life is

Fate and transport of microplastics in the environment

How microplastics influence human health and ecosystem

Removal technologies for microplastics

Conclusions and future perspectives

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