Lighting Concepts

Principles of Light Production

Visible light is made up of electromagnetic waves whose wavelengths fall within a narrow band
of the electromagnetic spectrum, between 390 and 700 nm. The perceived color of visible light
corresponds to its wavelength, with violet and blue light having shorter wavelengths, while orange
and red light have longer wavelengths.

Light with wavelengths longer than visible light, from 700 nm up to 1 mm, is called infrared
radiation and is generally perceived as heat. Light with wavelengths shorter than visible light, from
390 nm down to 10 nm is called ultraviolet radiation. On an atomic level, light emission occurs in
discrete units called photons, which are wave packets that carry energy that is inversely
proportional to their wavelength.

Common electric light sources use one of two basic physical mechanisms to produce visible light:
• thermal and
• atomic emission.

Energy use in buildings and energy management techniques

i. Energy-efficient lighting techniques and their applications in Residential and
commercial sectors
Design of Energy-Efficient Lighting Systems
A lighting system is an integral part of a building’s architectural design, and interacts with the
shape of each room, its furnishings, and the level of natural light. Energy efficiency is an important
component of lighting system design; however, lighting designers must also consider economics,
productivity, aesthetics, and consumer preference. It is highly important not to compromise
lighting quality in a new lighting design or energy-efficiency retrofit. To improve the lighting
efficiency in a building, a lighting designer must understand the user’s lighting needs and tastes,
the most efficient technologies available to meet these needs, and the way in which individual
lighting components function together as a system.
Efficient, high-quality lighting design includes:
• Attention to task and ambient lighting,
• Effective use of daylighting,
• Effective use of lighting controls,
• Use of the most cost-effective and efficacious technologies.
Because people require less light in surrounding areas than they do where they perform visual
tasks, it is usually both unnecessary and inefficient for an entire space to be lit at a level that is
appropriate for visual tasks. For this reason, lighting designers practice task-ambient lighting
design.
For visual comfort and ease of visual transition between task and ambient spaces, the ambient
lighting in a room should be at least one-third as bright as the lighting of the task areas. A common
task-ambient lighting strategy is to design the overall lighting system to provide an appropriate
ambient level of light and then add task lights (e.g., desk lamps) in areas where people are working.

Effective use of daylighting is also an important component of lighting system design. After
decades of overdependence on artificial light, many lighting designers are returning to the use of
sunlight to illuminate interior spaces. To make good use of natural light, however, requires more
than the simple addition of multiple windows. Light pouring in through windows can create glare
and cause other spaces to appear very dark by comparison; in addition, windows that are too large
can allow too much heat loss or gain.
The challenges to successful daylighting are to admit only as much light as needed, distribute it
evenly, and avoid glare. The effective use of daylighting can be greatly enhanced by the overall
architectural design of a building.

In addition, skylights, wide windowsills, reflector systems, louvers, blinds, and other innovations
can be used to bounce natural light farther into a building. The use of window glazes can limit heat
transmission while permitting visible light to pass through a window or skylight.
Efficient lighting design depends on the careful selection of cost-effective and efficient lighting
technologies.

Lighting control systems are important components of efficient lighting systems. In order to
complement other efficiency improvements, lighting designers can use lighting controls to:
• reduce lighting when it is not needed. For example, lighting energy is saved when
✓ occupancy sensors turn off the lights after occupants leave a space or
✓ daylighting controls dim the fluorescent lamps as the level of natural light in a
room increases.
✓ Dimming systems can also be used to maintain a constant light level as a system
ages, which saves energy when lamps are new.
To ensure the persistence of energy savings, lighting designers can install permanent lighting
fixtures that are dedicated to efficient lamps. For example, an office retrofit substituting compact
fluorescent lamps (CFLs) for screw-in incandescent lamps should utilize hard-wired CFL fixtures,
which ensures that the more efficient CFLs will not be replaced with incandescent lamps at a later
date.

Lighting design that promotes energy-efficient lighting technologies can also influence the design
and energy use of a building’s cooling system. Because efficient lighting systems produce less
heat, the air conditioning systems installed in new buildings with efficient lighting can have lower
capacities. Consequently, less money is spent on air conditioning systems as well as on cooling
energy.
Lighting Technologies: Description, Efficacy, Applications
Lighting System Components
After determining the quantity and quality of illumination required for a particular task, most
lighting designers specify the lamp, then the ballast, and finally the luminaire (fixtures) to meet
the lighting needs. Lighting system components fall into four basic categories:
• Lamps,
• Ballasts,
• Fixtures,
• Lighting controls.

Properties of Light Sources

Because the purpose of a lamp is to produce light, and not just radiated power, there is no direct
measure of lamp efficiency. Instead, a lamp is rated in terms of its efficacy, which is the ratio of
the amount of light emitted (lumens) to the power (watts) drawn by the lamp. For systems using a
ballast, the system efficacy, includes the watts drawn by the lamp and ballast. The unit used to
express efficacy is lumens per watt (LPW).

