Professional Ethics

(HS-219)
Handout 5

Maheen Tufail Dahraj

Lecturer & Ph.D. Scholar (Applied Linguistics)
Department of Humanities
NED University of Engg. & Tech. Karachi
Safety and Risk

The engineering codes of ethics show that engineers have a

responsibility to society to produce products, structures, and
processes that are safe. There is an implied warranty with regard
to all products that they will perform as advertised—a bridge
should allow automobiles to cross from one side of a river to the
other, and a computer should correctly perform calculations.
Similarly, there is an implied warranty that products are safe to
use. Clearly, nothing can be 100% safe, but engineers are
required to make their designs as safe as reasonably possible.
Thus, safety should be an integral part of any engineering design.
Definition

Safety is at the same time a very precise and a very vague

term. It is vague because, to some extent, safety is a value
judgment, but precise because in many cases, we can readily
distinguish a safe design from an unsafe one. It is impossible
to discuss safety without also including a discussion of risk.

Risk is a key element in any engineering design; it is

impossible to design anything to be completely risk free.
How much risk is appropriate? How safe is safe enough? To
answer these questions, we must first study the nature of
safety and risk.
Cont..
The American Heritage Dictionary defines risk as the
possibility of suffering harm or loss. Risk is sometimes used
synonymously with danger. The same dictionary defines safety
as freedom from damage, injury, or risk. There is some
circularity to these definitions: We engage in risky behavior
when we do something that is unsafe, and something is unsafe if
it involves substantial risk. Although these definitions are
precise, safety and risk are essentially subjective and depend on
many factors:

1. Voluntary vs. Involuntary Risk

2. Short-term vs. Long-term Consequences
3. Expected Probability
4. Reversible Effects
5. Threshold Levels for Risk
6. Delayed vs. Immediate Risk
 Voluntary risks are chosen willingly, while involuntary risks are imposed without choice.

Voluntary vs. Involuntary Risk

if person willing do some work and he if person forced by some to do some work
knows there is a risk he may consider it and he get to know while working on that
safe there is a risk he may consider it unsafe

Many consider something safer if they knowingly take on the

risk, but would find it unsafe if forced to do so. If the property
values are low enough, some people will be tempted to buy a
house near a plant that emits low levels of a toxic waste into
the air. They are willing to assume the risk for the benefit of
cheap housing. However, if a person already living near a
plant finds that toxic fumes are emitted by the plant and he
was not informed, the risk will appear to be larger, since it was
not voluntarily assumed. This principle is true even if the level
of emission is identical to that in the example of a person
choosing to move near the plant.
 Short-term vs. Long-term
the thing which give us high risk and is permanent risk
Consequences
the thing which give us less risk and is temporary risk

Something that might cause a short-lived illness or disability

seems safer than something that will result in permanent
disability. An activity for which there is a risk of getting a
fractured leg will appear much less risky than an activity with
a risk of a spinal fracture, since a broken leg will be painful
and disabling for a few months, but generally full recovery is
the norm. Spinal fractures, however, can lead to permanent
disability.
 Expected Probability
less probability - high risk - accecptable high probability - low risk - not accecptable

Many might find a one-in-a-million chance of a severe injury

to be an acceptable risk, whereas a 50:50 chance of a fairly
minor injury might be unacceptable. Swimming at a beach
where there is known to be a large concentration of jellyfish
would be unacceptable to many, since there would be a high
probability of a painful, though rarely fatal, sting. Yet, at the
same beach, the risk of a shark attack is low enough that it
doesn’t deter anyone from swimming, even though such an
attack would very likely lead to death or dismemberment. It is
important to remember here that the expected probability is
only an educated guess.
Reversible Effects
if your taking risk but you know the intensity of risk is high in short term but low in long term

Something will seem less risky if the bad effects are ultimately
reversible. This concept is similar to the short-term vs. long-
term risk question discussed previously.
Imagine you and your friends are discussing different risks in life, like trying out a new job or investing in something. If the bad outcomes
of taking a risk can be fixed later on, it won't seem as scary or risky. This is similar to how some risks might seem worse in the short term
but not as bad in the long term. So, if you know you can reverse the negative effects, you might feel more comfortable taking the risk.
 Threshold Levels for Risk
something doing more than 2 time is risky
something doing 1 to 2 time is not risky

Something that is risky only at fairly high exposures will seem

safer than something with a uniform exposure to risk. For
example, the probability of being in an automobile accident is
the same regardless of how often you drive. (Of course, you
can reduce the likelihood of being in an accident by driving
less often.) In contrast, studies have shown that low levels of
nuclear radiation actually have beneficial effects on human
health, while only at higher levels of exposure are there severe
health problems or death. If there is a threshold for the effects,
generally there will be a greater tolerance for risk.
 Delayed vs. Immediate Risk
if something give delayed harm then it is not risky if something give immediate harm then it is risky

