QUADRANT I With the establishment of Hindu kingdoms in South India, the south Indian school of

architecture began to flourish. The most notable achievements of the Pallava rulers were
1. LEARNING OBJECTIVES the rock-cut temples of Mahabalipuram and the temples of Kanchipuram. The Chola,
Hoyasala and Vijayanagar rulers also did remarkable job in the field of architecture. The
After completing this module, students you will be able to: temples at Thanjavur, Belur and Halebid bear testimony to the architectural excellence of
the South Indian rulers.
To understand the concept of architecture through different styles.

To learn the different styles of Hindu, Buddhist and Islamic architecture.

To know the difference between the three kinds of architecture.

To learn about the places where these kinds of architectural monuments are found.

To establish the structural difference of these architectures.

2. INTRODUCTION

One of the most enduring achievements of Indian civilization is undoubtedly its

architecture. Indian architecture, which has evolved through centuries, is the result of
socio-economic and geographical conditions. Different types of Indian architectural
styles include a mass of expressions over space and time, transformed by the forces of
history considered unique to India. As a result of vast diversities, a vast range of
architectural specimens have evolved, retaining a certain amount of continuity across
history. In north India, there developed a new a different style of architecture. This
was called as the Nagara style architecture. In central India, the Chandela rulers
Indian architecture, belonging to different periods of history, bears the stamp of built a magnificent temple complex at Khajuraho. With the coming of the Muslim
respective periods. Though the cities of Indus Valley provide substantial evidence of rulers, there developed a new architectural style in India- the Indo-Islamic
extensive town planning, the beginnings of Indian architecture can be traced back to the architecture. The Indo-Islamic style was neither strictly Islamic nor strictly Hindu.
advent of Buddhism in India. It was in this period that a large number of magnificent The architecture of the medieval period can be divided into two main categories.
buildings came up. Some of the highlights of Buddhist art and architecture are the Great They are the Delhi or the Imperial Style and the Mughal Architecture.
Stupa at Sanchi and the rock-cut caves at Ajanta.
 It was followed by a new style of architecture that developed as a result of 3. HINDU ARCHITECTURE
colonization of India. This style of architecture came to be called as Indo-
Hindu architecture evolved over the centuries from simple rock-cut cave
Saracenic. The Indo-Saracenic architecture combined the features of Hindu,
shrines to massive and ornate temples which spread across the Indian sub-
Islamic and western elements. The colonial architecture exhibited itself through
continent and beyond, forming a canonical style which is still adhered to today in
institutional, civic and utilitarian buildings such as post offices, railway stations,
modern Hindu temples across the globe. Essential elements of the style are
rest houses and government buildings.
precise and harmonious geometry when viewed from all four sides and above, the
square form and grid ground plans, soaring towers, and elaborate decorate
At the end of the 12th century when the first Indian mosque was to
sculpture which includes gods, worshippers, erotic scenes, animals, and floral and
be constructed in Delhi, India had been developing stone construction for
geometric patterns.
thousands of years and its technology and aesthetics had almost reached
the stage of perfection.  Beginnings & Purpose

From the 1st century CE a new type of worship known as Bhakti or

devotional Hinduism spread across the Indian sub-continent, and the old
Their religious backgrounds were Buddhism in ancient times,
Vedic gods were replaced in importance by deities like Shiva, Vishnu,
Hinduism and Jainism in the medieval period. As they were born in the
Krishna, Brahma, and Devi. These gods would become the central figures of
same region and grew under the same climate, they did not have
Hinduism and their worship required temples where the devoted could offer
architectural differences basically. their thanks and reveal their hopes for a better life.
However, Islamic architecture had grown under a completely
different civilization and was alien architecture to India, having principles Buildings were constructed which could house a sacred symbol of a

and sense of beauty totally different from Indian traditional architecture. particular god, which could be decorated with sculptural figures of them so
recalling episodes from their mythological adventures, and which provided a
space for worshippers to leave offerings and perform rituals such as bathing
and dancing by professional female dancers (devadasi). The temple was
considered the dwelling place of a particular god (devalaya). It was, therefore,
a sacred place (tirtha) where heaven and earth meet and, as a god’s home, it
must be a suitably splendid palace (prasada). The needs of the god would,
additionally, be supervised by a dedicated body of priests (pujaris) who
attended the temple.