The theoretical limit of efficacy is 683 LPW and would be produced by an ideal light source
emitting monochromatic radiation with a wavelength of 555 nm. The most efficient white light
source in the laboratory provides 275–310 LPW. Of lamps presently in the market, the most
efficient practical light source, the T5 fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast, produces about 100
LPW. High-pressure sodium (not a white light source) can produce as high as 130 LPW. The
efficacies of various light sources are indicated below.

Efficacy comparison of light sources for general lighting

Lamps also differ in terms of their cost, size, color, lifetime, optical controllability, dimmability,
lumen maintenance, reliability, convenience in use, maintenance requirements, disposal,
environmental impacts (mercury, lead), and electromagnetic and other emissions (e.g., radio
interference, ultraviolet (UV) light, and noise).

Over time, most lamps continue to draw the same amount of power but produce fewer lumens.
The lumen maintenance of a lamp refers to the extent to which the lamp sustains its lumen output,
and therefore efficacy, over time. Initial lumens are measured at the beginning of the lamp’s life,
while mean lumens are measured after a lamp has been used for a percentage of its rated life.

The color properties of a lamp are described by its color temperature and its color rendering index.
Color temperature, expressed in degrees Kelvin (K), is a measure of the color appearance of the
light of a lamp. The concept of color temperature is based on the fact that the emitted radiation
spectrum of a blackbody radiator depends on temperature alone. The color temperature of a lamp
is the temperature at which an ideal blackbody radiator would emit light that is closest in color to
the light of the lamp. Lamps with low color temperatures (3000 K and below) emit warm white
light that appears yellowish or reddish in color. Incandescent and warm-white fluorescent lamps
have a low color temperature. Lamps with high color temperatures (3500 K and above) emit cool
white light that appears bluish in color. Cool-white fluorescent lamps have a high color
temperature.

The color rendering index (CRI) of a lamp is a measure of how surface colors appear when
illuminated by the lamp compared with how they appear when illuminated by a reference source
of the same color temperature. For color temperatures above 5000 K, the reference source is a
standard daylight condition of the same color temperature; below 5000 K, the reference source is
a blackbody radiator. The CRI of a lamp indicates the difference in the perceived color of objects
viewed under the lamp and the reference source.

The optical controllability of a lamp describes the extent to which a user can direct the light of the
lamp to the area where it is desired. The optical controllability depends on the size of the light-
emitting area, which determines the beam spread of the light emitted. In addition, controllability
depends on the fixture in which the lamp is used.
• Incandescent lamps emit light from a small filament area: they are almost point sources of
light, and their optical controllability is excellent.
• In contrast, fluorescent lamps emit light from their entire phosphored bulb wall area; their
light is extremely diffuse, and their controllability is poor.
Because of the many different characteristics and the variety of applications, no one light source
dominates the lighting market. The types of lamps that are commonly available include
incandescent, fluorescent, and high-intensity discharge (HID). Induction lighting systems have
come into use as well.
 I. Lamps
An electric lamp is a device that converts electric energy into light. Following is a description of
common lamp types with discussion on their efficacy and applications.
a) Incandescent Lamps
The incandescent lamp was invented independently by Thomas Edison in the United States and
Joseph Swan in England in the late 1800s. An incandescent lamp produces light when electricity
heats the lamp filament to the point of incandescence. In modern lamps the filament is made of
tungsten. Because 90% or more of an incandescent lamp’s emissions are in the infrared (thermal)
rather than the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum, incandescent lamps are less
efficacious than other types of lamps.
The two primary types of standard incandescent lamps are general service and reflector lamps.
• General-service lamps (also known as A-lamps) are the pear-shaped, common household
lamps.
• A reflector lamp has a reflective coating applied to part of the bulb, this reflective surface
(reflector) is specifically contoured for control of the light distribution. Parabolic
aluminized reflector (PAR) lamps have optically contoured reflectors. Reflector lamps,
such as flood or spotlights, are generally used to illuminate outdoor areas or highlight
indoor retail displays and artwork. They are also commonly used to improve the optical
efficiency of downlights (recessed can fixtures). Downlights are used where controlling
glare or hiding the light source is important.
In spite of the fact that they are the least efficacious lamps on the market today, standard
incandescent general service lamps are used for almost all residential lighting and are also common
in the commercial sector.
• They have excellent CRI values and a warm color;
• they are easily dimmed, inexpensive, small, lightweight, and can be used with inexpensive
fixtures;
• in a properly designed fixture, they permit excellent optical control.
• they make no annoying noises, provide no electro-magnetic interference and contain no
toxic chemicals.
• They have relatively simple installation, maintenance, and disposal.