An activity whose harm is delayed for many years will seem

much less risky than something with an immediate effect. For
example, for several years now, Americans have been warned
about the adverse long term health effects of a high-fat diet.
This type of diet can lead to chronic heart problems or stroke
later in life. Yet, many ignore these warnings and are
unconcerned about a risk that is so far in the future. These
same people might find an activity such as skydiving
unacceptably risky, since an accident will cause immediate
injury or death.
Safety and Risk

Thus, whether something is unsafe or risky often depends on

who is asked. Something that one person feels is safe may
seem very unsafe to someone else. This creates some
confusion for the engineer who has to decide whether a project
is safe enough to be pursued. In making a decision, some
analysis methods, especially line drawing and flow charting,
can be used. Ultimately, it is up to the engineer and company
management to use their professional judgment to determine
whether a project can be safely implemented.
Engineers and Safety

Since safety is an essential aspect of our duties as engineers,

how can we be sure that our designs are safe? There are four
criteria that must be met to help ensure a safe design.

First, the minimum requirement is that a design must comply

with the applicable laws. This requirement should be easy to
meet, since legal standards for product safety are generally
well known, are published, and are easily accessible.
Cont..

Second, a design must meet the standard of “accepted

engineering practice.” You can’t create a design that is less
safe than what everyone else in the profession understands to
be acceptable. For example, federal safety laws might not
require that the power supply in a home computer be made
inaccessible to the consumer who opens up her computer.
However, if most manufacturers have designed their supplies
so that no potentially lethal voltages are accessible, then that
standard should be followed by all designers, even if doing so
increases the cost of the product.
Cont..

A real-life example of this will be shown later when we

consider the DC-10 case, in which an airframe was adapted
from another design, but was not in accordance with the
practice of other aircraft manufacturers at the time. This
requirement is harder to comply with than the legal standard,
since “accepted engineering practice” is a somewhat vague
term. To address this issue, an engineer must continually
upgrade her skills by attending conferences and short courses,
discussing issues with other engineers, and constantly
surveying the literature and trade magazines for information
on the current state of the art in the field.
Cont..

Third, alternative designs that are potentially safer must be

explored. This requirement is also difficult to meet, since it
requires a fair amount of creativity in seeking alternative
solutions. This creativity can involve discussing design
strategies with others in your field and brainstorming new
alternatives with them. The best way to know if your design is
the safest available is to compare it to other potential designs.
Cont..
Fourth, the engineer must attempt to foresee potential misuses of
the product by the consumer and must design to avoid these
problems. Again, this requires a fair amount of creativity and
research. It is always tempting to think that if someone is stupid
enough to misuse your product and is injured, then it’s his own
fault and the misuse and its consequences shouldn’t bother you
too much. However, an engineer should execute designs in such
a way as to protect even someone who misuses the product.
Juries aren’t always concerned with the stupidity of the user and
might return a substantial judgment against you if they feel that a
product was not properly designed. Placing a warning label on a
product is not sufficient and is not a substitute for doing the extra
engineering work required to produce a safe design.
Cont..
Finally, once the product is designed, both prototypes and finished devices must
be rigorously tested. This testing is not just to determine whether the product
meets the specifications. It should also involve testing to see if the product is safe.
The importance of adequate testing can be illustrated by the Kursk submarine
disaster. The Kursk was a Russian navy submarine that sank in August of 2000,
killing everyone on board. The sinking has been attributed to an explosion in the
torpedo room that ripped open a large hole in the hull. Many crew members of the
Kursk survived the initial explosion, but died because they were unable to escape
from the submarine, and no attempts at rescue by other ships were successful. The
June 3, 2002, edition of Time reported that Russian naval engineers say that the
Kursk was equipped with a rescue capsule designed to allow crew members to
float safely to the surface in an emergency. However, in the rush to get the
submarine into service, this safety system was never tested. After the accident,
some of the survivors attempted to rescue themselves by using this system, but it
did not function properly. It is essential that in any engineering design, all safety
systems be tested to ensure that they work as intended.
Designing for Safety
How should safety be incorporated into the engineering design
process? Texts on engineering design often include some variation
on a basic multistep procedure for effectively executing
engineering designs. One version of this process is found in Wilcox
[1990] and is summarized as follows:

