Power Systems Lab Dept of EEE

MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE &

MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
(Approved by the AICTE, New Delhi and affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad)
Kistapur Hamlet of Medchal, Hyderabad, Medchal .Dist. - 501401

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Power Systems Lab

Student Lab Manual
III B. Tech: II – SEM
Lab code: EE605PC

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

MALLREDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
(Approved by AICTE New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad)
Kistapur, Medchal, Medchal – 501401

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 Power Systems Lab Dept of EEE

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Vision of the Institute:
The aspiration is to emerge as a premier institution in technical education to produce competent engineers
and management professionals contributing to Industry and Society.

Mission of the Institute (MI):

The aspirations are fulfilled and continue to be fulfilled:

MI-1: By providing the student supporting systems:

To impart updated pedagogical techniques with supportive learning environment and state-of-the-art
facilities.

MI-2: By training the students as per the industry needs:

To cultivate a culture of interdisciplinary approach, problem solving, innovative ecosystem, and
entrepreneurship by facilitating critical thinking, teamwork, and research-driven activities with hands-on
learning.

MI-3: By educating the students about society's needs:

To instill ethical, social, and environmental values through community engagement resulting in sustainable
development of society.

Vision of the EEE-Department:

The aspiration is to produce competent Electrical and Electronics Engineering Graduates capable of making
valuable contributions in the field of Electrical and Electronics Engineering.
Mission of the Department:
MD-1: Student Support Systems:
To equip students with advanced learning skills in Electrical and Electronics Engineering, while providing
them with the necessary professional competencies to overcome future challenges.
MD-2: Training the students as per the industry needs:
To facilitate the students to acquire interdisciplinary skills in renewable energy, electric vehicles, and
power electronics applications through practical knowledge and innovative
techniques to meet evolving global challenges.

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 Power Systems Lab Dept of EEE

MD-3: Educating the students, the needs of society:

To develop professional ethics, self-confidence, and leadership qualities among students.

Program Educational Objectives (PEO’S)

PEO 1: MREM B.Tech EEE graduates shall be able to apply technical knowledge in Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, empowering them to pursue higher studies or succeed in their professional
careers in the electrical Power Industry.

PEO 2: MREM B.Tech EEE graduates shall be able to design and implement complex electrical systems,
meeting the electrical and electronics industry demands.

PEO 3: MREM B.Tech EEE graduates shall be able to h a n d l e so ci et a l a n d en v i r o n m en t a l

p r o b l e m s wi t h et h i ca l v a l u es as demanded by society.

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

PSO1: Provide efficient problem-solving techniques in the areas of Power Electronics, Power Systems,
Control systems, and Electrical Machines using MATLAB/MULTISIM.

PSO2: Design and develop a wide range of Electrical and Electronics Systems, specifically emphasizing
Electric Drives, Conventional Renewable Energy, and Automation to demonstrate overall knowledge and
contribute to the betterment of society.

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 Power Systems Lab Dept of EEE
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)
PO1: ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE:
Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an engineering
specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
PO2: PROBLEM ANALYSIS:
Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex engineering problems reaching
substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and
engineering sciences.
PO3: DESIGN/DEVELOPMENT OF SOLUTIONS:
Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system components or
processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and
safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
PO4: CONDUCT INVESTIGATIONS OF COMPLEX PROBLEMS:
Use research-based knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis
and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5: MODERN TOOL USAGE:
Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT
tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an
understanding of the limitations.
PO6: THE ENGINEER AND SOCIETY:
Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and
cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO7: ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY:
Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental
contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO8: ETHICS:
Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of
the engineering practice.
PO9: INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM WORK:
Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and
in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10: COMMUNICATION:
Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering community
and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and
design documentation, make effective presentations, give and receive clear instructions.
PO11 PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND FINANCE:
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and management principles and
apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in
multidisciplinary environments.
PO12 LIFE-LONG LEARNING:
Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and life-
long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

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 Power Systems Lab Dept of EEE

MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE & MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

GENERAL LABORATORY INSTRUCT IONS

1. There must be at least two (2) people in the laboratory while working on live circuits or chemical
processing

2. Shoes and apron must be worn at all times.

3. Remove all loose conductive jewelry and trinkets, including rings, which may come in contact with
exposedcircuits. (Do not wear long loose ties, scarves, or other loose clothing around machines.)

4. Consider all circuits to be "hot" unless proven otherwise.

5. When making measurements, form the habit of using only one hand at a time. No part of a live circuit
shouldbe touched by the bare hand.

6. Keep the body, or any part of it, out of the circuit. Where interconnecting wires and cables are
involved, theyshould be arranged so people will not trip over them.

7. Be as neat a possible. Keep the work area and workbench clear of items not used in the experiment.

8. Always check to see that the power switch is OFF before plugging into the outlet. Also, turn
instrument or equipment OFF before unplugging from the outlet.

9. When unplugging a power cord, pull on the plug, not on the cable.

10. When disassembling a circuit, first remove the source of power.

11. No ungrounded electrical or electronic apparatus is to be used in the laboratory unless it is double
insulated or battery operated.

12. Keep fluids, chemicals, and beat away from instruments and circuits.

13. Report any damages to equipment, hazards, and potential hazards to the laboratory instructor.

14. If in doubt about electrical safety, see the laboratory instructor. Regarding specific equipment,
consult the instruction manual provided by the manufacturer of the equipment. Information regarding
safe use and possible- hazards should be studied carefully.

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Part - A

1. Characteristics of IDMT Over-Current Relay.

2. Differential protection of 1-Φ transformer.
3. Characteristics of Micro Processor based Over Voltage/Under Voltage
relay.
4. A,B,C,D constants of a Long Transmission line
5. Finding the sequence impedances of 3-Φ synchronous machine.
6. Finding the sequence impedances of 3-Φ Transformer.

Part - B

1. Formation of YBUS.
2. Load Flow Analysis using Gauss Seidal (GS) Method.
3. Load Flow Analysis using Fast Decoupled (FD) Method.
4. Formation of ZBUS.
5. Simulation of Compensated Line

Beyond The Syllabus Experiments

1. Time constant calculation of RL circuit
2. Time constant calculation of RLC circuit

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 S. No Name of the Experiment Page No
1 Characteristics of IDMT over Current Relay 3-6
2 Differential protection of 1-phase transformer . 7-9

3 Characteristics of Micro Processor based Over 10-14

Voltage/Under Voltage relay
4 Finding the sequence impedances of 3phase 15-17
Transformer
5 Finding the sequence impedances of 3phase 18-22
synchronous machine
6 (a) Performance and Testing of Transmission line 23-32
Model.
(b) ABCD constants of a long transmission line.
7 Formation of Y-BUS. 37-39
40-48
8
Load F1ow Analysis using Gauss Seidal (GS) Method.
9
Load F1ow Analysis using Fast Decoupled
49-56
Method.
10.
Formation of Z-BUS. 57-59

Beyond The Syllabus Experiments

Time constant calculation of RL circuit
1. 60-65

2. Time constant calculation of RLC circuit 66-68

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 Power Systems Lab EEE Department

Power System Lab

Course Course Outcome Bloom’s

Outcome Statement Taxonomy level

C325.1 Plot the characteristics ofOver

Apply
Current, Under Voltage and
overvoltage relay.