Tungsten–halogen and tungsten–halogen infrared-reflecting (HIR) lamps are more efficient

than standard incandescents. Like standard incandescent lamps, tungsten-halogen lamps produce
light when electricity heats the tungsten filament to the point of incandescence. In a standard
incandescent lamp, tungsten evaporating from the filament deposits on the glass envelope.

Generally, tungsten–halogen lamps use a quartz envelope rather than a glass envelope, which
allows the lamp to operate at a much higher temperature. In place of the normal inert gas fill, the
tungsten–halogen lamps use a small amount of halogen gas. The halogen gas in the lamp reacts
with the tungsten that deposits on the quartz envelope to make a volatile tungsten–halide
compound; because tungsten–halide vapor is not stable at the temperature of the filament, the
vapor dissociates and deposits the tungsten back onto the filament. The cycle is then repeated. This
cycle does not necessarily return the tungsten to the same portion of the filament from which it
evaporated, but it does substantially reduce net evaporation of tungsten and thus prolong the life
of the filament.

Halogen lamps produce bright white light and have color temperatures and CRI values that are
similar to, or slightly higher than, those of standard incandescents. In addition, they have longer
rated lives (2000 or more hours vs. 1000 h or less), can be much more compact, are slightly more
efficacious, and have better lumen maintenance than standard incandescent lamps. Halogen
general service lamps are available but still relatively rare; they offer longer life as well as slightly
higher lumen output or lower wattage.
Halogen technology is also used in small reflector lamps operated on low-voltage transformers.
These lamps, also known as dichroics, are used for accent lighting and sparkle in a variety of
applications.

Even more efficacious than the standard tungsten–halogen lamp is the HIR lamp. Because
approximately 90% of the energy radiated by incandescent lamps is in the form of heat (infrared
radiation), their efficacy can be improved by reflecting the infrared portion of the spectrum back
onto the lamp filament. Tungsten–halogen infrared-reflecting lamps use a selective, reflective, thin
film coating on the halogen-filled capsule or on the reflector surface. The coating transmits visible
light, but reflects much of the infrared radiation back to the filament hence takes less electricity to
heat it. The HIR technology is available in reflector lamps. In general, HIR lamps have a small
market share due to their high cost, even though HIR lamps last about 50% longer than regular
halogen lamps.

Torchieres, floor lamps that reflect light off the ceiling into the room, became popular in the mid-
1990s, especially in the residential sector. The first torchieres were equipped with 300 or 500 W
halogen lamps, but these are gradually being phased out. Their high wattages not only caused high
energy use, but the lamp temperature was high enough to be a serious fire hazard. The high-wattage
halogen lamps can reach almost 10008F, hot enough to ignite a combustible material. Because of
the resulting fires, some fire departments and college campuses have outlawed halogen torchieres.

b) Fluorescent Lamps
Fluorescent lamps came into general use in the 1950s. In a fluorescent lamp, gaseous mercury
atoms within a phosphor-coated lamp tube are excited by an electric discharge. As the mercury
atoms return to their ground state, ultraviolet radiation is emitted. This UV radiation excites the
phosphor coating on the lamp tube and causes it to fluoresce, thus producing visible light.
Early fluorescent tubes, and current compact fluorescents lamps as well as some shorter
fluorescent tubes, use “preheat start” with an automatic or manual starting switch. “Instant start”
lamps were then developed, which uses a high voltage to strike the arc of the lamp. Electronic
ballasts are available that can instant-start most types of fluorescent lamps. “Rapid start” circuits
use low-voltage windings for preheating the electrodes and initiating the arc to start the lamps.

Fluorescent lamps are far more efficacious than incandescent lamps. The efficacy of a fluorescent
lamp system depends upon:
• the lamp length and diameter,
• the type of phosphor used to coat the lamp,
• the type of ballast used to drive the lamp,
• the number of lamps per ballast,
• the temperature of the lamp (which depends on the fixture and its environment).
The majority of lighting used in the commercial sector is fluorescent. Fluorescent lighting is also
common in the industrial sector. The small amount of full-size fluorescent lighting in the
residential sector is primarily found in kitchens, bathrooms, garages and workshops.

In spite of their much greater efficiency, fluorescent lamps have several disadvantages when
compared with incandescent lamps.
• Standard and compact fluorescent lamps can be dimmed, but require special dimming
ballasts that cost more than the dimming controls used for incandescent lamps.
• Standard fluorescent lamps are larger than incandescent lamps of equivalent output and are
harder to control optically.
• Fluorescent lamps also emit more UV light than incandescent lamps. Ultraviolet light can
cause colors to fade, and fabrics to age, and therefore has to be blocked near sensitive
materials like museum displays.
• Electronic ballasts may interfere with security equipment, such as that used in libraries and
with specialized hospital devices.
• Fluorescent lamps contain trace amounts of mercury, a toxic metal, and large users are
required to either recycle them or dispose of them as hazardous waste. However, mercury
is also emitted through the electricity production process, and the net total emission of
mercury including the power plant emissions is actually lower for fluorescent lamps than
for the incandescent lamps that they replace.
Lamp manufacturers have begun to produce fluorescent lamps with lower mercury content