Hindus need not attend regular services, but an occasional walk around
the temple interior (circumambulation), known as pradaksina and done in a
clockwise direction, was considered auspicious. Further, they could say one of the most ornate is the 12th century CE Nataraja Temple at
prayers, look at the god’s representation – a specific act of piety known as Chidambaram in the Tamil Nadu.
darsan – and leave offerings of food and flowers (puja). Temples, inevitably,
Architecture evolved slightly differently in different regions, such as
became the very centre of a community and, accordingly, their upkeep was
the distinct features of Orissa, Kashmir and Bengal temples, but two general
guaranteed by land grants and endowments from the ruling class, as indicated
types are identified as the Nagara (North) and Dravida (South) styles. The
by inscriptions on many temples.
sikhara tower in Nagara temples have a sloping curve as they rise, have
decorative arches known as gavakshas, and are topped by an amalaka – a
large fluted stone disk – and also a small pot and finial. The walls of Nagara
 Early Influences
temples present a complex exterior of projections (known as ratha and
ultimately there would be seven on each side) which create many recesses. In
Influenced by early Buddhist structures such as the stupa, the first
contrast, Dravida towers (known separately as vimana) are more dome-like
Hindu temples were built from rock-cut caves and repeated the idea of relief
with cornices, and they are topped by another smaller dome. The exterior
panels and the decorative gavaska window form. Then, with the arrival of
walls of Dravida temples have regular entablatures which often contain
Gupta architecture in the 4th to 5th century CE, the first free-standing Hindu
sculpture. Southern Indian temples can also have a ritual bathing tank or pool
temples were constructed with features such as towers and projecting niches.
(nandi mandapa), may have a barrel-vaulted (shala) roof, and are typically
The first materials used were wood and terracotta, but architects enclosed within a walled courtyard with a gate (gopura) which over time
gradually moved on to brick and stone, especially sandstone, granite, schist, would become even more massive and ornate than the temple itself. The 11th
and marble. No mortar was used in the older temples and so precise cutting of century CE Brihadishvara Temple complex at Tanjavur is a wonderful
dressed stones was required. Outstanding examples of influential cave temples example which incorporates all of these features.
include those at Udaigiri in Malwa and date to the 5th century CE. Early free-
 Nagara Temples
standing temples survive at Deogarh and include the 6th century CE
Dasavatara temple dedicated to Vishnu.
The Nagara style is typically characterised by the architectural wonder,
Early temples consisted of only a garbhagriha, but over time additions which ideally portrayed the craftsmanship of the artists. A study of the
were built and copied across temple sites to create, by the 10th century CE, a temples of northern India reveals two distinct features, in Planning and in
canonical architectural style. The most obvious of these features were a Elevation. In plan, the temples were basically quadrangle with graduated
portico entrance (ardhamandapa) and pillared hall (mandapa) which led to projections in the centre. In elevation, it resembles a tower gradually inclining
the garbhagriha – features which developed in the Deccan from the 8th inwards in a convex curve. According to the plan the projections are carried
century CE. Even more impressive, above the garbhagriha a huge corbelled upwards to the top of the Sikhara, and thus there is strong emphasis on
tower was constructed, the sikhara. One of the earliest examples incorporating vertical lines in elevation. The Nagara style is spread across various parts of
these features can be found in Aiholi and the 8th century Durga temple, whilst India. It therefore, exhibits diverse verities and implications in separate
outlines of development and elaboration. Such plans and the curvilinear tower dwarfs. This is the first temple wherein the shoulder partakes
are, however, common to every medieval temple of northern India. of the projections of Sikhara and the Mandapa facade follows
On account of regional difference, architecture of the temples of the same scheme of ornamentation as the sanctum with the
Nagara style can be classified according to diverse regions, such as, Orissa, addition of an ornate projection on each side. It is surrounded
Central India, Rajputana, Gujarat and Kathiwar etc. by a pediment and crowned by a lion figure.

Fig. 2: Muktesvara temple.

Fig.1: Nagara Temple Structure. (Source: https://www.talepicker.com/9-beautiful-places-in-odisha-that-every-

(Source: http://everestias.com/nagaradravida-vesara-style-temple- travel-addict-must-visit-once/)
architectural-1/north-indian-temple-architecture-nagara1-jpg-1/)

 The Rajarani temple, roughly dates back to the early 11th

 The Muktesvara temple is regarded as a gem of Orissan
century, represents a unique experiment in Orissa. Its Sikhara
architecture. A low enclosure wall embellished with sculptured
is clustered by turrets including leaning spires and corner-
niches surrounds it. The temple is entered through an
spires, some of them crowned by double Amalakas, like the
elaborately ornamented Takaratorana that forms a unique and
temples of central India such as those of Khajuraho.
fitting entrance to this small but exquisitely ornate and well-
proportioned monument. The Sikhara is of five storeys and
shows on the central Ratha beautifully carved Chaitya-dormer
surrounded by a Kirtmukha and flanked by two grinning
 Fig. 4: Lingaraja Temple.
Fig. 3: Rajrani Temple
(Source: http://www.templefolks.com/temple-pedia/lingaraja-
(Source: http://www.indianmirror.com/temples/rajarani-temple.html) temple.html)

 The Lingaraja temple, dating from the 11th century, is the

grandest temple marking the culmination of the architectural
activity at Bhubaneshwar. This temple consists of the sanctum,  The culmination of the style was reached in the Sun temple at
a closed hall, a dancing hall and a hall of offerings. The Konark, which marks even in its ruined state. This is the
sanctum is Pancharatha on plan. The lower register of the wall grandest achievement of the artistic and architectural genius of
is decorated with Khakhara-Mundis and the upper with Orissa. The colossal temple originally consisted of a sanctum
Pidhamundis. The Khakhara Mundis contains on the corner with a lofty curvilinear Sikhara, a Jagamohana and a detached
Rathas figures of eight Regents and on the flanking Rathas elaborately carved square platform.
miscellaneous friezes. The Pidhamundis are inset with images
This Jagamohana is unparalleled for its grandeur and structural
of various Brahmanical gods and goddesses.
propriety in the country; Majestic in conception and rich
imagery, the temple not only marks the final fulfilment of
Orissan architecture but is one of the most sublime monuments
of India.
 projections. The sculptures on this temple are conspicuously
tall and slender and show the richest variety of nymphs in
lively, often violently agitated postures.

Fig. 5: Konark Sun Temple.