C325.2 Analyze the operation of Analyze

differential relay
C325.3 Determine the transmission line Apply
parameters of a given long
transmission line model

C325.4 Determine the sequence impedance of Apply

three phase
synchronous machine andthree
phase transformer
C325.5 Develop the bus impedance and Create
admittance
model
C325.6 Develop GS and NR Create
method to analyze the load flow
analysis

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POWER SYSTEMS LAB EEE DEPARTMENT

Power Systems Lab

Name : Power Systems Lab

Course Code : EE605PC
Class : III - II

CO-PO MAPPING

P P P P P P P P P P P P
O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8 O9 O O O PSO1 PSO2
10 11 12
C325.1 1 3 2 2 2
C325.2 1 2 3 2 2
C325.3 1 3 2 2 2
C325.4 1 2 3 2 2
C325.5 1 3 2 2 3
C325.6 1 3 2 2 2
Avg 1 2 3 2 2 2

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POWER SYSTEMS LAB EEE DEPARTMENT

MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE & MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

EEE DEPARTMENT
Power System Lab

S. No Name of the CO PO/PSO

Experiment Mapping Mapping
1 Characteristics of IDMT C325.1 PO 1, PO3,PO5
Over-Current Relay.

2 Differential protectionof 1-Φ C325.2 PO1,PO2,P

transformer. O3 &PSO3

3 Characteristics of Micro C325.1 PO 1, PO3,PO5

Processor basedOver
Voltage/Under Voltage relay.
4 A,B,C,D constants of a Long C325.3 PO 1,
Transmission line PO3,PO5 &
PSO3
5 Finding the sequence C325.4 PO1,PO2,PO3
impedances of 3-Φ
synchronous machine.
6 Finding the sequence C325.3 PO 1,
impedances of 3-Φ PO3,PO5 &
Transformer. PSO3
7 Formation of YBUS. C325.5 PO 1,
PO3,PO5 &
PSO3
8 Load Flow Analysisusing C325.6 PO 1, PO3,PO5
Gauss Seidal (GS) Method.
9 Load Flow Analysis C325.6 PO 1, PO3,PO5
using Fast Decoupled(FD)
Method.
10 Formation of ZBUS. C325.5 PO 1, PO3,PO5
&
PSO3

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1. IDMT Characteristics of Over Current Relay

Aim: To study the Operation of an Non- Directional electromechanical type over current (I D M T relay) and plot
the inverse time current characteristics.

Apparatus:

S.No Name Of The Equipment Quantity

1 Non-Directional Over current relay 1
2 Time Totalizer 1
3 Fault creation Panel 1
4 Digital Ammeter 1

Theory:

IDMT relay is inverse definite minimum time relay. It is one in which Time of operation is inversely
proportional to magnitude of fault current near pickup value and becomes substantially constant slightly above the
pickup value of the Relay. This is achieved by using a core of the Electro Magnet which gets saturated for currents
slightly greater than the pickup current. Fault current and measure relay operation time is used to conduct the
experiment. Values recorded for various TSMs and PSMs. Characteristics studied with the help of a graph and correlated
with theory.

This relay consists of Induction disc unit with an operation indicator and in some cases an instantaneous high
set unit all assembled are in standard frame. Type disc shaft carried silver rod moving contacts which complete the
auxiliary unit circuit through the fixed contract. Permanent magnet is used to control the disc speed. The setting is
adjusted by the movement of the back stop which is controlled by the rotating a KNUR LED molded disc at the base of
graduated time multiplier.

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Circuit Diagram:

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Procedure:-

1. Switch ON the MCB.

2. Initially rotor switch should be in OFF position.

3. Now set the described fault current by using the current source. For that switch ON the rotorswitch and move
the current till the described fault current is indicated in the ammeter.

4. Now move the rotor switch is OFF position and press the green button. Note down the time in seconds after
relay operated.

5. Repeat the same procedure for various T.S.M and P.S.M

6. Plot the graph between time take for relay to operate Vs P.S.M for various T.S.M.

Precautions:-

 Disc must be stationary before applying fault current.

 TSM setting must be changed with due care.

Readings and Tabular forms:-

PSM = TSM =

SNO. Fault Current Time of

operation

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Expected graphs:

Result:

Discussion questions:

1. Why CT is required in this experiment?

2. Can we design the experiment without Current Injection Unit?
3. What is TSM & PSM and why different TSM & PSM?
4. Identify different terminals of the relay and explain their use. Write them in your record.

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2. Differential Protection on Single Phase Transformer.

Aim: To study the differential protection scheme for a single phase transformer with unequal turn’s ratio
Apparatus:
S.No Name Of The Equipment Quantity
1 Single phase transformer 1
2 Current transformer 1
3 Single phase variac 1
4 Suitable ammeters 1
5 over current relay 1

Theory:

A Differential relay responds to vector difference between two or more similar electrical quantities. From
this definition the Differential relay has at least two actuating quantities say1-1 and 2-1.
The two or more actuating quantities should be same.
Ex: Current/Current.

The Relay responds to vector difference between 1-1 &2-1which includes magnitude and /or phase angle
difference. Differential protection is generally unit protection. The protection zone is exactly determined by
location of CTs. The vector difference is actuated by suitable connection of CTs or PTs secondaries. Most
differential relays are current differential relays in which vector difference between current entering the winding &
current leaving the winding is used for relay operation. Differential protection is used for protection of
Generators, Transformers etc. Internal fault is created using switch and relay operation observed for various
TSMs. Relay operations for external faults can also be studied.

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Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as shown in fig.1

2. Select the transformation ratio 2:1 and the C.T. ratios of 2:1 and 4:1 Set PSM of the relay equal to 0.5.
3. Apply rated voltage 230V to primary by varying the variac.
4. Without applying fault, note down different meter readings.
5. By applying load observe whether the relay is operating of not .
6. Now close the switch so as to create an internal fault.
7. Note the various ammeter readings when relay operates.
8. Create internal fault at different loads and note the various meter readings.
9. Now create an external fault and observe whether the relay operates or not, note the various meter readings.

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Readings and Tabular form:

Observation:- For Internal Fault
S.No IPrimary ISecondary Irelay Ifault Relay
operates/doesn’t
operate

For External Fault

S.No IPrimary ISecondary Irelay Ifault Relay
operates/doesn’t
operate

Result:

Discussion Questions:
1. Why identical CTs are required in this scheme.
2. How would you take into account CT imbalances?
3. What do you understand by internal fault?

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3. Characteristics of Static Relay UV/OV relay

Aim:

To study the operation of Microprocessor Based type under voltage relay and hence to obtain inverse
time/voltage characteristics.

Apparatus Required:

S.No Name Of The Equipment Quantity

1 Microprocessor Based Under voltage 1
relay
2 Auto Transformer 1
3 Voltmeter (0-600V)MI 1
4 Timer 1
5 Connecting Wires Required

Theory:

Over Voltage/Under Voltage Relay is an electronic microcontroller based single-

phase voltage relay. It is suitable for over voltage/under voltage protection schemes in LV, MV and HV power
distribution systems. It is also suitable for over voltage protection of AC circuits, capacitors, machines such as
generators, synchronous motor and under voltage protection of AC circuits, Induction motors, automatic change
over schemes etc.

The microcontroller-based design offers a wide range of Trip-Time characteristics, under voltage
or over voltage mode and PT rating (110V, 240V, 415V), which can all be selected in the field at the time of
commissioning. It accepts very wide auxiliary supply range.

Relay is designed for flush mounting. It is very compact in size, which results in saving of panel
space. Its draw-out construction makes installation and maintenance very easy.