Circular Fluorescent Lamps—Circular-shaped fluorescent lamps in 20–40-W sizes have been

available for many years, but have had a fairly small market. Essentially, a circular lamp is a
standard fluorescent lamp tube that has been bent into a circle. Although they have a more compact
geometry than a straight tube, circular lamps are still moderately large (16.5–41 cm in diameter).
Circular lamps are available in several sizes with magnetic or electronic ballasts.
Compact Fluorescent Lamps—Compact fluorescent lamps, which are substantially smaller
than standard fluorescent lamps. In a CFL, the lamp tube is smaller in diameter and is bent into
two to six sections or into a spiral shape. The compact size of the spiral CFLs allow them to
substitute for incandescent lamps in many fixtures. Compact fluorescent lamps have much higher
power densities per phosphor area than standard fluorescents, and their design was therefore
dependent on the development of rare-earth phosphors, which could hold up much better than
standard phosphors at high-power loadings.

Compact fluorescent lamps (except for very low-wattage CFLs) are much more efficacious than
the incandescent lamps they replace, typically drawing one-third to one-quarter of the wattage for
similar light output. They are, however, half as efficacious as high-performance T8 systems, hence
they are more often cost-effective for applications or retrofits where a smaller light source is
needed. Compact fluorescent lamps are also rated to last 6000–10,000 h, with some newer products
having even longer rated lifetimes. Compact fluorescent lamps are available as both screw-in
replacements for incandescent lamps and as pin-base lamps for hard-wired fixtures. Common
CFLs range from 11 to 26 W, and both higher and lower wattage lamps are available. They may
be operated with separate ballasts or purchased as integral lamp/ballast units; integral units with
electronic ballasts are the most commonly sold.
The electronic ballast provides higher efficacy, eliminates the starting flicker and has a lighter
weight.

Compact fluorescent lamps have a much higher retail cost than the incandescent lamps they
replace, hence consumers have been reluctant to purchase them without discounts or incentives;
their prices have decreased with their increasing popularity. Particularly for the residential sector,
CFLs have been somewhat limited for use in fixtures because their size and shape relative to
incandescent lamps.

Manufacturers have developed lamps with smaller, more compatible shapes, as well as adapters
for some fixtures. Early CFL users in the residential sector encountered some starting problems at
low temperatures for outdoor use and overheating in enclosed fixtures. Compact fluorescent lamps
that start at low outdoor temperatures are now available. Standard CFLs may not be used in
dimming circuits because of fire hazard, but dimmable CFLs became available during the late
1990s.

Compact fluorescent lamps reflector lamps are also available. In the commercial sector, dedicated
fixtures with built-in ballasts that accept only pin-based CFLs are often used in downlights, to
ensure that screw-in incandescents do not replace the CFLs.
Twin-Tube fluorescent lamps Double Arc-Tube HPS

Spiral or Spring Shaped CFLs Some T8 Lamp Sizes

c) Induction Lamps
An induction lamp is a fluorescent lamp where the electric discharge is induced by a magnetic
field, rather than an electric field as in a fluorescent lamp, and therefore does not have any
electrodes.
Induction lamps produce light by exciting the same phosphors found in conventional fluorescent
lamps. The radio frequency (RF) power supply sends an electric current to an induction coil,
generating an electromagnetic field. This field excites the mercury in the gas fill, causing the
mercury to emit UV energy. The UV energy strikes and excites the phosphor coating on the inside
of the glass bulb, producing light.

Electrodeless lamps have efficacies similar to those of CFLs or HID lamps of comparable light
output. Electrodeless lamps use rare-earth phosphors, giving them color properties similar to those
of higher-end fluorescent lamps. Because the lamp has no electrodes that usually cause lamp
failure, the life of this system is limited by the induction coil. Induction lamps are rated at 100,000
h of life. Because of this long life, and the good color rendition, induction technology is coming
into use for areas where maintenance to change the lamp is expensive, such as high ceilings in
commercial and industrial buildings, tunnels, roadway sign lighting, etc.
Induction lamps are electronic devices, and like all electronic devices they may generate
electromagnetic interference (EMI) if unwanted electromagnetic signals, which can travel through
wiring or radiate through the air, interfere with desirable signals from other devices. Shielding of
the system to protect people and equipment from these emissions is important.

