Civil Engineering Materials

Traditional Materials:

Stones : naturally occurring , cut from rocks

Types of stones :
Geological Classification : Based on Origin of Formation –
1. Igneous : Formed by cooling of Magma eg. Granite – Slow cooling under layer of earth ;
Trap and Basalt – Open air cooling(non crystalline)
2. Sedimentary : formed by weathering and deposition action of water.
3. Metamorphic : Due to pressure and internal heat, Initially formed Igneous and
sedimentary rocks change to metamorphic rocks like :-
Granite – Greisses
Trap – Schist
Basalt – Laterite
Lime stone – marble
Sand Stone – Quartzite
Mud Stone – Slate

Structural Classification : Based on structure –

1. Stratified rocks : Layered Structure , like sand stone, lime stone, slate
2. Unstratified Rocks : Crystalline or compact grains like, Granite, Trap, Marble
3. Foliated Rocks : Tendency to spit along a definite direction only like Metamorphic Rocks.

Chemical Classification : Based on Chemical Composition –

1. Silicious Rock : main content Silica. Hard , Durable, Granite trap, sand stone
2. Argillaceous rock : Main content Argil (Clay) Brittle, Cannot withstand Shock, Slates,
Laterites. Good in Fire Resistance.
3. Calcareous Rock : Main content Calcium Carbonate like Limestone, Marble

Properties of Stones :
1. Structure
2. Texture
3. Density : Stones with Specific Gravity < 2.4 – Unsuitable for Buildings
4. Appearance
5. Strength : Minimum 3.5 N/mm2 for Building Block as per IS Code.
Trap – 350 N/mm2 (crushing strength) highest
Laterite – 1.8-3.2 N/mm2 (Crushing Strength) lowest
6. Hardness : Important for Flooring and Pavement stone. Dory’s Testing Machine
Coefficient of Hardness – For Roads – 17
For Buildings – 14
7. Percentage Wear – For selecting Aggregate for Road and rail - Measured by Attrition
Test – Must be < 2% for a Good Stone.
8. Porosity and Absorption – Absorption test – Stone placed under water for 24 hrs. Water
absorption % must be less than 5 %
9. Weathering
10. Toughness : resistance to impact. For Road – Toughness Index > 19
Medium Tough – 13-19
Poor Tough - <13
11. Fire Resistant
12. Ease in Dressing
13. Seasoning : Process of removing moisture from pores is called seasoning.

Test of Stones :
 Type of Test Specimen Size Water Placement Apply POP Compression
Crushing Strength 40 x 40 x 40 mm 3 Days Yes 14 N/mm2/Minute

Crushing Strength = Crushing Load / Area of Surface

At least 3 Specimens are tested and Avg. Value of these three tests are considered as final.

Type of Test Specimen Water W1 W2 W3 W4

Weight Placement
Water 50 Gms 1 Day Dry Weight Wet Suspended Keep in
Absorption Weight in water Boiling
weight water for
5 Hrs.
then take
out wipe
and
weigh

% Absorption by Weight = (W2 – W1)/W1 x 100

% Absorption by Volume = (W2 – W1)/(W2 – W3) x 100

% Absorption by Porosity = (W4 – W1)/(W2 – W3) x 100

Density = W1/(W2 – W1)

Sp. Gravity = W1/(W2 – W3)

Saturation Coefficient = Water Absorption / Total Porosity

Abrasion Test : establishes Suitability under grinding action of traffic.

Types - (i) Los Angeles abrasion test – Most Preffered
(ii) Deval abrasion test
(iii) Dorry’s abrasion test
Los Angeles Abrasion test – 0.7 m dia. x 0.5 m long Hollow Cylinder is Simply supported on a horizontal
axis and Cast Iron balls of 48 mm Dia. Are placed inside the cylinder. Cylinder is then rotated at 30 – 33
RPM for 500 – 1000 Revs. The aggregate is then sieved on a 1.7 mm Sieve.