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Circuit Diagram:

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Procedure:

1. Switch on the MCB

2. Initially Rotary switch should be in OFF position
3. Now to set the desired fault voltage we will be using voltage source. For that switch ON the Rotary switch
marked as voltage set and move the voltage source till the desired fault voltage is indicated on the
voltmeter, it is quit possible that while adjusting the fault voltage the Relay might trip for that you have to
RESET the RELAY by pressing the red button provided on the relay denoted by (RELAY RESET) for
resetting the relay the Rotary switch must be brought in OFF position.
4. Now the desire Fault voltage is SET and Relay RESET. Now move the Toggle Switch on OFF position and
press the green push button and timer counting will start and counting will STOP once the relay is operated.
Note down the time in seconds.
(1) Now for various T.M.S (Time Multiplier Setting) and Voltage setting the time taken by the relay to
operate at various fault voltage may be note down.

Tabular Column

S.No. T.M.S Voltage Setting Applied Voltage Operating Time

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Graph

Plot the graph operating time Vs applied voltage.

Setting of Fault voltage Level:Vs =

1-(0.05+∑a) Vn,

Where,

Vs = Pick up setting in volts Vn

= PT rating 110V

a = weight of the switch in ON position

Note: In Under voltage mode, continuing with above example, the pick up setting becomes
Vs=(1-0.30) =70% of Vn. For 110 volts Vn, the pick up voltage becomes 77 volts. If Vn=415, then pick up
voltage becomes 290.5 volts. Where voltages below this set value, relay picks up and trips according to selected trip
time characteristics.

The trip time will depend upon:

a) Trip time characteristic selected and magnitude of fault in case of Inverse Trip Time
Characteristics.
b) Define Time in case of Definite Time Characteristics.

Time Multiplier Settling:

This feature offers various operations of Trip Time for a selected Trip Time Characteristic. The
Time Multiplication Factor can be set from 0.1 to 1.6 in steps of 0.1 using the last block of four DIP switches
shown in Diagram. This means in case of Inverse Trip Time Characteristics. Relay offers 16 parallel curves
corresponding to each Time Multiplier Setting as shown in Figure and in case of Definite Trip Time mode, the
trip time can be set 100msec to 160 secs.

The method of setting this switch is similar to one explained in previous pages.

Trip time T is given by formula

T = K (0.1+∑t) where T

= Trip time in seconds.

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K = Constant depending on Trip Time Characteristic selected

Normal Inverse (3.5 secs) in OV mode when fault is 2Vs Normal

Inverse (5.7 secs) in UV mode when fault is 0.5Vs.
1.0 Definite Time (1.0 sec)
10.0 Definite Time (10 sec)

100.0 Definite Time (100 sec)

t=weight of the switches in ON position

Result:

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4.Determination of Positive, Negative and zero sequence reactance of

3 ph Transformers.

Aim: -

To determine the Positive, Negative and Zero sequence (sequence impedance) of the giventhree phase
transformer

Apparatus: -

S.No Name Of The Equipment Quantity

1 Ammeter --(0 – 5) A 1
2 Voltmeter ---(0 – 600)V 1
3 Connecting Wires Required

Theory:

Since Transformers have the same impedance with reversed phase rotation, their +ve and –ve sequence impedances
are equal. This value being equal to the impedance of the Transformer. However, Zero sequence impedance depends upon the
Earth connection. If there is a through Circuit for the earth current, zero sequence impedance will be equal to the +ve
sequence impedance otherwise it will be infinite. Lab experiment is planned to find out sequence impedances by creation of
faults at secondary suitably and measure impedances. Proper care is taken to ensure readings would not damage the
equipment.
1. Circuit Diagram:

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Procedure: -

 Connect the given three phase transformer as shown in the circuit Diagram 1
 After short-circuiting the low voltage side adjusts the voltage on high voltage side with
the help of the autotransformer such that the rated current flows in the windings.
 Note down the voltage and current.
 From these readings determine the transformer positive sequence Impedance which is also
equal to negative sequence impedance.
 Determine the zero sequence impedance of the transformer by making
connections as shown in the 4. Circuit Diagram 2.
 Note down the voltage and current.

V
Z1 
3I

Z2  Z1
V
Z 
0
3I

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Readings and Tabular form:

S.No Z1 Z2 Z0
V I V I V I

Result:

Discussion Questions:

2. Define Sequence Impedances.

3. Explain symmetrical components method.
4. Why +ve, -ve sequence impedances same for a transformer?

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5.Determination of sequence impedances of a cylindrical rotor

Synchronous Machine.

Aim: To determine the Positive, Negative and Zero sequence of impedances or sequenceimpedances of the given
three phase alternator.

Apparatus:-

S.No Name Of The Equipment Quantity

1 Three phase alternator DC motor set 1
2 Ammeter (0 –2 A) MC 1
3 Voltmeter (0-300) MC 1
4 Ammeter (0-5)A MI 1
5 Voltmeter (0-600)V MI
6 Auto-Transformer ( 0—230V)
7 Connecting Wires Required

Theory:

The positive, Negative and Zero sequence impedances of rotating machines are generally different. The +ve
sequence impedance of Synchronous generator is equal to the Synchronous impedance of the machine.
Experimental set up to conduct OCC and SCC is made available. With the help of observations Synchronous
impedance can be calculated. The –ve sequence impedance is much less than +ve Sequence impedance. The
zero sequence impedance is a variable item and if its value is not given, it may be assumed to be equal to the
+ve sequenceimpedance. For Zero sequence impedance a separate model is used to conduct of experiment.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

(A) POSITIVE SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE

OC test

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2) Negative sequence impedence

3) ZERO-SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE:

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Procedure:-
I. POSITIVE SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE

1. Obtain the O.C.C of the Alternator by connecting the Alternator As in fig .1.

2. Obtain the S.C.C of the Alternator by connecting the Alternator as in fig .2.

3. Determine the stator resistance / phase by connecting as shown in fig.3.Zs = O.C

voltage / S.C current (at a same value of field current)

II NEGATIVE SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE

1. Connect the Circuit as shown in the fig.4.

2. Run the machine at rated speed with low excitation to the field of the Alternator.
3. The lines B and C shorted and the meters are connected as Shown Cos Ø = W/

(VI)

Z 2 = V/ ( √(3 I)

III ZERO SEQUENCY IMPEDANCE

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig. 5.

2. Three phase winding are connected in series.

Apply low voltage to the Armature, so that rated full load current flow in the series field winding.

Z 0 = V ao / Iao = 3E/I

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Readings and Tabular forms:

S.No. E I P Zo Xo

Result:

Discussion Questions:

1. Define +ve, -ve, Zero sequence impedances.

2. Why are they different for Alternators?
3. Can we analyze an unbalanced system otherwise?
4. What is the effect on the value of zero sequence reactance if the synchronous machine is
rotated at synchronous speed during the above experiment?
5. Out of all the reactance of synchronous machine which one is lowest?
6. What is the typical value of zero sequence reactance in per unit per large rating salient pole
alternator?

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6.(a)Performance and Testing of Transmission line Model.

Aim:-
 To determine Efficiency and Regulation of 3 phase Transmission modelWith
Resistive load .
 To observe Ferranti effect.
 Open conductor operation and measurement of Voltages and Currents.

Apparatus:-

S.No Name Of The Equipment Quantity

1 Voltmeter (o - 600v) MI 2
2 Ammeter (0 – 10 A ) MI 2
3 Watt meter (UPF, 5A, 600V) 2
4 Connecting Wires Required

Theory:

The transmission line constants are uniformly distributed over the

entire length for a short line and these constants are called lumped constants. If the length of
the transmission line is more than 200 km serious errors are introduced in the performance
calculations. Hence a equivalent T or pie network is determined to represent the line
accurately by assuming suitable values of lumped constants.