d) High-Intensity Discharge Lamps

High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps produce light by discharging an electrical arc through a
mixture of gases. In contrast to fluorescent lamps, HID lamps use a compact arc tube in which
both temperature and pressure are very high. Compared to a fluorescent lamp, the arc tube in an
HID lamp is small enough to permit compact reflector designs with good light control. There are
presently three common types of HID lamps available:
• mercury vapor (MV),
• metal halide (MH),
• high-pressure sodium (HPS)
• low pressure sodium (LPS) lamps, while not technically HID lamps, are used in some of
the same applications as HPS lamps.
Because of their higher light output levels, HID lamps are most often used for exterior applications
such as street and roadway lighting, outdoor area pedestrian and parking lot lighting, commercial,
industrial, and residential floodlighting and security lighting, and sports lighting. They are also
used in large, high-ceilinged, interior spaces such as industrial facilities and warehouses, where
good color rendering is not typically a priority. Occasionally, HID lamps are used for indirect
lighting in commercial offices, retail stores, and lobbies. Interior residential applications are rare
because of high cost, high light level, and the fact that HID lamps take several minutes to warm
up to full light output. If they are turned off or there is a momentary power outage, the lamps must
cool down before they restrike.

Some HID lamps are now available with dual arc tubes or parallel filaments. Dual arc tubes
eliminate the restrike problem and a parallel filament gives instantaneous light output both initially
and on restrike, but at a cost of a high initial power draw and higher lamp cost.

The mercury vapor lamp was the first HID lamp developed. Including ballast losses, the
efficacies of MV lamps range from approximately 25–50 LPW. Uncoated lamps have a bluish tint
and very poor color rendering (CRIw15). Phosphor-coated lamps emit more red, but are still
bluish, and have a CRI of about 50. Because of their poor color rendition, these lamps are used
only where good color is not a priority.
MV lamps generally have rated lifetimes greater than 24,000 h. Both MH and HPS HID lamps
have higher efficacies than MV lamps and have consequently replaced them in most markets. MV
lamps and ballasts are cheaper than the other HID sources and are still often sold as residential
security lights. They also persist in some legacy street-lighting applications, landscape lighting,
and in some other older systems.
Including ballast losses, metal halide lamps range in efficacy from 45 to 100 LPW. They produce
a white light and have CRI values ranging from 65 to almost 90. Lamp lifetimes generally range
from only 5000 to 20,000 h, depending on the type of MH lamp. Lower-wattage metal halides
(particularly the 50, 70 and 100 W) are now available with CRI values of about 65–75 and color
temperatures of 2900–4200 K. Reasonably good lumen maintenance, longer life, reduced
maintenance costs, and the fact that they blend more naturally with fluorescent sources have made
MH lamps a very good replacement in the commercial sector for 300 and 500 W PAR lamps.
Improvements in color stability have made MH systems cost-effective substitutions for high-
wattage incandescent lighting in commercial applications.

Metal halide technology is also becoming increasing popular for outdoor lighting, especially in
areas where color rendering is important, and because of people’s preference for “white light.”
Pulse-start technology is improving MH lamp performance in almost every aspect. In MH pulse
start lamps, a high-voltage pulse (typically 3 kV minimum) applied directly across the main
electrodes initiates the arc. Ignitors are used to provide these starting pulses. The average lifetime
of pulse-start MH lamps now approaches that of HPS and MV lamps. With the higher efficacy this
technology provides, approaching that of HPS lamps, pulse-start MH lamps now compete with
HPS lamps in many outdoor applications.

Ceramic arc tube MH lamps, with CRI values as high as 90 and better color consistency, now
compete with incandescent sources. MH lamps may fail “non-passively,” hence users should
always follow the manufacturers’ recommended practices for safe operation of the lamps.
At low light levels, such as those found in many outdoor areas at night, the eye’s peripheral vision
becomes more sensitive to light that is bluish. Although MH lamps are less efficacious than HPS
lamps at high, or “photopic” light levels found during daylight hours, they can actually provide
higher visual quality and therefore allow lower light levels, making them more efficacious, at least
for peripheral vision, than HPS lamps at low or “scotopic” levels. This has led to increased interest
in their use for street lighting.

Including ballast losses, high-pressure sodium lamps have efficacies ranging from 45 LPW for
the smallest lamps to 110 LPW for the largest lamps. Standard HPS lamps emit a yellow–orange
light and have poor color rendition in the 20 s; high color rendering versions can have CRI values
up to 70 and higher. Like MV lamps, HPS lamps are only used where good color is not a priority.
HPS lamps have come to dominate street and roadway lighting because of their high efficacy and
long life. The rated lifetimes of HPS lamps rival those of MV lamps and typically exceed 24,000
h.

II. Ballasts
With the exception of incandescent systems, nearly all lighting systems (fluorescent and HID)
require a ballast.
A ballast controls the voltage and current that is supplied to lamps. Because ballasts are an integral
component of the lighting system, they have a direct impact on light output. The ballast factor is
the ratio of a lamp’s light output to a reference ballast. General purpose fluorescent ballasts have
a ballast factor that is less than one (typically .88 for most electronic ballasts). Special ballasts
may have higher ballast factors to increase light output, or lower ballast factors to reduce light
output.