1. Define the problem. This step includes determining the needs and
requirements and often involves determining the constraints.
2. Generate several solutions. Multiple alternative designs are created.
3. Analyze each solution to determine the pros and cons of each. This step
involves determining the consequences of each design solution and determining
whether it solves the problem.
4. Test the solutions.
5. Select the best solution.
6. Implement the chosen solution.
Cont..
In step 1, it is appropriate to include issues of safety in the
product definition and specification. During steps 2 through 5,
engineers typically consider issues of how well the solution
meets the specifications, how easy it will be to build, and how
costly it will be. Safety and risk should also be criteria
considered during each of these steps. Safety is especially
important in step 5, where the engineer attempts to assess all of
the trade-offs required to obtain a successful final design. In
assessing these trade-offs, it is important to remember that safety
considerations should be paramount and should have relatively
higher weight than other issues.
Cont..
Minimizing risk is often easier said than done. There are many things
that make this a difficult task for the engineer. For example, the
design engineer often must deal in uncertainties. Many of the risks
can only be expressed as probabilities and often are no more than
educated guesses. Sometimes, there are synergistic effects between
probabilities, especially in a new and innovative design for which the
interaction of risks will be unknown. Risk is also increased by the
rapid pace at which engineering designs must be carried out. The
prudent approach to minimizing risk in a design is a “go slow”
approach, in which care is taken to ensure that all possibilities have
been adequately explored and that testing has been sufficiently
thorough. However, this approach isn’t always possible in the real
world.
Cont..
Are minimizing risks and designing for safety always the more
expensive alternatives? Spending a long time engineering a safer
product may seem like a very expensive alternative, especially
early in the design cycle before the product has been built or is on
the market. This, however, is a very short-term view. A more long-
term view looks at the possible consequences of not minimizing
the risk. There is a great deal of guesswork involved here, but it is
clear that any unsafe product on the market ultimately leads to
lawsuits that are expensive to defend even if you don’t lose and are
very costly if you do lose. The prudent and ethical thing to do is to
spend as much time and expense as possible up front to engineer
the design correctly so as to minimize future risk of injury and
subsequent criminal or civil actions against you.
 Risk Benefit Analysis
One method that engineers sometimes use to help analyze risk and
to determine whether a project should proceed is called risk–benefit
analysis. This technique is similar to cost–benefit analysis. In risk–
benefit analysis, the risks and benefits of a project are assigned
dollar amounts, and the most favorable ratio between risks and
benefits is sought. Cost–benefit analysis is tricky because it is
frequently difficult to assign realistic dollar amounts to alternatives.
This task is especially difficult in risk– benefit analysis because risks
are much harder to quantify and more difficult to put a realistic price
tag on. Still, this can be a useful technique if used as part of a
broader analysis, but only if used objectively.
Cont..
In doing a risk–benefit analysis, one must consider who takes the
risks and who reaps the benefits. It is important to be sure that those
who are taking the risks are also those who are benefiting. This
consideration is fundamental to issues of economic justice in our
society and can be illustrated by the concept of “environmental
racism,” which is the placing of hazardous-waste sites, factories with
unpleasant or noxious emissions, etc. near the least economically
advantaged neighborhoods. This practice is sometimes thought of as
racism because in the United States, these types of neighborhoods are
generally disproportionately occupied by minority groups. The only
ethical way to implement risk–benefit analysis is for the engineer to
ensure to the greatest extent possible that the risks as well as the
benefits of her design are shared equally in society.
Key Ethical Concerns And
Concepts

1. Confidentiality
2. Risk and Safety
3. Computer Ethics
4. Whistleblowing
5. Bribes vs Gifts
6. And Sexual Harassment
Confidentiality
What Type of Information
Must or Should Be Protected?

Employee Information
Management Information
Business Information
What Steps Can Be Taken To
Better Protect Confidential Information?
Develop Written Confidentiality Policies and Procedures

1. Separate folders should be kept for employees and their medical information.
2. All confidential documents should be stored in locked file cabinets or rooms
accessible only to those who have a business “need-to-know.”
3. All electronic confidential information should be protected via firewalls, encryption
and passwords.
4. Employees should clear their desks of any confidential information before going
home at the end of the day.
5. Employees should refrain from leaving confidential information visible on their
computer monitors when they leave their work stations.
6. All confidential information, whether contained on written documents or
electronically, should be marked as “confidential.”
What Steps Can Be Taken To
Better Protect Confidential Information?
7. All confidential information should be disposed of properly (e.g., employees
should not print out a confidential document and then throw it away without
shredding it first.)
8. Employees should refrain from discussing confidential information in public
places.
9. Employees should avoid using e-mail to transmit certain sensitive or controversial
information.
10. Limit the acquisition of confidential client data (e.g., social security numbers, bank
accounts, or driver’s license numbers) unless it is integral to the business
transaction and restrict access on a “need-to-know’ basis.
11. Before disposing of an old computer, use software programs to wipe out the data
contained on the computer or have the hard drive destroyed.
12. A confidentiality policy should also describe the level of privacy employees can
expect relating to their own personal property and personal information.
Train Management and
Employees on Confidentiality Policy