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Circuit Diagram:

Procedure: - (For finding Efficiency and Regulation)

1. Make the connection as per the 4. Circuit Diagram.

2.Switch ON supply and adjust rated voltage, note down voltage,Current and

power at sending end and receiving end at no load.

3. Repeat step 2 at different loads of (A) Resistive load (B) inductive load

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Readings and Tabular forms :

FOR RESISTIVE LOAD

Vs Ws Vr Ir Wr Regulation Efficiency

Sample calculations:

% Efficiency = W receiving * 100

W sending

% Regulation = V No –VL * 100V

NO

Where V N O = Voltage at receiving end at no load.

V L = Voltage at receiving end at particular load.

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Precaution: -

Keep the voltage at sending end constant through out the experiment.

Results:

Discussion questions:

1. Can we simulate Nominal – II and Nominal T- Models and measureRegulation

and Efficiency?

2. What are the reasons for Ferranti Effect?

3.How faults are classified?

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6.(b)DETERMINATION A, B, C, D CONSTANTS OF MEDIUM LINE

AND CIRCLE DIAGRAM

Aim: To determine ABCD constants of 3 phase transmission line with

a) Distributed Connection

b) Nominal – T connection

Apparatus:

a) For Open Circuit Test:

i) p.f. meter – 10A, 150/300/600V (0.5-1-0.5)

ii) Voltmeter - (0-300V) MI

iii) Ammeter - (0-1A) MI

b) For Short Circuit Test

i) Wattmeter - 10A, 75V, UPF

ii) Voltmeter - (0-30V) MI

iii) Ammeter - (0-10A) MI

Theory: If a transmission line is erected, the constants are measured by conducting the OC & SC tests at the
two ends of the line.

Using equations

Vs = AVr + BIr

Is = CV r +

DI r

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Impedance measurement on the SE side: SE impedance with RE open circuit is

Vs A

Z so = — = — (I r=0)

Is C

SE impedance with RE short circuited,

Vs B

Z ss = — = — (Vr=0)

Is D

Measurement of impedance on RE side

Using equations

Vr = DVs — BIs

Ir = — CVs + AIs

While performing test, the current leaves the NetworkIs -=

— Is , Ir = — Ir

Vr = DVs — BIs

— Ir = — CVs — AIs

I r = CVs + AIs

RE impedance with SE open circuited, ZroVr

Z ro = — = — (I s=0)

Ir C

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RE impedance with SE short circuited, Zrs

Vr B

Z rs = — = — (V s=0)

Ir A

D B 1

Z ro — Z rs = — − —= —

C A AC

Z so

----------- = A2

Zro - Zrs

Z so

A = √ ----------------

(Z ro — Z rs)

Z rs = -----

B = Zrs . A

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Zso

B = Zrs √ ------------

(Zro – Zrs)

A A 1 Z so

Z so = ----- C = ----- = --- √ -----------

C Z so Z so (Zro – Zrs)

Z ro = ----

D = C.Zro

Z ro Z so

= ----- √ ---------- (Zro = Zso)

Z so (Zro – Zrs)

D=A

Procedure:

O.C. & S.C. tests on SE side:

2. Connect the circuit as per fig.(1) for O.C. test on SE.

3. Set 230V on Voltmeter using variac and note V s, Is and p.f. meter reading.
4. Connect the circuit as per fig (2) for S.C. test on SE.
5. Set 8A on Ammeter and note V s, Is and wattmeter readings.

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O.C. & SC tests of RE side

1. Connect the circuit as per fig (3) for O.C test on RE.
2. Set 230V in Voltmeter & note V r, Ir & p.f meter reading.
3. Connect the circuit as per fig (4) for SC test on RE.
4. Set 8A in Ammeter & note V r, Ir & Wattmeter reading.

Readings and Tabular forms

O.C. & S.C. tests on SE side:

Test Vs Is p.f / Wattmeter reading

O.C (Ir=0) 230

S.C (V r=0) 8A

O.C. & SC tests of RE side

Test Vr Ir p.f / Wattmeter

reading

O.C (Is=0) 230

S.C (Vs=0) 8A

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Calculations:

Vs

Zso = --------- (Ir = 0)

Is

Vs

Zss = --- (Vr = 0)

Is

Vr

Zro = --- (Is= 0)

Ir

Vr

Zrs = --- (Vs= 0)

Ir

Z so

A = √ ----------

(Zro – Zrs)

Zso

B = Zrs √ ----------

(Zro – Zrs)

1 Z so

C = --- √ ----------

Z so (Zro – Zrs)

D=A

Note: Same 5. Procedure is repeated for Nominal – T Connection.Result:

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Discussion questions:

1. What are A,B,C,D constants?

2. Prove AD-BC = 1

Power transmission line :

Electric-power transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical energy, from generating
power plants to electrical substations located near demand centers. This is distinct from the local wiring
between high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to as electric power
distribution.

Most transmission lines use high-voltage three-phase alternating current (AC), although single
phase AC is sometimes used in railway electrification systems.High-voltage direct-current (HVDC)
technology is used for greater efficiency in very long distances (typically hundreds of miles (kilometres), or
in submarine power cables (typically longer than 30 miles (50 km). HVDC links are also used to stabilize
against control problems in large power distribution networks where sudden new loads or blackouts in one
part of a network can otherwise result in synchronization problems and cascading failures.

Diagram of an electric power system; transmission system is in blue

Electricity is transmitted at high voltages (110 kV or above) to reduce the energy lost in long-distance
transmission. Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines.
Underground power transmission has a significantly higher cost and greater operational limitations but is
sometimes used in urban areas or sensitive locations.

A key limitation in the distribution of electric power is that, with minor exceptions, electrical energy
cannot be stored, and therefore must be generated as needed. A sophisticated control system is required to
ensure electric generation very closely matches the demand. If the demand

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for power exceeds the supply, generation plants and transmission equipment can shut down which,in the worst
cases, can lead to a major regional blackout, such as occurred in the India Northeast blackouts of 1965, 1977,
2003, and other regional blackouts in 1996 and 2011. To reduce the riskof such failures, electric
transmission networks are interconnected into regional, national or continental wide networks thereby
providing multiple redundant alternative routes for power toflow should (weather or equipment) failures
occur. Much analysis is done by transmission companies to determine the maximum reliable capacity of
each line (ordinarily less than itsphysical or thermal limit) to ensure spare capacity is available should
there be any such failure in
another part of the network.

High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The conductor material is nearly
always an aluminium alloy, made into several strands and possibly reinforced with steel strands. Copper
was sometimes used for overhead transmission but aluminium is lighter, yields only marginally reduced
performance, and costs much less. Overhead conductors are a commodity supplied by several companies
worldwide. Improved conductor material and shapes are regularly used to allow increased capacity and
modernize transmission circuits. Conductor sizes range from 12 mm 2 (#6 to 750 mm 2 (1,590,000 circular mils
area), with varying resistance and current- carrying capacity. Thicker wires would lead to a relatively small
increase in capacity due to the skin effect, that causes most of the current to flow close to the surface of the
wire. Because of this current limitation, multiple parallel cables (called bundle conductors) are used when
higher capacity is needed. Bundle conductors are also used at high voltages to reduce energy loss caused by
corona discharge.

Today, transmission-level voltages are usually considered to be 110 kV and above. Lower voltages
such as 66 kV and 33 kV are usually considered sub transmission voltages but are occasionally used on
long lines with light loads. Voltages less than 33 kV are usually used for distribution. Voltages above
230 kV are considered extra high voltage and require different designs compared to equipment used at lower
voltages.