(Source: https://www.myoksha.com/konark-temple/)

 In Central India the Kandariya Mahadeva is the largest and

loftiest temple of Khajuraho. It is very magnificent and mature
in plan. It's design and dimensions and also its superb Fig. 6: Kandariya Mahadeva.
sculptural embellishment and architectural elaboration is really
enchanting. It is the most evolved and finished achievement of (Source: http://www.esamskriti.com/photo-detail/Kandariya-

Central Indian building-style and one of the most sublime Mahadeva-Khajuraho.aspx)

creations of temple architecture. It is decorated with graded and

ascending series of smaller replicas of it.

 Dravidian Style Temples

The grand Sikhara of the temple is an intricately ornamented
pile, somewhat restless in movement but unified in theme and The Dravidian style is the typical South Indian style temple that is
design. Of all the Khajuraho temples, it has the highest base usually made from stone. The temple shape may be rectangular, square,
with several elegantly chiselled mouldings, which include two star-shaped, or octagonal. These temples usually have gopurams, which
rows of processional friezes teeming with elephants and horses, are large towers over the entrances; a vimana, which is the tower over the
warriors and hunters, acrobats and musicians, dancers and sanctum (the Deities); and large pillared halls and corridors. The
devotees, and erotic couples. gopurams were in the past always the tallest structures in town.

The sculptures on three registers of its wall represent an The most sacred place is the pitha (altar), or pedestal, of the Deity.
animated array of gods and goddesses, couples and nymphs on The pitha is in the sanctum sanctorum (inner sanctum) called the garbha-
griha (womb house). This is where the altar of the main deity of the
temple is located. The garbha-griha or inner sanctum of the main shrine is
usually semi-dark and has no sculptures, except the main deity. This part
of the temple must be constructed first and before construction begins
there has to be a significant ceremony known as impregnating
(garbhadhana or garbha-nyasa). There is usually a pradakshina path that
enables pilgrims to go around the deities.

The sanctum sanctorum (central shrine) is topped by a pyramidal

tower several stories high called vimana or sikhara. It is crowned by a
chakra in a Lord Vishnu temple and a trident in a Lord Siva temple.

The inner sanctum is surrounded by subsidiary shrines, mandapas

(halls), and pillared corridors. Mandapa (mantapa in Kannada) means any
roofed, open or enclosed pavilion (hall) resting on pillars, standing Fig.7: Dravidian Temple Style.

independently or connected to the sanctum of the temple. Mandapas are

(Source: http://www.rajras.in/index.php/temple-architecture-india/)
one or more entrance porches or halls that lead to the inner sanctum.
The subsidiary shrines or altars contain other deities, including the
The inner sanctum and the pavilion in front of the main altar is
consort of the main deity (Lakshmi or Parvati). The shrine dedicated to the
connected by a vestibule or porch called ardha mandapa or sometimes
consort of the main deity usually has her own sanctum (garbha-griha) and
antarala. There is a rectangular hall in front of the sanctum (mukha
ambulatory pathway (pradakshina-patha). In some larger temple they have
mandapa) where the devotees stand and view the main deity of the temple.
their own halls and pavilions.
The nityarchana mandapa is where the daily worship of the small
(moveable) representative of the main deity is done. The flight of stairs Many temples have several halls such as: ranga-mandapa-usually a
that connects the first prakara with the sanctum sanctorum is called large hall with intricately carved pillar used as a large audience pavilion,
sopana. In front of this flight of stairs is the main mandapa. yajna-hall for occasional sacrifices, nrittya mandapa-hall for dance
recitals, vahanamandapa-place where the festival vehicles are kept,
kalyana-mandapa marriage hall, asthana-mandapa-where the processional
deity holds alankaramandapa where the processional deity is dressed
before being taken on procession, vasanta-mandapa-hall in the middle of
the temple tank used for festivals, and the utsava manadapa-hall used on
festive occasions. Temples will also usually have a treasury, a kitchen
(paka-sala), store room (ugrana), dining hall (Ramanuja-kuta in a
Vaishnava temple and Siva-kuta in a Siva temple).

In the temple yard outside the main entrance of the inner sanctum
is the flagpost (dhvaja-stambha) and a platform for food-offerings (bali-
pitha). Both of the-se are usually right next to each other directly in front
of the doorway. Near here is the vahana-mandapa, where the carrier
(vahana) of the deity, Garuda in a Vishnutemple or Nandi in a Siva
Temple.

Each hindu temple usually has a temple tank (teppakulam), flower

garden (nandavana), and temple chariot (ratha). On festival days the
processional deity is paraded around town on the chariot. Many thousands
of people join the festival.

This entire area is surrounded by high walls (prakara) with

entrances through towering gateways (gopurams). The gateway facing the
sanctum is called mahadvara and is usually the main entrance to the
temple. These rectangular, pyramidal towers are often 50 metres high with
intricate sculptures of gods, demons, humans, and animals on them. They
can also be painted very bright colors.

Fig. 8: Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram. Fig. 9: Meenakshi

Temple.

(Source: https://hiveminer.com/Tags/pallava,tamil/Interesting)
4. BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE

The Buddhist architecture has its root deeply implanted in the Indian soil-
the birthplace of the Buddha's teachings. The Buddhist architecture began with
the development of various symbols, representing aspects of the Buddha's life
(563 BCE - 483 BCE). For the first time, it was the Indian emperor Ashoka, who
not only established Buddhism as the state religion of his large Magadh Empire,
but also opted for the architectural monuments to spread Buddhism in different
places. Distinctive Buddhist architectural structures and sculptures such as Stupas,
Pagodas, monasteries and Caves, which have been mere spectators of different
eras quietly speaks about the phases of the Buddhist stages.