As can be expected, a ballast with a high ballast factor also consumes more energy than a general
purpose ballast.

a) Fluorescent
There are two types of fluorescent ballasts: magnetic and electronic.
Magnetic
Magnetic ballasts are available in three primary types.
• Standard core and coil
• High-efficiency core and coil (Energy-Efficient Ballasts)
• Cathode cut-out or Hybrid
Standard core and coil magnetic ballasts are essentially core and coil transformers that are
relatively inefficient at operating fluorescent lamps.

The “high-efficiency” magnetic ballast can replace the “standard ballast,” improving the
system efficiency by approximately 10%.
“Cathode cut-out” or “hybrid” ballasts are high efficiency core and coil ballasts that incorporate
electronic components that cut off power to the lamp cathodes after the lamps are operating,
resulting in an additional 2-watt savings per lamp.

Electronic
During the infancy of electronic ballast technology, reliability and harmonic distortion problems
hampered their success. However, most electronic ballasts available today have a failure rate of
less than one percent, and many distort harmonic current less than their magnetic counterparts.

Electronic ballasts are superior to magnetic ballasts because they are typically 30% more energy
efficient, they produce less lamp flicker, ballast noise, and waste heat.

In nearly every fluorescent lighting application, electronic ballasts can be used in place of
conventional magnetic core and coil ballasts. Electronic ballasts improve fluorescent system
efficacy by converting the standard 60 Hz input frequency to a higher frequency, usually
25,000 to 40,000 Hz. Lamps operating on these frequencies produce about the same amount of
light, while consuming up to 40% less power than a standard magnetic ballast. Other advantages
of electronic ballasts include
 • less audible noise,
• less weight,
• virtually no lamp flicker
• dimming capabilities.
There are three primary types of electronic ballasts:
• T12,
• T10
• T8 ballasts.
T12 electronic ballasts are designed for use with conventional (T12) fluorescent lighting
systems. Although most T10 ballasts consume the same (or more) energy as T12 ballasts, T10
systems provide more light output. Some T10 systems are more efficient than comparable T8
systems. Because T10s provide more light per lamp, fewer lamps can be installed in a fixture.

T8 ballasts offer some distinct advantages over other types of electronic ballasts.
• They are generally more efficient,
• have less lumen depreciation,
• are available with more options.
• T8 ballasts can operate one, two, three or four lamps.
Most T12 and T10 ballasts can only operate one, two or three lamps. Therefore, one T8 ballast can
replace two T12 ballasts in a 4 lamp fixture. Some electronic ballasts are parallel-wired, so that
when one lamp burns out, the remaining lamps in the fixture will continue to operate.

In a typical magnetic, (series-wired system) when one component fails, all lamps in the fixture
shut off. Before maintenance personnel can re-lamp, they must first diagnose which lamp failed.
Thus the electronically-ballasted system will reduce time to diagnose problems, because
maintenance personnel can immediately see which lamp failed.

Parallel-wired ballasts also offer the option of reducing lamps per fixture (after the retrofit) if an
area is over-illuminated. This option allows the energy manager to experiment with different
configurations of lamps in different areas. However, each ballast operates best when controlling
the specified number of lamps.

Due to the advantages of electronically-ballasted systems, they are produced by many

manufacturers and prices are very competitive. Due to their market penetration, T8 systems (and
replacement parts) are more likely to be available, and at lower costs.

b) HID
As with fluorescent systems, High Intensity Discharge lamps also require ballasts to operate.
Although there are not nearly as many specification options as with fluorescent ballasts, HID
ballasts are available in dimmable and bi-level light outputs. Instant restrike systems are also
available.
• Capacitive Switching HID Luminaires
Capacitive switching or “bi-level” HID luminaires are designed to provide either full or partial
light output based on inputs from occupancy sensors, manual switches or scheduling systems.

• Capacitive-switched dimming can be installed as a retrofit to existing luminaires or as a

direct luminaire replacement.
Capacitive switching HID upgrades can be less expensive than installing a panel-level variable
voltage control to dim the lights, especially in circuits with relatively few luminaires.
The most common applications of capacitive switching are athletic facilities, occupancy-sensed
dimming in parking lots and warehouse aisles.

General purpose transmitters can be used with other control devices such as timers and
photosensors to control the bi-level luminaires. Upon detecting motion, the occupancy sensor
sends a signal to the bi-level HID ballasts. The system will rapidly bring the light levels from a
standby reduced level to about 80 percent of full output, followed by the normal warm-up time
between 80 and 100 percent of full light output.

When the space is unoccupied and the system is dimmed, you can achieve energy savings of 40-
70 percent.

III. Luminaires
A luminaire (or light fixture) is a unit consisting of the lamps, ballasts, reflectors, lenses or louvers
and housing. The main function is to focus or spread light emanating from the lamp(s). Without
luminaires, lighting systems would appear very bright and cause glare.