Since overhead transmission wires depend on air for insulation, design of these lines requires
minimum clearances to be observed to maintain safety. Adverse weather conditions of high wind and low
temperatures can lead to power outages. Wind speeds as low as 23 knots (43 km/h) can permit
conductors to encroach operating clearances, resulting in a flashover and loss of supply.[2] Oscillatory
motion of the physical line can be termed gallop orflutter depending on the frequency and amplitude of
oscillation Grid input

At the power stations the energy is produced at a relatively low voltage between about
2.3 kV and 30 kV, depending on the size of the unit. The generator terminal voltage is then stepped

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up by the power station transformer to a higher voltage (115 kV to 765 kV AC, varying by the
transmission system and by country) for transmission over long distances.
Losses
Transmitting electricity at high voltage reduces the fraction of energy lost to resistance, which
averages around 7%.[8] For a given amount of power, a higher voltage reduces the current and thus the
resistive losses in the conductor. For example, raising the voltage by a factor of 10 reduces the current by a
corresponding factor of 10 and therefore the I2R losses by a factor of 100, provided the same sized conductors
are used in both cases. Even if the conductor size (cross- sectional area) is reduced 10-fold to match the
lower current the I2R losses are still reduced 10- fold. Long distance transmission is typically done with
overhead lines at voltages of 115 to 1,200 kV. At extremely high voltages, more than 2,000 kV between
conductor and ground, corona discharge losses are so large that they can offset the lower resistive losses in the line
conductors. Measures to reduce corona losses include conductors having large diameter; often hollow to save
weight,[9] or bundles of two or more conductors.

Transmission and distribution losses in the USA were estimated at 6.6% in 1997 [10] and 6.5% in
2007.[10] In general, losses are estimated from the discrepancy between energy produced (as reported by
power plants) and energy sold to end customers; the difference between what is produced and what is
consumed constitute transmission and distribution losses, assuming no theft of utility occurs.

As of 1980, the longest cost-effective distance for DC electricity was determined to be 7,000 km
(4,300 mi). For AC it was 4,000 km (2,500 mi), though all transmission lines in use today are substantially
shorter.[7]

In an alternating current circuit, the inductance and capacitance of the phase conductors can be
significant. The currents that flow in these components of the
circuit impedance constitute reactive power, which transmits no energy to the load.
Reactive current causes extra losses in the transmission circuit. The ratio of real power (transmitted to the
load) to apparent power is the power factor. As reactive current increases, the reactive power increases and
the power factor decreases. For systems with low power factors, losses are higher than for systems with high
power factors. Utilities add capacitor banks and other components (such as phase-shifting
transformers; static VAR compensators; physical transposition of the phase conductors; and flexible
AC transmission systems, FACTS) throughout the system to control reactive power flow for reduction of
losses and stabilization of system voltage.
Subtransmission

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Subtransmission is part of an electric power transmission system that runs at relatively lower
voltages. It is uneconomical to connect all distribution substations to the high main transmission voltage,
because the equipment is larger and more expensive. Typically, only larger substations connect with this high
voltage. It is stepped down and sent to smaller substations in towns and neighborhoods. Subtransmission
circuits are usually arranged in loops so that a singleline failure does not cut off service to a large number of
customers for more than a short time. While subtransmission circuits are usually carried on overhead lines,
in urban areas buried cable may be used.

There is no fixed cutoff between subtransmission and transmission, or subtransmission and

distribution. The voltage ranges overlap somewhat. Voltages of 69 kV, 115 kV and 138 kV are often used for
subtransmission in North America. As power systems evolved, voltages formerly used for transmission
were used for subtransmission, and subtransmission voltages became distribution voltages. Like transmission,
subtransmission moves relatively large amounts of power, and like distribution, subtransmission covers an area
instead of just point to point.[11]
Transmission grid exit
At the substations, transformers reduce the voltage to a lower level for distribution to commercial
and residential users. This distribution is accomplished with a combination of sub- transmission (33 kV to
132 kV) and distribution (3.3 to 25 kV). Finally, at the point of use, the energy is transformed to low voltage
(varying by country and customer requirements—.

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EXPERIMENT-7
Formation of YBUS.

AIM: To Develop MATLAB program for YBUS formation.

SOFTWARE-REQUIRED:

MATLAB:7.8

THEORY:
Bus admittance is often used in power system studies. In most of the power system studies it is
required to form y- bus matrix of the system by considering certain power system parameters depending upon
the type of analysis. Y-bus may be formed by inspection method only if there is no mutual coupling between
the lines. Every transmission line should be represented by p- equivalent. Shunt impedances are added to
diagonal element corresponding to the buses at which these are connected. The off diagonal elements are
unaffected. The equivalent circuit of Tap changing transformers is included while forming Y-bus matrix.

FORMATION OF Y-BUS MATRIX:

Generalized Y-bus = yii........... yid
ydi ........ ydd
where, Yii = Self admittance
Ydi = Transfer admittance

PROCEDURE:
1. Enter the command window of the MATLAB.
2. Create a new M – file by selecting File - New – M – File
3. Type and save the program in the editor window.
4. Execute the program by either pressing tools – Run.
5. View the results.

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PROGRAM:

% loine data

% bus bus R X 1/2B Tap

% nl nr pu pu pu

linedata=[1 2 0.02 0.04 0 1

1 3 0.01 0.03 0 1

2 3 0.0125 0.025 0 1];

% This program obtains the Bus Admittance Matrix for

power flow solution
j=sqrt(-1); i = sqrt(-1);

nl = linedata(:,1); nr = linedata(:,2); R = linedata(:,3);

X = linedata(:,4); Bc = j*linedata(:,5); a = linedata(:, 6);

nbr=length(linedata(:,1)); nbus = max(max(nl), max(nr));

Z = R + j*X; y= ones(nbr,1)./Z; %branch admittance

for n = 1:nbr

if a(n) <= 0 a(n) = 1; else end

Ybus=zeros(nbus,nbus); % initialize Ybus to zero

% formation of the off diagonal elements

for k=1:nbr;

Ybus(nl(k),nr(k))=Ybus(nl(k),nr(k))-y(k)/a(k);

Ybus(nr(k),nl(k))=Ybus(nl(k),nr(k));

end

end

% formation of the diagonal elements

for n=1:nbus

for k=1:nbr

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if nl(k)==n

Ybus(n,n) = Ybus(n,n)+y(k)/(a(k)^2) + Bc(k);

elseif nr(k)==n

Ybus(n,n) = Ybus(n,n)+y(k) +Bc(k);

else, end

end

end

disp(Ybus);

clear Pgg

RESULTS

Ybus =[20.0000 -50.0000i -10.0000 +20.0000i -10.0000 +30.0000i

-10.0000 +20.0000i 26.0000 -52.0000i -16.0000 +32.0000i

-10.0000 +30.0000i -16.0000 +32.0000i 26.0000 -62.0000i]

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EXPERIMENT-8
Load Flow Analysis using Gauss Seidal (GS) Method.

AIM : To Develop MATLAB program for G-S Load Flow Analysis.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

MATLAB -7.8

THEORY:
The GAUSS – SEIDEL method is an iterative algorithm for solving a set of non-linear load
flow equations.

PROCEDURE:
1. Enter the command window of the MATLAB.
2. Create a new M – file by selecting File - New – M – File
3. Type and save the program in the
editor Window
4. Execute the program by either pressing tool – Run.
5. View the results.