(Weight of aggregate passing through sieve/Original Weight ) x 100

For Road Works – Bituminous – 30%

Base Course – 50%

Impact test : A hammer of 13.2 – 15 Kg is made to freely fall on aggregates of 10 mm to 12.5 mm for 15
times. Then sieved through 2.36 mm sieve.

Impact value = W2/W1 ; W2 – Weight of Fines W1 – Original Weight

Recommended value for Wearing course > 30%
For Bituminous Mechadam > 35%
For Water Bound Mechadam > 40%
Acid Test : Carried out on sandstones to check the presence of Ca2Co3 – A specimen of 50-100 Gm is
suspended in a pool of HCL for 7 days. If edges get broken and powder is formed, Stone is rejected for
weather stability.

Stones :
Stones Compressive Type of stone Uses
strength
Trap & 200 – 350 Igneous Pavement, Bridge Piers, River Walls, Dams, Road
Basalt N/mm2 Metals, Aggregate for Concrete
 Granite 100 - 250 Igneous Bridge Piers, River Walls, Dams, Kerbs and Pedestals
Sand 20-170 Sedimentary Porous, Bridge Piers, River Walls, Dams
Stone
Slate 100-200 Metamorphic Roofing Tiles, Slabs, Pavements
laterite 1.9-2.3 Metamorphic
Marble 70-75 Metamorphic Column, Flooring, Steps
Gneiss 50-200 Metamorphic
Quartzite 50-300 Metamorphic

Bricks

Baked Clay
Types – Building, paving, fire, special
Types used in construction – 1st class – 4th Class

Lime

Important Binding Material

Lime + Sand = Lime Mortar
Lime + Sand + Coarse Aggregate = Lime Concrete

Types of Lime .
1. Fat Lime – 95% CaO
2. Hydraulic Lime – Clay and Fe2O3 – 3 Subtypes – Feebly Hydraulic Lime, Moderately , Eminently
3. Poor Lime – More than 30% Clay.

IS 712 -1973 – Classifies Lime into A, B, C, D & E Categories

Tests on Limestones

1. Physical test
2. Heat test
3. Chemical test
4. Ball test

Cement

Founder - Joseph Aspdin – England 1924

Patented name – Portland Cement

Types –

1. White Cement
2. Colored Cement
3. Quick Setting Cement
4. Rapid Hardening Cement
5. Low Heat Cement
6. Pozzolana Cement
7. Expanding Cement
8. High Alumina Cement
9. Blast Furnace Cement
10. Acid Resistant Cement
11. Sulphate Resistant Cement
12. Fly Ash Blended Cement
Properties of Ordinary Portland Cement
(i) Chemical properties: Portland cement consists of the following chemical compounds:
(a) Tricalcium silicate 3 CaO.SiO2 (C3S) 40%
(b) Dicalcium silicate 2CaO.SiO2 (C2S) 30%
(c) Tricalcium aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 (C3A) 11%
(d) Tetracalcium aluminate 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 (C3AF) 11%
There may be small quantities of impurifies present such as calcium oxide (CaO) and magnesium
oxide (MgO).
When water is added to cement, C3A is the first to react and cause initial set. It generates great
amount of heat. C3S hydrates early and develops strength in the first 28 days. It also generates
heat. C2S
is the next to hydrate. It hydrates slowly and is responsible for increase in ultimate strength. C 4AF
is
comparatively inactive compound.