Luminaire Efficiency
Luminaires block or reflect some of the light exiting the lamp. The efficiency of a luminaire is the
percentage of lamp lumens produced that actually exit the fixture in the intended direction.
Efficiency varies greatly among different luminaire and lamp configurations. For example, using
four T8 lamps in a luminaire will be more efficient than using four T12 lamps because the T8
lamps are thinner, allowing more light to “escape” between the lamps and out of the luminaire.

Understanding luminaires is important because a lighting retrofit may involve changing some
components of the luminaire to improve the efficiency and deliver more light to the task.
The Coefficient of Utilization (CU) is the percent of lumens produced that actually reach the work
plane. The CU incorporates the luminaire efficiency, mounting height, and reflectances of walls
and ceilings. Therefore, improving the luminaire efficiency will improve the CU.

Reflectors
Installing reflectors in most luminaires can improve its efficiency because light leaving the lamp
is more likely to “reflect” off interior walls and exit the luminaire. Because lamps block some of
the light reflecting off the luminaire interior, reflectors perform better when there are less lamps
(or smaller lamps) in the luminaire. Due to this fact, a common luminaire upgrade is to install
reflectors and remove some of the lamps in a luminaire. Although the luminaire efficiency is
improved, the overall light output from each luminaire is likely to be reduced, which will result in
reduced light levels.

A variety of reflector materials are available:

• Highly reflective white paint,
• silver film laminate,
• anodized aluminum.
Silver film laminate usually has the highest reflectance, but is considered less durable. Be sure to
evaluate the economic benefits.

In addition to installing reflectors within luminaires, light levels can be increased by improving
the reflectivity of the room’s walls, floors and ceilings. For example, by covering a brown wall
with white paint, more light will reflected back into the workspace, and the Coefficient of
Utilization is increased.

Lenses and Louvers

Most indoor luminaires use either a lens or louver to prevent occupants from directly seeing the
lamps. Light that is emitted in the shielding angle or “glare zone” (angles above 45o from the
fixture’s vertical axis) can cause glare and visual discomfort, which hinders the occupant’s ability
to view work surfaces and computer screens. Lenses and louvers are designed to shield the viewer
from these uncomfortable, direct beams of light.

Lenses and louvers are usually included as part of a luminaire when purchased, and they can have
a tremendous impact on the VCP of a luminaire. Lenses are sheets of hard plastic (either clear or
milky white) that are located on the bottom of a luminaire. Clear, prismatic lenses are very efficient
because they allow most of the light to pass through, and less light to be trapped in the fixture.
Milky-white lenses are called “diffusers” and are the least efficient, trapping a lot of the light
within the fixture. Although diffusers have been routinely specified for many office environments,
they have one of the lowest VCP ratings.
Louvers provide superior glare control and high VCP when compared to most lenses. The most
common application of louvers is to reduce the luminaire glare in sensitive work environments,
such as in rooms with computers. Parabolic louvers usually improve the VCP of a luminaire,
however efficiency is reduced because more light is blocked by the louver.

Light Distribution/Mounting Height

Luminaires are designed to direct light where it is needed. Various light distributions are possible
to best suit any visual environment. With “direct lighting,” 90- 100% of the light is directed
downward for maximum use. With “indirect lighting,” 90-100% of the light is directed to the
ceilings and upper walls. A “semi-indirect” system distributes 60-90% down, with the remainder
upward.

Designing the lighting system should incorporate the different light distributions of different
luminaires to maximize comfort and visual quality. Fixture mounting height and light distribution
are presented together since they are interactive. HID systems are preferred for high mounting
heights since the lamps are physically small, and reflectors can direct light downward with a high
degree of control.
Fluorescent lamps are physically long and diffuse sources, with less ability to control light at high
mounting heights. Thus fluorescent systems are better for low mounting heights and/or areas that
require diffuse light with minimal shadows.
Generally, “high-bay” HID luminaires are designed for mounting heights greater than 20 feet high.
“High-bay” luminaires usually have reflectors and focus most of their light downward. “Low-bay”
luminaires are designed for mounting heights less than 20 feet and use lenses to direct more light
horizontally.

HID sources are potential sources of direct glare since they produce large quantities of light from
physically small lamps.

IV. Lighting Controls

Lighting controls offer the ability for systems to be turned on and off either manually or
automatically.
There are several control technology for lighting systems:

a) Switches
The standard manual, single-pole switch was the first energy conservation device. It is also the
simplest device and provides the least options. One negative aspect about manual switches is that
people often forget to turn them off. If switches are far from room exits or are difficult to find,
occupants are more likely to leave lights on when exiting a room. Occupants do not want to walk
through darkness to find exits. However, if switches are located in the right locations, with multiple
points of control for a single circuit, occupants find it easier to turn systems off. Once occupants
get in the habit of turning lights off upon exit, more complex systems may not be necessary. The
point is: switches can be great energy conservation devices as long as they are installed in proper
locations so that occupants can conveniently use them.