PROGRAM:

%PF studies for the Gauss Siedel Method

clc;

clear all;

basemva=100;

accuracy=0.001;

maxiter=100;

%bus data

% Bus Bus Vmag Angle -Load- -Gen- Qmin Qmax Inj

% No Code deg MW MVAr MW MVAr MVAr MVAr

busdata=[1 1 1.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2 0 1.00 0 400 250 0 0 0 0 0

3 2 1.04 0 0 0 200 0 -100 200 0];

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% line data

% bus bus R X 1/2B Tap

% nl nr pu pu pu

linedata=[1 2 0.02 0.04 0 1

1 3 0.01 0.03 0 1

2 3 0.0125 0.025 0 1];

Lfybus;

Lfgauss;

Busout;

Lineflow;

MATLAB PROGRAM FOR GUASS SEIDAL METHOD

% Power flow solution by Gauss-Seidel method
Vm=0; delta=0; yload=0; deltad =0;

nbus = length(busdata(:,1));

for k=1:nbus

n=busdata(k,1);

kb(n)=busdata(k,2); Vm(n)=busdata(k,3); delta(n)=busdata(k, 4);

Pd(n)=busdata(k,5); Qd(n)=busdata(k,6); Pg(n)=busdata(k,7); Qg(n) =

busdata(k,8);

Qmin(n)=busdata(k, 9); Qmax(n)=busdata(k, 10);

Qsh(n)=busdata(k, 11);

if Vm(n) <= 0 Vm(n) = 1.0; V(n) = 1 + j*0;

else delta(n) = pi/180*delta(n);

V(n) = Vm(n)*(cos(delta(n)) + j*sin(delta(n)));

P(n)=(Pg(n)-Pd(n))/basemva;

Q(n)=(Qg(n)-Qd(n)+ Qsh(n))/basemva;

S(n) = P(n) + j*Q(n);

end

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DV(n)=0;

end

num = 0; AcurBus = 0; converge = 1;

Vc = zeros(nbus,1)+j*zeros(nbus,1); Sc = zeros(nbus,1)+j*zeros(nbus,1);

while exist('accel')~=1

accel = 1.3;

end

while exist('accuracy')~=1

accuracy = 0.001;

end

while exist('basemva')~=1

basemva= 100;

end

while exist('maxiter')~=1

maxiter = 100;

end

iter=0;

maxerror=10;

while maxerror >= accuracy & iter <= maxiter

iter=iter+1;

for n = 1:nbus;

YV = 0+j*0;

for L = 1:nbr;

if nl(L) == n, k=nr(L);

YV = YV + Ybus(n,k)*V(k);

elseif nr(L) == n, k=nl(L);

YV = YV + Ybus(n,k)*V(k);

end

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end

Sc = conj(V(n))*(Ybus(n,n)*V(n) + YV) ;

Sc = conj(Sc);

DP(n) = P(n) - real(Sc);

DQ(n) = Q(n) - imag(Sc);

if kb(n) == 1

S(n) =Sc; P(n) = real(Sc); Q(n) = imag(Sc); DP(n) =0; DQ(n)=0;

Vc(n) = V(n);

elseif kb(n) == 2

Q(n) = imag(Sc); S(n) = P(n) + j*Q(n);

if Qmax(n) ~= 0

Qgc = Q(n)*basemva + Qd(n) - Qsh(n);

if abs(DQ(n)) <= .005 & iter >= 10 % After 10 iterations

if DV(n) <= 0.045 % the Mvar of generator buses

are

if Qgc < Qmin(n), % tested. If not within

limits Vm(n)

Vm(n) = Vm(n) + 0.005; % is changed in steps of

0.005 pu

DV(n) = DV(n)+.005; % up to .05 pu in order to

bring

elseif Qgc > Qmax(n), % the generator Mvar within

the

Vm(n) = Vm(n) - 0.005; % specified limits.

DV(n)=DV(n)+.005; end

else, end

else,end

else,end

end

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if kb(n) ~= 1

Vc(n) = (conj(S(n))/conj(V(n)) - YV )/ Ybus(n,n);

else, end

if kb(n) == 0

V(n) = V(n) + accel*(Vc(n)-V(n));

elseif kb(n) == 2

VcI = imag(Vc(n));

VcR = sqrt(Vm(n)^2 - VcI^2);

Vc(n) = VcR + j*VcI;

V(n) = V(n) + accel*(Vc(n) -V(n));

end

end

maxerror=max( max(abs(real(DP))), max(abs(imag(DQ))) );

if iter == maxiter & maxerror > accuracy

fprintf('\nWARNING: Iterative solution did not converged after ')

fprintf('%g', iter), fprintf(' iterations.\n\n')

fprintf('Press Enter to terminate the iterations and print the results

\n')

converge = 0; pause, else, end

end

if converge ~= 1

tech= (' ITERATIVE SOLUTION DID NOT CONVERGE'); else,

tech=(' Power Flow Solution by Gauss-Seidel Method');

end

k=0;

for n = 1:nbus

Vm(n) = abs(V(n)); deltad(n) = angle(V(n))*180/pi;

if kb(n) == 1

S(n)=P(n)+j*Q(n);

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Pg(n) = P(n)*basemva + Pd(n);

Qg(n) = Q(n)*basemva + Qd(n) - Qsh(n);

k=k+1;

Pgg(k)=Pg(n);

elseif kb(n) ==2

k=k+1;

Pgg(k)=Pg(n);

S(n)=P(n)+j*Q(n);

Qg(n) = Q(n)*basemva + Qd(n) - Qsh(n);

end

yload(n) = (Pd(n)- j*Qd(n)+j*Qsh(n))/(basemva*Vm(n)^2);

end

Pgt = sum(Pg); Qgt = sum(Qg); Pdt = sum(Pd); Qdt = sum(Qd); Qsht = sum(Qsh);

busdata(:,3)=Vm'; busdata(:,4)=deltad';

clear AcurBus DP DQ DV L Sc Vc VcI VcR YV converge delta

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RESULTS
Ybus= 20.0000 -50.0000i -10.0000 +20.0000i -10.0000 +30.0000i

-10.0000 +20.0000i 26.0000 -52.0000i -16.0000 +32.0000i

-10.0000 +30.0000i -16.0000 +32.0000i 26.0000 -62.0000i

Power Flow Solution by Gauss-Seidel Method

Maximum Power Mismatch = 7.88577e-005

No. of Iterations = 6

Bus Voltage Angle ------Load------ ---Generation---

Injected

No. Mag. Degree MW Mvar MW Mvar

Mvar

1 1.050 0.000 0.000 0.000 218.436 140.871

0.000

2 0.972 -2.697 400.000 250.000 0.000 0.000

0.000

3 1.040 -0.499 0.000 0.000 200.000 146.171

0.000

Total 400.000 250.000 418.436 287.042

0.000

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Line Flow and Losses

--Line-- Power at bus & line flow --Line loss-- Transformer

from to MW Mvar MVA MW Mvar tap

1 218.436 140.871 259.921

2 179.366 118.726 215.100 8.393 16.787

3 39.064 22.117 44.890 0.183 0.548

2 -400.000 -250.000 471.699

1 -170.972 -101.940 199.056 8.393 16.787

3 -229.035 -148.043 272.715 9.846 19.693

3 200.000 146.171 247.722

1 -38.881 -21.568 44.463 0.183 0.548

2 238.881 167.736 291.890 9.846 19.693

Total loss 18.423 37.028

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EXAMPLE
%PF studies for the Gauss Siedel Method 5-bus system
clear all

clc

basemva=100;

accuracy = .0001;

maxiter = 10;

% IEEE 5-bus system

% bus bus vaolt angle ----load ----- generator-- injected

% no code mag degree MW MVAR MW MVAR Qmin Qmax MVAR

busdata=[1 1 1.06 0 0 0 0 0 10 50 0

2 2 1.045 0 20 10 40 30 10 50 0

3 2 1.03 0 20 15 30 10 10 40 0

4 0 1 0 50 30 0 0 0 0 0

5 0 1 0 60 40 0 0 0 0 0];

%line dadta

% busnl busnr R X 1/2B tapsetting

linedata=[ 1 2 0.02 0.06 0.03 1

1 3 0.08 0.24 0.025 1

2 3 0.06 0.18 0.020 1

2 4 0.06 0.018 0.023 1

2 5 0.04 0.12 0.015 1

3 4 0.01 0.03 0.010 1

4 5 0.08 0.24 0.025 1];

Lfybus;

Decouple;

Busout;

Lineflow;

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EXPERIMENT-9
Load Flow Analysis using Fast Decoupled (FD) Method.
AIM: To Develop MATLAB program for FDLF Load Flow Analysis.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
MATLAB -7.8
THEORY:
The GAUSS – SEIDEL method is an iterative algorithm for solving a set of non-linear load
flow equations.