Physical Tests of Cement

1. Soundness Test
2. Setting Time – Vicat Apparatus
3. Soundness Test – Le Ch ateliers apparatus
4. Crushing Strength Test

Timber

Types of Timber: Based on Young’s Modulus of Elasticity

Group A – 12.5
Group B – 9.8 – 12.5
Group C – 5.6 – 9.8

Defects in Timber – Knots, Upsets, Wind Cuts, Shakes

Preservation of timber – Tar, Paints. Chemical Salt, Creosote(Oil obtained from distillation of coal tar),
ASCO

Mortars

Binding Material + Inert Material + Fine Aggregates = Mortar

Cement to sand proportions for various works

1 Masonry works 1:6 to 1:8
2 Plastering masonry 1:3 to 1:4
3 Plastering concrete 1:3
4 Pointing 1:2 to 1:3

Curing – After 6-24 hrs of casting for 28 days

Richer Mix – Shrinkage

Leaner Mix – Porous Surface

Increase in Sand ratio – Decrease in Compressive strength

Guaged Mortar – cement + lime mortar

The following tests are conducted on the prepared mortars to ensure their quality:
1. Crushing Test
2. Tensile Strength Test
3. Adhesive Test.

Concrete

Plain concrete, commonly known as concrete, is an intimate mixture of binding material, fine aggregate,
coarse aggregate and water

Batching: The measurement of materials for making concrete is known as batching. The
following two methods of batching is practiced:
(a) Volume batching
(b) Weight batching.

Curing of Concrete
Curing may be defined as the process of maintaining satisfactory moisture and temperature conditions
for freshly placed concrete for some specified time for proper hardening of concrete. Curing in the early
ages of concrete is more important. Curing for 14 days is very important. Better to continue it for 7 to 14
days more. If curing is not done properly, the strength of concrete reduces. Cracks develop due shrinkage.
The durability of concrete structure reduces.
The following curing methods are employed:
(a) Spraying of water
(b) Covering the surface with wet gunny bags, straw etc.
(c) Ponding
(d) Steam curing and
(e) Application of curing compounds.
(a) Spraying of water: Walls, columns, plastered surfaces are cured by sprinkling water.
(b) Wet covering the surface: Columns and other vertical surfaces may be cured by covering
the surfaces with wet gunny bags or straw.
(c) Ponding: The horizontal surfaces like slab and floors are cured by stagnating the water to a
height of 25 to 50 mm by providing temporary small hunds with mortar.
(d) Steam curing: In the manufacture of pre-fabricated concrete units steam is passed over the
units kept in closed chambers. It accelerates curing process, resulting into the reduction of curing period.
(e) Application of curing compounds: Compounds like calcium chloride may be applied on
the curing surfaces. The compound shows affinity to the moisture and retains it on the surface. It keeps
the concrete surface wet for a long time.

Concrete in the plastic stage is also known as green concrete

The following are some of the important tests conducted on concrete:

1. Slump test.
2. Compaction factor test.
3. Crushing strength test.
 Metals

Material Melting Point Tensile Strength Compressive Strength

Cast Iron 1200 C 150 N/mm2 700 N/mm2
Wrought Iron 1500 C 375 N/mm2 200 N/mm2
Aluminium 66 C
Copper 1083 C

Glass

Silica + Sodium Potassium Carbonate to bring down melting point

+ Lime = To make it durable
+ Manganese Oxide to nullify effect of Unwanted Iron

Above raw materials are ground and sieved. Mixed in specific proportion and melted in furnace.
Then Glass items are made by Blowing, Flat Drawing, Rolling & Pressing.

Types of Glass :

1. Soda Lime Glass : Mixture of sodium silicate and calcium silicate. Window Panes, Laboratory
Tubes and Apparatus
2. Potash Lime Glass : Mixture of Potassium Silicate and Calcium Silicate. Hard Glass.
3. Potash Lead Glass : Mixture of Potassium Silicate and Lead Silicate. Artificial Gems, Electric
Bulb, Lenses & Prism
4. Common Glass : Mixture of Sodium Silicate , Calcium Silicate & Iron Silicate. Brown, Green
& Yellow In colour. Medicine Bottles.
5. Special Glass : (a) Fibre glass (b) Foam glass
(c) Bullet proof glass (d) Structural glass
(e) Glass black (f) Wired glass
(g) Ultraviolet ray glass (h) Perforated glass.