Another opportunity for upgrading controls exists when lighting systems are designed such that
all circuits in an area are controlled from one switch, although not all circuits need to be activated.
For example, a college football stadium’s lighting system is designed to provide enough light for
TV applications. However, this intense amount of light is not needed for regular practice nights
or other non-TV events. Because the lights are all controlled from one switch, every time the
facility is used all the lights are turned on. By dividing the circuits and installing one more switch
to allow the football stadium to use only 70% of its lights during practice nights, significant energy
savings are possible.

Generally, if it is not too difficult to re-circuit a poorly designed lighting system, additional
switches can be added to optimize the lighting controls.

b) Time Clocks
Time clocks can be used to control lights when their operation is based on a fixed operating
schedule. Time clocks are available in electronic or mechanical styles. However, regular check-
ups are needed to ensure that the time clock is controlling the system properly.

After a power loss, electronic timers without battery backups can get off schedule and cycle on
and off at the wrong times. It requires a great deal of maintenance time to reset isolated time clocks
if many are installed.

c) Photocells
For most outdoor lighting applications, photocells (which turn lights on when it gets dark, and off
when sufficient daylight is available) offer a low-maintenance alternative to time clocks. Unlike
time clocks, photocells are seasonally self-adjusting and automatically switch on when light levels
are low, such as during rainy days.

A photocell is inexpensive and can be installed on each luminaire, or can be installed to control
numerous luminaires on one circuit. Photocells can also be effectively used indoors, if daylight is
available through skylights.
Photocells have worked well in almost any climate, however they should be cleaned when
luminaires are re-lamped. Otherwise, dust will accumulate on the photodiode aperture, causing the
controls to always perceive it is a cloudy day, and the lights will stay on.

d) Occupancy Sensors
Occupancy sensors save energy by turning off lights in spaces that are unoccupied. When the
sensor detects motion, it activates a control device that turns on a lighting system. If no motion is
detected within a specified period, the lights are turned off until motion is sensed again. With most
sensors, sensitivity (the ability to detect motion) and the time delay (difference in time between
when sensor detects no motion and lights go off) are adjustable. Occupancy sensors are produced
in two primary types: Ultrasonic (US) and Passive Infrared (PIR). Dual-Technology (DT) sensors,
that have both ultrasonic and passive infrared detectors, are also available.

US and PIR sensors are available as wall-switch sensors, or remote sensors such as ceiling mounted
or outdoor commercial grade units. With remote sensors, a low-voltage wire connects each sensor
to an electrical relay and control module, which operates on common voltages. With wall-switch
sensors, the sensor and control module are packaged as one unit. Multiple sensors and/or lighting
circuits can be linked to one control module allowing flexibility for optimum design.

Wall-switch sensors can replace existing manual switches in small areas such as offices,
conference rooms, and some classrooms. However, in these applications, a manual override switch
should be available so that the lights can be turned off for slide presentations and other visual
displays. Wall-switch sensors should have an unobstructed coverage pattern (absolutely necessary
for PIR sensors) of the room it controls.

Ceiling-mounted units are appropriate in corridors, rest rooms, open office areas with partitions
and any space where objects obstruct the line of sight from a wall-mounted sensor location.
Commercial grade outdoor units can also be used in indoor warehouses and large aisles. Sensors
designed for outdoor use are typically heavy duty, and usually have the adjustable sensitivities
and coverage patterns for maximum flexibility.

i. Ultrasonic Sensors (US)

Ultrasonic sensors transmit and receive high-frequency sound waves above the range of human
hearing. The sound waves bounce around the room and return to the sensor. Any motion within
the room distorts the sound waves. The sensor detects this distortion and signals the lights to turn
on. When no motion has been detected over a user-specified time, the sensor sends a signal to turn
the lights off. Because ultrasonic sensors need enclosed spaces (for good sound wave echo
reflection), they can only be used indoors and perform better if room surfaces are hard, where
sound wave absorption is minimized. Ultrasonic sensors are most sensitive to motion toward or
away from the sensor.

Applications include rooms with objects that obstruct the sensor’s line of sight coverage of the
room, such as restroom stalls, locker rooms and storage areas.
 ii. Passive Infrared Sensors (PIR)
Passive Infrared sensors detect differences in infrared energy emanating in the room. When a
person moves, the sensor “sees” a heat source move from one zone to the next. PIR sensors require
an unobstructed view, and as distance from the sensor increases, larger motions are necessary to
trigger the sensor. Applications include open plan offices (without partitions), classrooms and other
areas that allow a clear line of sight from the sensor.

iii. Dual-Technology Sensors (DT)

Dual-Technology (DT) sensors combine both US and PIR sensing technologies. DT sensors can
improve sensor reliability and minimize false switching. However, these types of sensors are still
only limited to applications where ultrasonic sensors will work.