In order for the confidentiality policy

to be effective, managers, supervisors
and employees must be trained on
confidentiality issues and the
company’s policies and procedures
Enforce Confidentiality Policy

In order for a confidentiality policy to

have influence, employees who violate the
policy must be disciplined in accordance
with an employer’s corrective action
procedures.
Consider Having New or
Current Employees Sign a “Non-Disclosure”
Agreement
Non-Disclosure agreements are contracts
designed to protect the confidential
“business information”. These agreements
are vital especially to considering the ease
in which employees can electronically
transfer large amounts of information,
much of which would be incredibly
damaging in the hands of a competitor.
Confidential Information and
Privacy Protection

Employee is required to safeguard the

private and confidential nature of the
information acquired as part of his/her work
duties, and more specifically to comply
with the confidentiality clauses requested
by Clients and other counterparties.
Bribe vs Gift

Bribe is something, such as money or a favor,

offered or given to someone in a position of
trust in order to convince him to act
dishonestly. Whereas, a gift is something of
value given without the expectation of
anything in return.
Questions

1. During a sales visit, a sales representative offers you a coffee mug with
his company’s name and logo on it. The value of the mug is five dollars.
Can you accept this item?

2. Does the answer to this question change if this item is a $350 crystal
bowl with the name of the company engraved on it? How about if there is
no engraving on it?

3. Your meeting with a sales representative is running into the lunch hour.
He invites you to go out for lunch. You go to a fast-food restaurant and
pay for your own lunch. Is this practice acceptable?

4. Does the answer to this question change if you go to an expensive

French restaurant? If he pays for lunch?
Questions

5. A sales representative from whom you often purchase asks if you

would like to play tennis with him this weekend at one of the local
municipal courts. Should you go?

6. Is the answer to this question different if the match is at an exclusive

local club to which he belongs? What if he pays the club’s guest fee for
you?

7. A company sales representative would like you to attend a one-day

sales seminar in US. Your company will pay for your trip. Should you
go? How about if the meeting is in Washington, D.C?

8. What if the sales representative’s company is going to pay for you to

go? What if your family is invited as well?
Risk and Safety

Safety is defined as freedom from

risk and risk is the possibility of
suffering harm or loss.
Whistleblowing

Whistleblowing refers to the act of organization members,

either former or current, disclosing information on illegal and
unethical practices within the organization to parties internal
or external to the organization, who can take action.
Types of Whistleblowing

1. INTERNAL WHISTLE-BLOWING
Internal whistle-blowing occurs when an employee goes over the head of an immediate
supervisor to report a problem to a higher level of management. Or, all levels of
management are bypassed, and the employee goes directly to the president of the
company or the board of directors. However it is done, the whistle-blowing is kept within
the company or the organization.

2. EXTERNAL WHISTLE-BLOWING

External whistle-blowing occurs when the employee goes outside the company and
reports wrongdoing to newspapers or law-enforcement authorities. Either type of
whistle-blowing is likely to be perceived as disloyalty. However, keeping it within the
company is often seen as less serious than going outside of the company.
Conditions/Criteria of
Whistleblowing
Whistle-blowing should only be attempted if the following four conditions are met [Harris,
Pritchard, and Rabins, 2000]:

1. NEED:
There must be a clear and important harm that can be avoided by blowing the whistle. In
deciding whether to go public, the employee needs to have a sense of proportion. You
don’t need to blow the whistle about everything, just the important things. Of course, if
there is a pattern of many small things that are going on, this can add up to a major and
important matter requiring that the whistle be blown. For example, if an accident occurs
at your company, resulting in a spill of a small quantity of a toxic compound into a
nearby waterway that is immediately cleaned up, this incident probably does not merit
notifying outside authorities. However, if this type of event happens repeatedly and no
action is taken to rectify the problem despite repeated attempts by employees to get the
problem fixed, then perhaps this situation is serious enough to warrant the extreme
measure of whistle-blowing.
Conditions/Criteria of
Whistleblowing
2. PROXIMITY:

The whistle-blower must be in a very clear position to report on the problem. Hearsay is
not adequate. Firsthand knowledge is essential to making an effective case about
wrongdoing. This point also implies that the whistleblower must have enough expertise
in the area to make a realistic assessment of the situation. This condition stems from the
clauses in several codes of ethics which mandate that an engineer not undertake work
in areas outside her expertise. This principle applies equally well to making assessments
about whether wrongdoing is taking place.