Plastics

Plastic is an organic material prepared out of resin. Plastic may be defined as a natural or
synthetic organic material which are having the property of being plastic at some stage of
their manufacture when they can be moulded to required size and shape.

Types of Plastics
Primarily there are two types of plastics:
1. Thermosetting and
2. Thermoplastic.
1. Thermosetting Plastics: It needs momentary heated condition and great pressure during
shaping. When heated cross linkage is established between the molecules and chemical
reaction
takes place. During this stage shape can be changed with pressure. This change is not
reversible.
The scrap of such plastic is not reusable. Bakelite is an example of such plastic.

2. Thermoplastic: In this variety, the linkage between the molecules is very loose. They can
be
softened by heating repeatedly. This property helps for reuse of waste plastic. These plastic
need time to cool down and harden. These plastics are to be kept in moulds till cooling
takes
place completely. Bitumen, cellulose and shellac are the examples of this variety of
plastics.

Properties of Plastics
1. Colour: Some plastics are completely transparent. Using pigments plastics of any
attractive
colour can be produced.
2. Dimensional Stability: It is dimensionally stable to a great extent.
3. Durability: Plastic offers great resistance to moisture and chemicals and hence more
durable.
4. Electrical Insulation: The plastics possess excellent electrical insulating property.
5. Fire Resistance: The phenol-formaldehyde and urea-formaldehyde plastics resist fire to a
great extent and hence they are used as fire proofing materials.
6. Strength: The plastics are reasonably strong. Their strength may be increased by
reinforcing
with various fibrous materials. Attempts are being made to produce structurally sound
plastics.
7. Specific Gravity: The specific gravity of plastics is very low and hence convenient to
handle.
8. Ductility: The plastics are not ductile and hence they fail without giving warning.
9. Fixing: Plastics can be bolted, drilled, glued, clamped or simply push fitted in position.
10. Maintenance: There is no maintenance cost for plastic articles i.e., they do not need
painting
and polishing.

Bitumen

Bitumen is the binding material which is present in asphalt. It is a hydrocarbon. It is

obtained by partial distillation of crude oil. It contains 87 per cent carbon, 11 per cent
hydrogen and 2 per cent oxygen.
The Asphalt is a mixture of inert mineral matter lime alumina, lime, silica etc. and a
hydrocarbon
known as asphaltic bitumen. In some places like Trinidad and Bermudez, asphalt is
available in nature
at a depth of 3 to 60 metres. It is known as natural asphalt. Common variety used all over
the world is
residual asphalt, which is obtained by fractional distillation of crude petroleum oil.
Tar is obtained in the destructive distillation of coal, wood or other organic materials. When
coal
or wood is heated to redness in an closed chamber, it yields volatile product and residue
coke. After
separating and cooling volatile product gives tar.
Comparison between Asphalt, Bitumen, Tar

Sl. Property Asphalt Bitumen Tar

No.

1 Colour Blackish Brown Dark with slight Deep Dark

reddish tinge

2 Carbon content Low Moderate High

3 State Solid/Semisolid Solid Viscous

Liquid

4 Effect on Heating Burns with a smoke Melts Becomes

flame and Becomes more fluid
Plastic

5 Setting Time Less Less More

6 Adhesive Power Less More Most

7 Resistance to Acid More More Less

 8 Use As damp proof damp proof For
course for paints, course Preserving
road works. Timber

Asbestos

Asbestos is a general name for several varieties of fibrous minerals which are available in
nature. But
presently, most of the commercial asbestos produced is ‘chriotile’ [Mg6SiO11(OH)6.H2O].

Properties of Asbestos
1. It is flexible, soft and non-porous.
2. It is fire proof and acid proof material.
3. It is a good insulator of heat and electricity.
4. When it is mixed with cement and water, it retains shape firmly.
5. Its colour is brown or grey.
6. It can be cut into pieces or can be drilled.
7. It possesses high tensile strength in the direction of its fibres.
8. Its specific gravity is 3.10.