Fig.10: Great Stupa, Sanchi

 STUPAS
(Source: Archaeological Survey of India)
Stupas were built of stones or bricks to commemorate important events
or mark important places associated with Buddhism or to house important
Sanchi in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh is famous for its magnificent
relics of Buddha. Ashok Maurya who laid the foundation of this group of
Buddhist monuments and edifices. Situated on a hill, these beautiful and well-
monuments is said to have built 84,000 stupas, most of which have perished.
preserved stupas depict the various stages of development of Buddhist art and
The best examples of stupas are those constructed at Amaravati,
arch1teeture over a period of thirteen hundred years from the third century B.C. to
Sanchi, Barhut and Gaya. "One of the most striking architectural remains of
the twelfth century A.D. Inscriptions show that these monuments were maintained
ancient India" and the earliest and largest of the three stupas found in Sanchi
by the rich merchants of that region.
was built by Ashoka (273-236 B.C.)
The stupa built by Ashoka was damaged during the break-up of the
Maurya Empire. In the 2nd century B.C., during the rule of the Sungas it was
completely reconstructed. Religious activity led to the improvement and
enlargement of the stupa and a stone railing was built around it. It was also
embellished with the construction of heavily carved gateways.

The Great stupa has a large hemispherical dome which is flat at the top,
and crowned by a triple umbrella or Chattra on a pedestal surrounded by a square
railing or Karmika. Buddha's relics were placed in a casket chamber in the centre
 of the Dome. At the base of the dome is a high circular terrace probably meant for three architraves or carved panels one above the other. Between these are intricately
parikrama or circumambulation and an encircling balustrade. carved elephants and riders on horseback. The lowest architrave is supported on

At the ground level is a stone-paved procession path and another stone exquisitely carved bracket figures. The panels are decorated with finely carved figures of

Balustrade and two flights of steps leading to the circular terrace. Access to it is men, women, yakshas, lions and elephants. The entire panel of the gateways is covered

through four exquisitely carved gateways or Toranas in the North, South, East and with sculptured scenes from the life of Buddha, the Jataka Tales, events of the Buddhist

West. The diameter of the stupa is 36.60 metres and its height is 16.46 metres. It times and rows of floral or lotus motifs.

is built of large burnt bricks and mud mortar. It is presumed that the elaborately The scenes from Buddha's life show Buddha represented by symbols - the lotus,

carved Toranas were built by ivory or metal workers in the 1st. Century BC wheel a riderless caparisoned horse, an umbrella held above a throne, foot prints and the

during the reign of King Satakarni of the Satavahana Dynasty. triratnas which are symbolic of Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. The top panel has a
Dharma chakra with two Yakshas on either side holding chamaras. South of the Scenes
The last addition to the stupa was made during the early 4th Century AD
depicted from Buddha's life are the Enlightenment of Buddha (a throne beneath a peepul
in the Gupta period when four images of Buddha sitting in the dhyana mudra or
tree); the First Sermon (a Dharma chakra placed on a throne); The Great Departure ( a
meditation were installed at the four entrances.
riderless horse and an empty chariot with an umbrella above ); Sujata's offering and the
temptation and assault by Mara.

The big Stupa at Bharhut also in Madhya Pradesh was constructed in the 2nd
century BC in the Sunga Period. It is a hemispherical dome built of brick and is
surmounted by a shaft and an umbrella to represent the spiritual sovereignty of
Buddhism. The railing surrounding it is of red sandstone. Scenes from the life of Buddha
and the Jataka Tales are sculptured on the gateways, pillars, uprights and cross-bars of the
railings.

During the same period, a number of stupas, chaityas, viharas and pillars were
constructed in Sanchi, Bodh-Gaya, Mathura, Gandhara, Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda.
Though most of these have not remained in their entirety, the ruins are of architectural
interest.

The Stupas of Nagajunakonda and Amaravati, both in the Guntur District of

Fig. 11: Northern Gateway, Great Stupa, Sanchi Andhra Pradesh show that the Stupas of the Southern region differ in structure from those
(Source: Archaeological Survey of India) of the North. The architecture here is a shift from the usual Buddhist style, which
The first Torana gateway to be built is the one at the principal entrance on the reflected the two main divisions in Buddhism - Hinayana and Mahayana. Different trends
South. Each gateway has two square pillars. Crowning each pillar on all four sides are and styles were incorporated here giving rise to new architectural forms, i.e. a
four elephants, four lions and four dwarfs. The four dwarfs support a superstructure of
quadrangular monastery, square and rectangular image shrine, pillared hall and a. small
stupa on a square platform.

The stupas of Nagarjunakonda are in the form of a hemispherical dome resting on

a low drum encased in panels sculptured with scenes of events depicting the life of
Buddha. A notable feature of the stupas here is ayaka platforms in the four directions
with five inscribed pillars on each of them. The five pillars symbolise the five important
events in the life of Buddha - his Birth, Renunciation, Enlightenment, First Sermon and
Parinirvana.

Some of the stupas are built on a square platform having an apsidal shrine on
either side or a pillared hall within a quadrangular monastery. Some stupas were wheel-
shaped having four to ten spokes and a two or three winged vihara.