3. CAPABILITY:
The whistle-blower must have a reasonable chance of success in stopping the harmful
activity. You are not obligated to risk your career and the financial security of your family
if you can’t see the case through to completion or you don’t feel that you have access to
the proper channels to ensure that the situation is resolved.
Conditions/Criteria of
Whistleblowing
4. LAST RESORT:

Whistle-blowing should be attempted only if there is no one else more capable or more
proximate to blow the whistle and if you feel that all other lines of action within the context
of the organization have been explored and shut off.

These four conditions tell us when whistle-blowing is morally acceptable. But when is an
engineer morally obligated to blow the whistle? There may be situations in which you are
aware of wrongdoing and the four conditions discussed above have been met. In this case,
the whistle may be blown if you feel that the matter is sufficiently important. You are only
obligated to blow the whistle when there is great imminent danger of harm to someone if
the activity continues and the four conditions have been met. A great deal of introspection
and reflection is required before whistle-blowing is undertaken.
Preventing Whistle-Blowing

There are four ways in which to solve the whistle-blowing problem within a corporation.

1. First, there must be a strong corporate ethics culture. This should include a clear commitment to
ethical behavior, starting at the highest levels of management, and mandatory ethics training for all
employees. All managers must set the tone for the ethical behavior of their employees.

2. Second, there should be clear lines of communication within the corporation. This openness gives
an employee who feels that there is something that must be fixed a clear path to air his concerns.

3. Third, all employees must have meaningful access to high-level managers in order to bring their
concerns forward. This access must come with a guarantee that there will be no retaliation. Rather,
employees willing to come forward should be rewarded for their commitment to fostering the ethical
behavior of the company.

4. Finally, there should be willingness on the part of management to admit mistakes, publicly if
necessary. This attitude will set the stage for ethical behavior by all employees.
Computer Ethics

Unethical use of computers can be

defined as downloading software's
from the internet illegally. This also
includes violating copyright and
plagiarism; using someone else's
work as your own without giving
any credit to the original author.
Sexual Harassment

Harassment is any unwelcome, offensive or

discriminator conduct in the workplace,
which no reasonable employee should have
to endure and sexual harassment is both an
illegal and unethical practice.
Four Types of Fraud in
Research

1. Falsification of data: This involves altering or fabricating research data to

obtain a desired outcome.

2. Fabrication of data: This involves creating and presenting false data as if it

were real.

3. Plagiarism: This involves passing off someone else's work or ideas as one's
own without proper credit or acknowledgement.

4. Sabotage: This involves intentionally damaging or destroying the work of

others to gain an advantage.
Truthfulness Responsibilities

1. Honesty: Engineers must be truthful and honest in their professional endeavors.

2. Trust: Engineers must be trustworthy and maintain the trust of their clients,
employers, and the public.

3. Transparency: Engineers must be transparent in their work and decisions,

providing clear and accurate information.

4. Accuracy: Engineers must ensure the accuracy of their work, reports, and
statements, avoiding any misrepresentation or falsification of facts.

5. Disclosure: Engineers must disclose any conflicts of interest, limitations, or

potential biases that may impact their work or decisions.
Approaches to Resolve
Environmental Problems

1. Cost-Oblivious Approach

2. Cost–Benefit Analysis
Approaches to Resolve
Environmental Problems
1. The first approach is sometimes referred to as the “cost-oblivious approach” [Martin
and Schinzinger, 2000]. In this approach, cost is not taken into account, but rather the
environment is made as clean as possible. No level of environmental degradation is seen
as acceptable. This approach bears a striking resemblance to rights and duty ethics.
There are obvious problems with this approach. It is difficult to uphold, especially in a
modern urbanized society. It is also very difficult to enforce, since the definition of “as
clean as possible” is hard to agree on, and being oblivious to cost isn’t practical in any
realistic situation in which there are not infinite resources to apply to a problem.

2. A second approach is based on cost–benefit analysis, which is derived from

utilitarianism. Here, the problem is analyzed in terms of the benefits derived by reducing
the pollution—improvements in human health, for example—and the costs required to
solve the problem. The costs and benefits are weighed to determine the optimum
combination. In this approach, the goal is not to achieve a completely clean environment,
but rather to achieve an economically beneficial balance of pollution with health or
environmental consider