Uses of Asbestos
1. Asbestos cement sheets are the cheapest roofing materials.
2. Asbestos cement pipes are used as down take pipes of rain water from the roof.
3. With bitumen it forms good damp proof layer.
4. It is used for preparing fire proof ropes and clothes.
5. It is used as covering material for fuse and electric switch boxes.
6. It is useful for insulating boilers, furnaces etc.

Paints

Constituents of Paint
The essential constituents of paints are:
1. Base 2. A vehicle 3. A pigment
4. A drier and 5. A thinner.

1. Bases: It is a principal constituent of paint. It also possesses the binding properties. It

forms
an opaque coating. Commonly used bases for paints are white lead, red lead, zinc oxide,
iron
oxide, titanium white, aluminium powder and lithophone. A lead paint is suitable for
painting
iron and steel works, as it sticks to them well. However it is affected by atmosphere action
and hence should not be used as final coat. While zinc forms good base but is costly.
Lithophone, which is a mixture of zinc sulphate and barytes, is cheap. It gives good
appearance
but is affected by day light. Hence it is used for interior works only.
2. Vehicles: The vehicles are the liquid substances which hold the ingredients of a paint in
liquid suspension and allow them to be applied on the surface to be painted. Linseed oil,
Tung oil and Nut oil are used as vehicles in paints. Of the above four oils, linseed oil is very
commonly used vehicles. Boiling makes the oil thicker and darker. Linseed oil reacts with
oxygen and hardens by forming a thin film.
3. Pigment: Pigments give required colour for paints. They are fine particles and have a
reinforcing effect on thin film of the paint. The common pigments for different colours are:
Black—Lamp black, suit and charcoal black.
Red—venedion red, red lead and Indian red.
Brown—burned timber, raw and burned sienna
Green—chrome green, copper sulphate.
Blue—prussian blue and ultra marine
Yellow—ochre and chrome yellow.
4. The Drier: These are the compounds of metal like lead, manganese, cobalt. The function
of
a drier is to absorb oxygen from the air and supply it to the vehicle for hardening. The drier
should not be added until the paint is about to be used. The excess drier is harmful because
it
destroys elasticity and causes flaking.
5. The Thinner: It is known as solvent also. It makes paint thinner and hence increases the
coverage. It helps in spreading paint uniformly over the surface Terpentine and neptha are
commonly used thinners. After paint applied, thinner evaporates and paint dries.
Types of Paints
Depending upon their constituents there are various types of paints. A brief description of
some of them
which are commonly used are given below:
1. Oil Paint: These paints are applied in three coats-primer, undercoat and finishing coat.
The
presence of dampness while applying the primer adversely affect the life of oil paint. This
paint is cheap and easy to apply.
2. Enamel Paint: It contains white lead, oil, petroleum spirit and resinous material. The
surface
provided by it resists acids, alkalies and water very well. It is desirable to apply a coat of
titanium white before the coat of enamel is applied. It can be used both for external and
internal walls.
3. Emulsion Paint: It contains binding materials such as polyvinyl acetate, synthetic resins
etc.
It dries in 1 1
2 to 2 hours and it is easy to apply. It is more durable and can be cleaned with
water. For plastered surfaces, first a coat of cement paint should be applied and then the
emulsion point. Emulsion paint needs sound surfaces.
4. Cement Paint: It is available in powder form. It consists of white cement, pigment and
other
additives. It is durable and exhibits excellent decorative appearance. It should be applied
on
rough surfaces rather than on smooth surfaces. It is applied in two coats. First coat is
applied
on wet surface but free from excess water and allowed to dry for 24 hours. The second coat
is then applied which gives good appearance.
5. Bituminous Paints: This type of paint is manufactured by dissolving asphalt or vegetable
bitumen in oil or petroleum. It is black in colour. It is used for painting iron works under
water.
6. Synthetic Rubber Paint: This paint is prepared from resins. It dries quickly and is little
affected by weather and sunlight. It resists chemical attack well. This paint may be applied
even on fresh concrete. Its cost is moderate and it can be applied easily.
7. Aluminium Paint: It contains finely ground aluminium in spirit or oil varnish. It is visible in
darkness also. The surfaces of iron and steel are protected well with this paint. It is widely
used for painting gas tanks, water pipes and oil tanks.
8. Anti-corrossive Paint: It consists essentially of oil, a strong dier, lead or zinc chrome and
finely ground sand. It is cheap and resists corrossion well. It is black in colour.