The earliest of the Nagarjunkonda stupas is the Maha Chaitya which contains the
Fig. 12: Dharmaksha Stupa, Sarnath
tooth relic of Buddha. The stupa is wheel-shaped with ayaka platforms surmounted by
(Source: Archaeological Survey of India)
pillars. The smallest stupa here has only two cells and the Chaitya griha enshrines the
image of Buddha.
The Dhamekh Stupa and the Dharmarajika stupa at Sarnath are believed to have
Ruins of stupas have been found in Rajgriha or Rajgir (Bihar) where the First
been built by Ashoka and later rebuilt in the Gupta period. These stupas contain the relics
Buddhist Council was held; at Vaisali (Bihar) where the Second Buddhist Council was
held and at Sravasti (U.P.) one of the eight places of Buddhist pilgrimage where Buddha of Buddha and are therefore important places of Buddhist pilgrimage. Buddha gave his

is said to have performed the Great Miracle. To show his spiritual powers, he made a First Sermon in Sarnath and also founded the Sangha or Order of Monks here. The

mango tree to sprout in a day and created numerous images of himself, sitting and original Dhamekh Stupa built with mud or brick is a cylindrical structure 43.5 m. high.

standing on lotuses with fire and water emanating from his body. The conversion of King The stone basement has eight projecting faces with niches in them. Delicately carved

Prasenajit and the dacoit Angulimala is also said to have taken place here. with beautiful floral and geometrical patterns, it is believed to have been put up in thc
Gupta period.
Ruins of the main stupa in Kusinagara in U.P. where Buddha passed away and
was cremated, is believed to contain the bodily remains of Buddha. Both Fa-hien and
Hiuen- Tsang have recorded their visits to these places.  VIHARAS

Viharas or monasteries constructed with brick or excavated from rocks are

found in different parts of India. Usually built to a set plan, they have a hall meant
for congregational prayer with a running verandah on three sides or an open
courtyard surrounded by a row of cells and a pillared verandah in front. These
cells served as dwelling places for the monks. These monastic buildings built of
 bricks were self-contained units and had a Chaitya hall or Chaitya mandir Twenty-five of the rock-cut caves of Ajanta are viharas and are the finest of
attached to a stupa - the chief object of worship. monasteries. Four of the viharas belong to the 2nd century BC. Later, other caves were

Some of the important Buddhist viharas are those at Ajanta, Ellora. Nasik, excavated during the reign of the Vakataka rulers who were the contemporaries of the

Karle, Kanheri, Bagh and Badami. The Hinayana viharas found in these places Gupta Rulers. Some of the most beautiful viharas belong to this period. The finest of

have many interesting features which differentiate them from the Mahayana type them. Cave 1, of the Mahayana type consists of a verandah, a hall, groups of cells and a

in the same regions. Though plain from the point of view of architecture, they are sanctuary. It has a decorated facade. The portico is supported by exquisitely carved

large ha1ls with cells excavated in the walls on three sides. The hall has one or pillars. The columns have a square base with figures of dwarfs and elaborately carved

more entrances. The small cells, each with a door have one or two stone platforms brackets and capitals. Below the capital is a square abacus with finely carved makara

to serve as beds. motifs. The walls and the ceilings of the cave contain the most exquisite paintings.

The viharas of Ellora dated 400 AD to 7th century AD are of one, two, and three
storeys and are the largest of the type. They contain sculptured figures and belong to both
Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism.

Fig. 13: Rock-cut Vihara, Nasik

(Source: Archaeological Survey of India)

Fig. 14: Three Storeyed Vihara, Ellora

The excavations of viharas at Nagarjunakonda show large rectangular courtyards
(Source: Archaeological Survey of India)
with stone-paved central halls. Around the courtyard, the row of cells, small and big,
suggest residences and dining halls for monks.
 CHAITYAS
 Chaitya grihas or halls of worship were built all over the country either of Fig. 15: Bhaja, Rock-cut Chaitya Hall
brick or excavated from rocks. Ruins of a large number of structural Buddhist (Source: Archaeological Survey of India)
chaity grihas are found in the eastern districts of Andhra Pradesh, in valleys, near
rivers and lakes. The ruins located in the districts of Srikakulam at Salihundam, of Hinayana rock architecture reaches the peak of excellence in the splendid chaitya
Visahkapatnam at Kotturu, of West Godavari at Guntapalli, of Krishna at at Karle. An inscription in Karle mentions Bhutapala, a banker to be the founder of the
Vijayawada, of Guntur at Nagajunakonda and Amaravati belong to the 3rd chaitya hall but later scholars identify him with Devabhuti, the last of the Sunga rulers.
century BC and later. The largest brick chaitya hall was excavated at Guntapalli.
The chaitya has a double-storeyed facade and has three doorways in the lower
Some of the most beautiful rock-cut caves are those at Ajanta, ElIora, part. It has an upper gallery over which there is the usual arch. The walls of the vestibule
Bhaja, Karle, Bagh, Nasik and Kanheri. Some of the chunar sand-stone rock-cut to the chaitya hall are decorated with sculptured figures of couples. The pillars separating
chaityas of Bhaja. Kondane. Karle and Ajanta, all in Maharashtra state are earlier the central nave from the aisles have a pot base, an octagonal shaft, and inverted lotus
excavations and belong to the first phase or Hinayana creed of Buddhism and are capital with an abacus. The abacus has exquisitely carved pairs of elephants kneeling
similar to the brick and wooden structures of Ashokan times. Some of the chaityas down, each with a couple in front and caparisoned horses with riders on them. The stupa
show that wood had been used in the roofing and entrance arches. The chaitya at at the apse end is tall and cylindrical with two tiers of railings around the drum. It is
Bhaja is a long hall 16.75 metres long and 8 metres broad with an apse at the end. crowned by the original wooden chhatra. This is the most beautiful of the chaityas.
The hall is divided into a central nave and an aisle on either side flanked by two
rows of pillars. The roof is vaulted. The rock-cut stupa in the apse is crowned by a
wooden harmika. The chaitya has a large arched torana or entrance with an arched
portico.