PROCEDURE:
1. Enter the command window of the MATLAB.
2. Create a new M – file by selecting File - New – M – File
3. Type and save the program in the
editor Window
4. Execute the program by either pressing tool – Run.
5. View the results.

PROGRAM:

%PF studies for the fast decouple load flow

Method
clc;

clear all;

basemva=100;

accuracy=0.001;

maxiter=100;

%bus data

% Bus Bus Volt Angle -Load- -----Gen----- ----Inj---

% No Code mag deg MW MVAr MW MVAr Qmin Qmax MVAr

busdata=[1 1 1.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2 0 1.00 0 400 250 0 0 0 0 0

3 2 1.04 0 0 0 200 0 -100 200 0];

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% loine data

% bus bus R X 1/2B Tap

% nl nr pu pu pu

linedata=[1 2 0.02 0.04 0 1

1 3 0.01 0.03 0 1

2 3 0.0125 0.025 0 1];

Lfybus;

decouple;

Busout;

Lineflow;

MATLAB PROGRAM FOR Fast Decoupled METHOD

% Fast Decoupled Power Flow Solution
ns=0; Vm=0; delta=0; yload=0; deltad=0;

nbus = length(busdata(:,1));

for k=1:nbus

n=busdata(k,1);

kb(n)=busdata(k,2); Vm(n)=busdata(k,3); delta(n)=busdata(k, 4);

Pd(n)=busdata(k,5); Qd(n)=busdata(k,6); Pg(n)=busdata(k,7); Qg(n) =

busdata(k,8);

Qmin(n)=busdata(k, 9); Qmax(n)=busdata(k, 10);

Qsh(n)=busdata(k, 11);

if Vm(n) <= 0 Vm(n) = 1.0; V(n) = 1 + j*0;

else delta(n) = pi/180*delta(n);

V(n) = Vm(n)*(cos(delta(n)) + j*sin(delta(n)));

P(n)=(Pg(n)-Pd(n))/basemva;

Q(n)=(Qg(n)-Qd(n)+ Qsh(n))/basemva;

S(n) = P(n) + j*Q(n);

end

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if kb(n) == 1, ns = ns+1; else, end

nss(n) = ns;

end

Ym = abs(Ybus); t = angle(Ybus);

ii=0;

for ib=1:nbus

if kb(ib) == 0 | kb(ib) == 2

ii = ii+1;

jj=0;

for jb=1:nbus

if kb(jb) == 0 | kb(jb) == 2

jj = jj+1;

B1(ii,jj)=imag(Ybus(ib,jb));

else,end

end

else, end

end

ii=0;

for ib=1:nbus

if kb(ib) == 0

ii = ii+1;

jj=0;

for jb=1:nbus

if kb(jb) == 0

jj = jj+1;

B2(ii,jj)=imag(Ybus(ib,jb));

else,end

end

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else, end

end

B1inv=inv(B1); B2inv = inv(B2);

maxerror = 1; converge = 1;

iter = 0;

% Start of iterations

while maxerror >= accuracy & iter <= maxiter % Test for max. power mismatch

iter = iter+1;

id=0; iv=0;

for n=1:nbus

nn=n-nss(n);

J11=0; J33=0;

for i=1:nbr

if nl(i) == n | nr(i) == n

if nl(i) == n, l = nr(i); end

if nr(i) == n, l = nl(i); end

J11=J11+ Vm(n)*Vm(l)*Ym(n,l)*sin(t(n,l)- delta(n) + delta(l));

J33=J33+ Vm(n)*Vm(l)*Ym(n,l)*cos(t(n,l)- delta(n) + delta(l));

else , end

end

Pk = Vm(n)^2*Ym(n,n)*cos(t(n,n))+J33;

Qk = -Vm(n)^2*Ym(n,n)*sin(t(n,n))-J11;

if kb(n) == 1 P(n)=Pk; Q(n) = Qk; end % Swing bus P

if kb(n) == 2 Q(n)=Qk;

Qgc = Q(n)*basemva + Qd(n) - Qsh(n);

if Qmax(n) ~= 0

if iter <= 20 % Between the 1th & 6th iterations

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if iter >= 10 % the Mvar of generator buses are

if Qgc < Qmin(n), % tested. If not within limits Vm(n)

Vm(n) = Vm(n) + 0.005; % is changed in steps of 0.05 pu to

elseif Qgc > Qmax(n), % bring the generator Mvar within

Vm(n) = Vm(n) - 0.005;end % the specified limits.

else, end

else,end

else,end

end

if kb(n) ~= 1

id = id+1;

DP(id) = P(n)-Pk;

DPV(id) = (P(n)-Pk)/Vm(n);

end

if kb(n) == 0

iv=iv+1;

DQ(iv) = Q(n)-Qk;

DQV(iv) = (Q(n)-Qk)/Vm(n);

end

end

Dd=-B1\DPV';

DV=-B2\DQV';

id=0;iv=0;

for n=1:nbus

if kb(n) ~= 1

id = id+1;

delta(n) = delta(n)+Dd(id); end

if kb(n) == 0

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iv = iv+1;

Vm(n)=Vm(n)+DV(iv); end

end

maxerror=max(max(abs(DP)),max(abs(DQ)));

if iter == maxiter & maxerror > accuracy

fprintf('\nWARNING: Iterative solution did not converged after ')

fprintf('%g', iter), fprintf(' iterations.\n\n')

fprintf('Press Enter to terminate the iterations and print the results

\n')

converge = 0; pause, else, end

end

if converge ~= 1

tech= (' ITERATIVE SOLUTION DID NOT CONVERGE'); else,

tech=(' Power Flow Solution by Fast Decoupled Method');

end

k=0;

V = Vm.*cos(delta)+j*Vm.*sin(delta);

deltad=180/pi*delta;

clear A; clear DC; clear DX

i=sqrt(-1);

for n = 1:nbus

if kb(n) == 1

S(n)=P(n)+j*Q(n);

Pg(n) = P(n)*basemva + Pd(n);

Qg(n) = Q(n)*basemva + Qd(n) - Qsh(n);

k=k+1;

Pgg(k)=Pg(n);

elseif kb(n) ==2

S(n)=P(n)+j*Q(n);

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Qg(n) = Q(n)*basemva + Qd(n) - Qsh(n);

k=k+1;

Pgg(k)=Pg(n);

end

yload(n) = (Pd(n)- j*Qd(n)+j*Qsh(n))/(basemva*Vm(n)^2);

end

busdata(:,3)=Vm'; busdata(:,4)=deltad';