Distempers

They are cheap variety of paints in which Chalk is used as Base and water as carrier.
Emulsifying agent – Glue/Casein. They are available in powder form/Paste Form. To be
mixed with Hot water before use.

Varnishes
 Varnish is the solution of resins or resinous substances like amber, copal, shellac, gum resin
etc. in
solvents like oil, turpentile, alcohol etc.

Building Construction

Foundation

Depth of Foundation (Rankine’s Formula) :

where p = safe bearing capacity of soil

w = unit weight of soil
ϕ = angle of repose of soil.

(b) Width of Foundation: Width of wall foundations or size of column footing is determined
by
first calculating the expected load and then dividing that with SBC. Thus,

Width of wall foundation = Load per unit length of wall/S.B.C. of soil

Area of column footing = Load carried by column/S.B.C. of soil

Super Structures

Walls :

Effective height of walls in terms of actual height H

End Condition Effective Height
1. Lateral as well as rotational restraint 0.75 H
2. Lateral as well as rotational restraint at one end and only lateral 0.85 H
restraint at other
3. Lateral restraint but no rotational restraint at both ends 1.0 H
4. Lateral and rotational restraint at one end and no restraint at other ends (compound
walls parapet walls etc.). 1.5 H

Effective length of walls of length L

End Condition Effective Height
1. Continuous and supported by cross walls 0.8 L
2. Continuous at one end and supported by cross walls at 0.9 L
the other end
3. Wall supported by cross walls at each end 1.0 L
4. Free at one end and continuous at other end 1.5 L
5. Free at one end and supported by cross wall at other end 2.0 L

STONE MASONRY

Types of Stone Masonry

Mainly there are two types of stone masonry:
1. Rubble Masonry
2. Ashlar Masonry.

Brick Masonry

Stretcher Bond

Header Bond

English Bond

Flemish Bond

Important Points for Brick masonry

1. Before using the bricks in masonry, they should be soaked in water for 2 hours so
that bricks
do not absorb water from the mortar.
2. Modular Brick/Standard Brick – 190 x 90 x 90 mm
3. Traditional Brick as per CPWD – 230 x 115 x 75 mm
4. Frog must be kept upwards.
5. Use of Brick Bats should be avoided.
6. Wall should not be raised more than 1.5 M in one day.
7. Minimum Curing 2 weeks

Plastering

Applying mortar coats on the surfaces of walls, columns, ceiling etc. to get smooth finish is
termed as
plastering. Mortar used for plastering may be lime mortar, cement mortar or lime-cement
mortar. Lime
mortar used shall have fat lime to sand ratio of 1 : 3 or 1 : 4. If hydraulic lime is used mix
proportion
(lime: sand) is 1 : 2. Cement mortar of 1 : 4 or 1 : 6 mix is very commonly used for
plastering, richer mix
being used for outer walls. To combine the cost effectiveness of lime mortar and good
quality of cement
mortar many use lime-cement mortar of proportion (cement : lime : sand) of 1 : 1 : 6 or 1 :
1:8
or 1 : 2 : 8.

Pointing

Instead of plastering entire surface of the masonry, special mortar finishing work is done to
the exposed
joints. This is called pointing. It consists of raking the joints to a depth of 10 mm to 20 mm
and filling
it with richer mortar mixes. In case of lime mortar pointing mix used is 1 : 2 and in case of
cement
mortar pointing mix used is 1 : 3. Pointing is ideally suited for stone masonry because
stones are having
attractive colours and good resistance to penetration by water. Pointing gives prefection to
weaker part
of masonry (i.e. to joints) and it adds to aesthetic view of the masonry.