Fig. 16: Karle, Chaitya Hall

(Source: Archaeological Survey of India)
The second phase of Buddhist architecture is marked by the Mahayana
creed of Buddhism seen in some of the excellent rock-cut chaityas at Ajanta in
Aurangabad district of Maharashtra excavated between 5th AD and 9th century AD during
the rule of the Vakatakas, the Guptas and the Rashtrakutas.
 The caves were first discovered in the beginning of the 19th century. The caves are Fig. 17: Facade, Cave 19, Ajanta
excavated from a semi-circular steep rock with a stream flowing below, and were meant (Source: Archaeological Survey of India)
for the use of the monks who spent the rainy season there in meditation.

The caves are at different levels and have stairs leading down to the stream. Five of the The most perfect of this group of chaitya grihas is cave 19. Excavated at the end
thirty caves arc chaityas or sanctuaries. The earlier group of two caved dated 2nd century of the 5th century AD it is similar to the other chaityas in its plan and ribbed vaulted
BC belong to the style of Kondan and Nasik caves. ceiling except for its single doorway and elaborate ornamentation. It has a pillared portico

The chaityas have a vaulted ceiling with a huge horse-shoe shaped window or in front leading into a courtyard with the walls on either side heavily sculptured with

chaitya window over the doorway. They are large halls divided into three, parts - the figures. The interior pillars are well decorated with cushion shaped capitals. The corbel

central nave, apse and aisles on either side separated by a row of columns. The side aisles brackets are richly sculptured. The drum of the central stupa is elongated and carved.

continue behind the apse for circumambulation. At the centre of the apse is a rock stupa Projecting from the drum is an arched nasika or niche with the figure of a
with large figure of Buddha, sitting or standing. A remarkable feature of these Chaityas is standing Buddha carved in it. The rounded dome of the stupa ~ is surmounted by a
the imitation of woodwork on rock. Beams and rafters were carved in the rock though harmika and three tiers of chhatras, diminishing in size and supported by figures on four
they serve no purpose. From the unfinished caves, we get an idea of the method of sides. On top of the chhatras and touching the ceiling is another small stupa with a
excavation. Starting from the ceiling, they worked downwards. Solid blocks were left to miniature harmika. The facade of the cave is exquisitely carved. The chaitya-window has
be carved into pillars. After finishing the verandah, they excavated the interior. Tools figures of yakshas and richly carved, friezes on either side. Two figures of standing
used were the pick-axe, chisel and hammer. Buddha flank the entrance. The walls of the hall and the ceiling of the aisles is richly
painted with figures of Buddha, floral motifs, animals and birds.

 Caves

Caves or grottoes are the oldest form of the Buddhist architecture.

They are also known as the rock-cut monasteries, which were hewn from the
cliffs and rock walls of the valleys. The Buddhist caves traces back their
beginning around 100 BCE. In India, the most significant cave is Ajanta
caves, near modern Aurangabad, Maharashtra. The Indian Buddhist monks
carried this art of cave hewing to China, where the earliest cave temples were
built in the 4th century in Dunhuang or Tun-Huang, which were further
decorated with relief carvings, paintings and stone images of the Buddha or
the Bodhisattvas.
 5. ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

The medieval period saw great developments in the field of architecture. With
the coming of Muslims to India, many new features came to be introduced in
buildings. The development of Muslim Style of Architecture of this period can be
called the Indo-Islamic Architecture or the Indian Architecture influenced by Islamic
Art. The Indo-Islamic style was neither strictly Islamic nor strictly Hindu. The
architecture of the medieval period can be divided into two main categories. They are
the Delhi or the Imperial Style and the Mughal Architecture. The Imperial Style
developed under the patronage of the Sultans of Delhi. The Mughal Architecture was
a blend of the Islamic Architecture of Central Asia and the Hindu Architecture of
India.
The most important symbol of Indo-Islamic architecture in India is the tomb
Fig. 18: Ajanta Caves.
or the mausoleum which evolved from the basic cube and hemisphere of the early
(Source: https://www.holidify.com/places/ajanta-and-ellora-caves/ajanta-caves-
phase into a more detailed form during the Mughal period. In the Mughal period
sightseeing-4020.html)
multiple chambers were made and tombs were set in gardens, known as the Char-
Bagh. The tomb chamber houses the cenotaph below which is the grave. The most
famous example of tomb in India is the Taj Mahal.
The Mughal Architecture occupies a significant place in the history of Indian
Architecture. The Mughal architecture developed with the efforts of Akbar. Akbar
cleverly incorporated foreign influences into indigenous style. Some of the basic
features of the Mughal Architecture are the round domes, high minarets, mehrabs,
pillars, open courtyards etc. A notable feature of the Mughal architecture was the use
of red sandstone. It is interesting to note that red sandstone was used for construction
of huge buildings and forts. However red sandstone was replaced with white marbles
replaced it during the later period when the stress was more on beautifying of the
buildings with the use of colored designs, precious and semi-precious stones, gold
and silver waters and minute carvings.
 Although Islamic invasions to India had occurred intermittently since
early times, they had been temporary occurrences. It was in 1206 that Islamic
political power was established in India for the first time, by Kutb al-Din Aibak.