Pgt = sum(Pg); Qgt = sum(Qg); Pdt = sum(Pd); Qdt = sum(Qd); Qsht = sum(Qsh);

clear Pk Qk DP DQ J11 J33 B1 B1inv B2 B2inv DPV DQV Dd delta ib id ii iv jb

jj

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RESULTS

Ybus= 20.0000 -50.0000i -10.0000 +20.0000i -10.0000 +30.0000i

-10.0000 +20.0000i 26.0000 -52.0000i -16.0000 +32.0000i

-10.0000 +30.0000i -16.0000 +32.0000i 26.0000 -62.0000i

Power Flow Solution by Fast Decoupled Method

Maximum Power Mismatch = 0.00045882

No. of Iterations = 13

Bus Voltage Angle ------Load------ ---Generation--- Injected

No. Mag. Degree MW Mvar MW Mvar Mvar

1 1.050 0.000 0.000 0.000 218.408 140.854 0.000

2 0.972 -2.697 400.000 250.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

3 1.040 -0.499 0.000 0.000 200.000 146.185 0.000

Total 400.000 250.000 418.408 287.039 0.000

Line Flow and Losses

--Line-- Power at bus & line flow --Line loss-- Transformer

from to MW Mvar MVA MW Mvar tap

1 218.408 140.854 259.888

2 179.359 118.723 215.093 8.393 16.785

3 39.061 22.117 44.888 0.183 0.548

2 -400.000 -250.000 471.699

1 -170.967 -101.937 199.050 8.393 16.785

3 -229.028 -148.037 272.707 9.846 19.692

3 200.000 146.185 247.730

1 -38.879 -21.569 44.461 0.183 0.548

2 238.874 167.729 291.880 9.846 19.692 Total loss 18.421 37.025

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EXPERIMENT-10

FORMATION OF Z-BUS MATRIX

Aim:
Forming ZBus by building algorithm
Problem statement:
Form the ZBus by building algorithm for the following network shown.

Appartus required: Matlab software

Procedure:
• Do the hand calculations and solve the problem.

• Note down the theoretical results.

• Double click on matlab icon in the desktop.

• Type edit and press enter to get the Editor window.

• Type the program.

• Save and run the program.

• Enter the inputs in the command window and see the output response.
• Note down the simulated results.

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PROGRAM:

%Zbus building algorithm

clear;
clc;
% en fb tb self imp
Zprimary=[1 1 0 0.25
2 2 1 0.1
3 3 1 0.1
4 2 0 0.25
5 2 3 0.1];
[elements columns]=size(Zprimary);
Zbus=[];
currentbusno=0;
for i=1:elements,
[rows columns]=size(Zbus);
from=Zprimary(i,2);
to=Zprimary(i,3);
value=Zprimary(i,4);
newbus=max(from,to);
ref=min(from,to);
if newbus>currentbusno & ref==0
Zbus=[Zbus zeros(rows,1);
zeros(1,columns) value]
currentbusno=newbus;
continue
end
if newbus>currentbusno & ref~=0
Zbus=[Zbus Zbus(:,ref);
Zbus(ref,:) value+Zbus(ref,ref)]
currentbusno=newbus;
continue
end
if newbus<=currentbusno & ref==0
Zbus=Zbus-1/(Zbus(newbus,newbus)+value)*Zbus(:,newbus)*Zbus(newbus,:);

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end
if newbus<=currentbusno & ref~=0
Zbus=Zbus-1/(value+Zbus(from,from)+Zbus(to,to)-2*Zbus(from,to))*(Zbus(:,from)-
Zbus(:,to))*(Zbus(from,:)-Zbus(to,:));
continue
end
end
fprintf('\n Thus Zbus by building algorithm is \n');
disp(Zbus);

OUTPUT RESPONSE:

Zbus =
0.2500
Zbus =
0.2500 0.2500
0.2500 0.3500

Zbus =
0.2500 0.2500 0.2500
0.2500 0.3500 0.2500
0.2500 0.2500 0.3500

Thus Zbus by building algorithm is

0.1397 0.1103 0.1250
0.1103 0.1397 0.1250
0.1250 0.1250 0.1750

RESULT:

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EXPERIMENT - 11
TIME CONSTANT CALCULATION OF RL CIRCUIT

AIM:
To calculate time constant of RL circuit and plot its response..

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Desktop with pre installed MATLAB

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Circuit Diagram

THEORY:

RL Circuit:

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PROCEDURE:
1. Open MATLAB Software
2. Open editor window
3. Write the Program in the editor window
4. Run the program
5. Observe the result in the plot window
MATLAB PROGRAM:\

%RL Circuit Analysis

clear all;
close all;
clc
%%Circuit Parameters
R= 20; % Resistance (20 Ohm)
L= 1e-3; % Inductance (1mH)
tau= L/R; % RL Circuit Time Constant
Vs= 1; % Source Voltage (1V)
Time= 0:
tau/100:3*tau; % Sampling Time
VL= Vs.*exp(-Time./tau).*heaviside(Time);
plot(Time,VL)
xlabel('Time (s)')
ylabel('Amplitude (V)')
title('VL')

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. Time Time constant

No. constant (Simulation)
(Theoretical)

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MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:

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EXPERIMENT - 12
TIME CONSTANT CALCULATION OF RC CIRCUIT

AIM:
To calculate time constant of RC circuit and plot its response..

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Desktop with pre installed MATLAB

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Circuit Diagram

THEORY:
RC Circuit:

PROCEDURE:
1. Open MATLAB Software
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2. Open editor window
3. Write the Program in the editor window
4. Run the program
5. Observe the result in the plot window
MATLAB PROGRAM:\

clc;clearall;close all;
%% RC circuit Charging Analysis
%
C = 10e-6; % Capacitance
R_1 = 1e3; % Resistance 1
Tau_1 = C*R_1; % Time Constant 1 (tau=RC)
t = 0:0.002:0.05; % Time Sampling
V_1 = 10*(1-exp(-t/Tau_1)); % Voltage Calculation 1 (formula
from text)
R_2 = 10e3; % Resistance 2
Tau_2 = C*R_2; % Time Constant 2 (tau=RC)
V_2 = 10*(1-exp(-t/Tau_2)); % Voltage Calculation 2
R_3 = .1e3; % Resistance 3
Tau3 = C*R_3; % Time Constant 3 (tau=RC)
V_3 = 10*(1-exp(-t/Tau3)); % Voltage Calculation 3
%% Plotting the Results
plot(t,V_1,'r',t,V_2,'g', t,V_3,'b')
axis([0 0.06 0 12])
title('Capacitor Charging Analysis with three Time Constants')
xlabel('Time, s')
ylabel('Voltage across capacitor')

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. Time Time constant

No. constant (Simulation)
(Theoretical)

MODEL GRAPH:

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RESULT:

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EXPERIMENT - 13
TIME CONSTANT CALCULATION OF RLC CIRCUIT

AIM:
To calculate time constant of RLC circuit

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Desktop with pre installed MATLAB

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

R L

i(t)

+
_ v(t) C

Series RLC Circuit

i(t)

+
_ v(t) C
R L

Parallel RLC Circuit

PROCEDURE:
1. Open MATLAB Software
2. Open editor window
3. Write the Program in the editor window
4. Run the program
5. Observe the result in the plot window

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MATLAB PROGRAM:

clc;
clear all;
close all;
%% Series RLC circuit
C=input('C value'); % Capacitance
R=input('R value'); % Resistance
L=input('L value');
TC1=2*L/R
%% parallel RLC circuit
TC2=2*R*C

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. Time Time constant

No. constant (Simulation)
(Theoretical)

CALCULATIONS:

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RESULT:

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