MATERIALS FOR DAMP PROOFING

The materials used for damp proofing are:
1. Bitumen: In hot condition it is highly flexible and can be applied with brush to the
bedding
of concrete or mortar. Thickness of coat provided is about 3 mm.
2. Mastic asphalt: It is a semirigid material. It is obtained by heating asphalt with sand and
mineral fillers. It is perfectly impervious. It should be laid very carefully.
3. Bituminous or asphaltic felt: It is a flexible material which is available in rolls. It is
provided
on roof slabs and parapet walls with an overlap of 100 mm on sides. The laps are sealed
with
bitumen. They do not withstand heavy movements.
4. Bricks: Good bricks with water absorption less than 5 per cent are sometimes used to
make
damp proof courses. The bricks are laid in two to four courses in cement mortar.
5. Stones: Stones like granite, trap and slates may be laid over wall to its full width as damp
proof course.
6. Mortar: Cement mortar of proportion 1 : 3 with small quantity of lime and water proofing
agents are used to make a water proofing course to foundations, ground floor slabs, top of
parapet walls etc. It may be used for plastering external walls.
7. Concrete: To check the rise of water into walls a course of 75 mm to 100 mm cement
concrete 1 : 1
1
2
: 3 or 1 : 2 : 4 is provided before starting constructing walls. These courses
may be provided with hot bitumen paint as an additional precaution.
8. Metal sheets: Aluminium, copper or lead sheets are provided to seal the construction
joints.
Over these sheets bituminous seal is provided.
9. Plastic sheets: Plastic sheets are very good course for damp proofing. They are made up
of
black polythene of thickness 1 mm.

Surveying

Two Types of Survey –

Geodetical – Considering earth a Sphere. Ang. A+B+C = 180 + 1” >195.5 Km2

Plane – Considering Earth a Plane Surface. Area < 250 SqKM :

Fundamental Principles of Surveying

1. Work from whole to part

2. Take extra care in fixing new control Points

Steps of Survey
 1. Marking of Primary Control Points – With High Precision.
2. Marking of Secondary Control Points – With Less High Precision
3. Marking of desired control points.
4. Check line & Tie Lines

Classification of Survey

Based on Nature of Survey Field

1. Land Survey – Topographhic, Cadestal, City Survey

2. Marine/Hydrographic Survey – To find depth of water at various points. Finding
Depth of water bed at a point is called Sounding.
3. Astronomical Survey

Based on Object of Survey

On the basis of object of survey the classification can be as engineering survey, military
survey, mines
survey, geological survey and archeological survey.
(a) Engineering Survey: The objective of this type of survey is to collect data for designing
civil
engineering projects like roads, railways, irrigation, water supply and sewage disposals.
These surveys
are further sub-divided into:
Reconnaissance Survey for determining feasibility and estimation of the scheme.
Preliminary Survey for collecting more information to estimate the cost of the project, and
Location Survey to set the work on the ground.
(b) Military Survey: This survey is meant for working out plans of strategic importance.
(c) Mines Survey: This is used for exploring mineral wealth.
(d) Geological Survey: This survey is for finding different strata in the earth’s crust.
(e) Archeological Survey: This survey is for unearthing relics of antiquity.

Based on Instruments Used

Based on the instruments used, surveying may be classified as:
(i) Chain survey
(ii) Compass survey
(iii) Plane table survey
(iv) Theodolite survey
(v) Tacheometric survey
(vi) Modern survey using electronic distance meters and total station
(vii) Photographic and Aerial survey
The survey is taught to students mainly based on this classification.

Based on Methods Employed

Triangulation
Traversing – Closed Traverse/ Open Traverse