After that, five dynasties appeared in succession in Delhi and the kings
named themselves Sultans of Delhi, so those dynasties are called 'Delhi Sultanate'
as a whole. Their governing people were Turkish or Afghan nations, but culturally
Persia had been ruling Central Asia from Iran, Islamic architecture brought to
India was Persian Islamic architecture too.

Fig. 19: Indo-Islamic architecture.

(Source: https://www.designqubearchitects.com/architecture-of-india/)

 Evolution of Islamic architecture

It was around 610 AD that the prophet Muhammad (c. 570 -632) heard
God's message for the first time in Arabia, in the city of Makka. His teachings
disseminated rapidly as Islam grew into a world religion ruling from Spain to the
Central Asia by the 8th century. Its essence is the ideal that God is one and every
person is equal before God.
As Muslims worshipped with prostrations before God five times a day
obligatorily, the Islamic Empire needed mosques for the congregational Fig. 20: Islamic Architecture – A mosque.
worshipping at each area they subjugated. The first mosque was the Muhammad's
house in Madina, to which he moved from Makka in Arabia. However, since the (Source: http://ankakh.com/article/55476/ashkharhi-amyenagyeghyetsik-

earliest monumental buildings were built in Damascus, Syria and Jerusalem, they mzkithnyere)

were much influenced by Byzantine architecture that had been flourishing there.
When they got to Persia (now Iran), Egypt, and Spain, they developed
architecture suitable for each region under the influence of each tradition.  Constructing Materials

The walls in all buildings were extremely thick and were largely
constructed of rubble masonry, which were easily available. These walls were
then cased over with chunam or limestone plaster or dressed stone. An  Minars
amazing ranges of stones were utilized for construction such as quartzite,
Another form of sthamba or tower was the minar, a common feature in
sandstone, buffs, marbles, etc. Polychrome tiles were used to great advantage
the sub-continent. The most striking minars of medieval times are the Qutub
to finish the walls. From the 17th century onwards, bricks were also used
Minar in Delhi and Chand Minar at Daulatabad. The everyday use of the
for construction and in this phase there was more reliance on local materials.
minar was for the azaan or call to prayer. Its phenomenal height, however,
 Forts symbolized the might and power of the ruler.

Building monumental forts with embattlement was a regular feature in Qutub Minar
medieval times, often symbolizing the seat of power of a king. When such a
 It was built in the 13th century and the Qutub complex in which the
fort was captured by an attacking army, the vanquished ruler either lost his
minar is present is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
complete power or his sovereignty. This was because he had to accept the
 The construction of the bottom storey of the minar was started by
suzerainty of the victorious king. Commanding heights were utilized to great
Qutub-ud-din Aibak (Delhi Sultanate) and his successor Iltumish
advantage to construct forts. Another feature was concentric circles of outer
completed it by adding three more storeys.
walls as in Golconda that the enemy had to breach these at all stages before
 However Firoz Shah Tughlaq replaced the top storey which was
getting in. Some of the famous forts are the Fort of Chittor (Rajasthan),
damaged in a lightning and also added one more storey.
Gwalior (MP), Daulatabad-earlier Devgiri (Maharashtra), and Golconda
 Hence now it has five storeys and a height of nearly 234 feet (about 73
(Hyderabad). The Chittorgarh fort is the largest fort in Asia and was
m) making it the second tallest minar in India (first is Fateh Burj,
occupied for the longest length of time as the seat of power.
Punjab).
 The Qutub Minar also came to be associated with the much revered
saint of Delhi, Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
 The minar is a mixture of polygonal and circular shapes.
 It is largely built on red and buff stone with some use of marble in
the upper storeys.
 It is characterized by high decorative balconies and bands of
inscriptions intertwined with foliated designs.

Fig. 21: Gwalior Fort.

(Source: http://www.esamskriti.com/theme-detail/Gwalior-Fort.aspx)
 Fig. 22: Qutub Minar Fig. 23: Chand Minar.

(Source: http://amazingindiablog.in/qutub-minar-delhi/) (Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/301202/2949813594)

Chand minar  Tombs

 It was built in the 15th century by Ala-ud-din Bahmani. Monumental structures over graves of rulers and royalty was a popular
 It is a 210 feet high (about 30 m) tapering tower divided into four feature of medieval India. Some well-known examples of such tombs are
storeys. those of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, Adur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Akbar,
 It is painted in peach now. and Itmaduddaula. The idea behind the tomb was eternal paradise as a reward
 Its façade once boasted of chevron patterning on the encaustic tile for the true believer on the Day of Judgment. This leads to the paradisiacal
work and bold band of Quranic verses. imagery for tombs.
 Although it looked like an Iranian monument, it was the combined
Beginning with the introduction of Quranic verses on the walls, the
handiwork of local architects with those from Delhi and Iran.
tomb was subsequently placed with paradisiacal elements such as garden or
near a water body or both, as in the case of Taj Mahal. They were not only
intended to signify peace and happiness in the next world, but also to
showcase the majesty, grandeur and might of the person buried there.

Taj Mahal

 Taj Mahal was built in Agra by Shah Jahan as a mausoleum (a kind of

large tomb) for his deceased wife Mumtaz Mahal.
 It was commissioned in the year of 1632 and is a UNESCO World
Heritage Site. Taj Mahal was the apogee of the evolutionary
architectural process in medieval India.
 The Taj complex is entered through a monumental red sandstone
gateway, the opening arch of which beautifully frames the mausoleum.
 The tomb is laid out in a Chahar Bagh (garden), crisscrossed with
paths and water courses, interspersed with pools and fountains. Fig. 24: Taj Mahal

 The structure is placed on the northern extremity of the bagh instead of

(Source: http://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/world-heritage-
the middle to take the advantage of the river bank (Yamuna).
site-pictures-taj-mahal/)
 The straight path through the bagh reaches the plinth of the tomb.
 At the corners of the terrace stand four tall minarets, one hundred and  The main body of the building is topped with a drum and a dome and
thirty two feet high. four cupolas forming a beautiful skyline.
 Towards the west of the white marble faced tomb lies a red sandstone
mosque and a similar construction in the east to maintain balance.
 The marbles for the building was quarried from the Makrana Mines,
Rajasthan.
 The inner arrangement of the mausoleum consists of a crypt below and
a vaulted, octagonal tomb chamber, with a room at each angle, all
connected by corridors.
 Light to every part of the building is obtained by means of carved and
perforated Jalis, set in the arched recesses of the interior.

 Four types of embellishments have been used with great effect for the
interior and exterior surfaces of the Taj Mahal.
 These are stone carvings in high and low relief on the walls, the styles, it is made of local material and is decorated with surface
delicate carving of marble into jails and graceful volutes (spiral embellishments popular in Deccan.
ornament on the pillars), and the creation of arabesque with pietra
dura on walls and tombstones and geometric designs with tessellation.

 The art of calligraphy is used with the inlay of jasper in white marble
to unite Quranic verses.
 Calligraphy provides a decorative element on the walls and a
continuous connection with the almighty.

Gol Gumbad, Karnataka

 It is situated in the Bijapur district of Karnataka.

 It is the mausoleum of Muhammed Adil Shah, the 7th sultan of the
Adil Shahi Dynasty of Bijapur (1498-1686).
 Built by the ruler himself, it is a striking edifice in spite of being
Fig. 25: Gol Gumbad.
unfinished.
 The tomb is a complex building such as a gateway, a Naqqar Khana, a (Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gol_Gumbaz_-
mosque and a sarai located within a large walled garden. 6,_Bijapur,_Karnataka.jpg)
 Gumbad is a square building topped with a circular drum over which
rests a majestic dome, giving the building its nomenclature.  Sarais

 It is built of dark grey basalt and decorated plaster work.

Sarais were largely built on a simple square or a rectangular plan and
 The dome of Gol Gumbad is the largest in the world.
were meant to provide temporary accommodation for Indian and foreign
 The building has an amazing acoustical system. Along with the drum
travelers, pilgrims, merchants, traders, etc. They were public domains which
of the dome, there is a whispering gallery where sounds get magnified
thronged with people of varied cultural backgrounds. This lead to cross
and echoed many times over.
cultural interaction, influence and syncretic tendencies in the cultural mores of
 Gol Gumbad is a fine convergence of many styles located in medieval
the times and at the level of people.
India.
 While its structural peculiarities of dome, arches, geometric
proportions and load bearing techniques suggest Timurid and Persian
 Structures for common people

One of the architectural features of medieval India was also a coming

together of styles, techniques, and decorations in public and private spaces for
non-royal sections of the society. These include buildings for domestic usage,
temples, mosques, Khanqahs and dargahs, commemorative gateways,
pavilions in the buildings and gardens, bazaars, etc.

Jama Masjid

 Large mosques spanning huge spaces also dotted the landscapes of the
Indian sub-continent in medieval times.
 Congregational prayers were held here every Friday afternoon, which
required the presence of minimum of forty Muslim male adults.
 At the time of prayers, a khutba was read out in the name of the ruler and
his laws for the realm were also read out.
 In medieval times, a city had one Jama Masjid which, along with its
Fig. 26: Jama Mazjid.
immediate surroundings, became the focus of the lives of the people, both
(Source: http://amazingindiablog.in/jama-masjid-delhi/)
Muslim and Non-Muslim.
 This happened because a lot of commercial and cultural exchanges were
concentrated here besides religious and indirect political activity.
 Generally, such a mosque was large with an open courtyard, surrounded
on three sides by cloisters and the Qibla Liwan in the west.
 It was here that the mihrab and mimbar for the Imam were located.
 People faced the mihrab while offering prayers as it indicated the
direction of the Kaaba in Mecca.
 6. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARCHITECTURAL STYLES  Difference b/w Islamic and Hindu Architecture.

 Difference b/w Nagara and Dravida style of temple.

ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE HINDU ARCHITECTURE
Mosque open and spacious Temples were dark and closed

Construction with dome shaped While temple with have shikharas and
Vimaanas depending over Nagara or Dravidian
style of temples
In mecca it is pointing towards the Mihrab. Prayers in front of deity , in Garbha griha
Imam presided to its right over proceeding of
the prayers
Mosque were perfected by Arch shape While temple may have known but ceiling
were mostly flat
It was Islamic architecture which used Lime was though known for stacking mud
cementing age t mortar perfecting the brick and stones
architecture with strength and stability.
Ornamental features of Muslims were flowers While that of temples were Deities, human
,arabic writing ,decorating features forms etc.

Fig. 27: Difference b/w Nagara and Dravida Temples.

(Source: https://www.slideshare.net/dhruvamethi/hindu-architecture-and-art)