Four Ways to Represent a

1.1 Function

1
Four Ways to Represent a Function
Functions arise whenever one quantity depends on
another. Consider the following four situations.

A. The area A of a circle depends on the radius r of the

circle. The rule that connects r and A is given by the
equation A =  r 2. With each positive number r there is
associated one value of A, and we say that A is a
function of r.

2
Four Ways to Represent a Function
B. The human population of the world P depends on the
time t. The table gives estimates of the world population
P(t) at time t, for certain years. For instance,

P(1950)  2,560,000,000

But for each value of the time t

there is a corresponding value
of P, and we say that P is a
function of t.

3
Four Ways to Represent a Function
C. The cost C of mailing a large envelope depends on the
weight w of the envelope. Although there is no simple
formula that connects w and C, the post office has a rule
for determining C when w is known.

D. The vertical acceleration a of the ground as measured

by a seismograph during an earthquake is a function of
the elapsed time t.

4
Four Ways to Represent a Function
Figure 1 shows a graph generated by seismic activity
during the Northridge earthquake that shook Los
Angeles in 1994. For a given value of t, the graph
provides a corresponding value of a.

Vertical ground acceleration during the

Northridge earthquake
Figure 1
5
Four Ways to Represent a Function

We usually consider functions for which the sets D and E

are sets of real numbers. The set D is called the domain of
the function.

The number f(x) is the value of f at x and is read “f of x.”

The range of f is the set of all possible values of f(x) as x
varies throughout the domain.

A symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the domain

of a function f is called an independent variable.
6
Four Ways to Represent a Function
A symbol that represents a number in the range of f is
called a dependent variable. In Example A, for instance, r
is the independent variable and A is the dependent
variable.

It’s helpful to think of a function as a machine

(see Figure 2).

Machine diagram for a function f

Figure 2

7
Four Ways to Represent a Function
If x is in the domain of the function f, then x enters the
machine, it’s accepted as an input and the machine
produces an output f(x) according to the rule of the
function.

Thus we can think of the domain as the set of all possible

inputs and the range as the set of all possible outputs.

8
Four Ways to Represent a Function
Another way to picture a function is by an arrow diagram as in
Figure 3.

Arrow diagram for f

Figure 3

Each arrow connects an element of D to an element of E. The

arrow indicates that f(x) is associated with x, f(a) is associated
with a, and so on. 9
Four Ways to Represent a Function
The most common method for visualizing a function is its
graph. If f is a function with domain D, then its graph is the
set of ordered pairs
{(x, f(x)) | x  D}

In other words, the graph of f consists of all points (x, y)

in the coordinate plane such that y = f(x) and x is in the
domain of f.

The graph of a function f gives us a useful picture of the

behavior or “life history” of a function.

10
Four Ways to Represent a Function
Since the y-coordinate of any point (x, y) on the graph is
y = f(x), we can read the value of f(x) from the graph as
being the height of the graph above the point x
(see Figure 4).

Figure 4

11
Four Ways to Represent a Function
The graph of f also allows us to picture the domain of f on
the x-axis and its range on the y-axis as in Figure 5.

Figure 5

12
Example 1
The graph of a function f is shown in Figure 6.
(a) Find the values of f(1) and f(5).
(b) What are the domain and range of f ?

Figure 6
The notation for intervals is given in Appendix A.

13
Example 1 – Solution
(a) We see from Figure 6 that the point (1, 3) lies on the
graph of f, so the value of f at 1 is f(1) = 3. (In other
words, the point on the graph that lies above x = 1 is 3
units above the x-axis.)

When x = 5, the graph lies about 0.7 unit below the

x-axis, so we estimate that f(5)  –0.7.

(b) We see that f(x) is defined when 0  x  7, so the

domain of f is the closed interval [0, 7]. Notice that f
takes on all values from –2 to 4, so the range of f is

{y | –2  y  4} = [–2, 4]
14
Representations of Functions

15
Representations of Functions
There are four possible ways to represent a function:

 verbally (by a description in words)

 numerically (by a table of values)

 visually (by a graph)

 algebraically (by an explicit formula)

16
Representations of Functions
The graph of a function is a curve in the xy-plane. But the
question arises: Which curves in the xy-plane are graphs of
functions? This is answered by the following test.

The reason for the truth of the Vertical Line Test can be
seen in Figure 13.

Figure 13 17
Representations of Functions
If each vertical line x = a intersects a curve only once, at
(a, b), then exactly one functional value is defined by
f(a) = b.

But if a line x = a intersects the curve twice, at (a, b) and

(a, c), then the curve can’t represent a function because a
function can’t assign two different values to a.

18
Representations of Functions
For example, the parabola x = y2 – 2 shown in Figure 14(a)
is not the graph of a function of x because, as you can see,
there are vertical lines that intersect the parabola twice.
The parabola, however, does contain the graphs of two
functions of x.

x = y2 – 2
Figure 14(a)

19
Representations of Functions
Notice that the equation x = y2 – 2 implies y2 = x + 2, so
.

Thus the upper and lower halves of the parabola are the
graphs of the functions and
[See Figures 14(b) and (c).]

Figure 14(b) Figure 14(c)

20
Representations of Functions
We observe that if we reverse the roles of x and y, then the
equation x = h(y) = y2 – 2 does define x as a function of y
(with y as the independent variable and x as the dependent
variable) and the parabola now appears as the graph of the
function h.

21
Piecewise Defined Functions

22
Example 7
A function f is defined by

1 – x if x  –1
f(x) =
x2 if x > –1

Evaluate f(–2), f(–1), and f(0) and sketch the graph.

Solution:
Remember that a function is a rule. For this particular
function the rule is the following:

First look at the value of the input x. If it happens that

x  –1, then the value of f(x) is 1 – x.
23
Example 7 – Solution cont’d

On the other hand, if x > –1, then the value of f(x) is x2.

Since (–2  –1, we have f(–2) = 1 – (–2) = 3.

Since –1  –1, we have f(–1) = 1 – (–1) = 2.

Since 0 > –1, we have f(0) = 02 = 0.

How do we draw the graph of f ? We observe that if x  –1,

then f(x) = 1 – x, so the part of the graph of f that lies to the
left of the vertical line x = –1 must coincide with the line
y = 1 – x, which has slope –1 and y-intercept 1.

24
Example 7 – Solution cont’d

If x > –1, then f(x) = x2, so the part of the graph of f that lies
to the right of the line x = –1 must coincide with the graph
of y = x2, which is a parabola. This enables us to sketch the
graph in Figure 15.

Figure 15

The solid dot indicates that the point (–1, 2) is included on

the graph; the open dot indicates that the point (–1, 1) is
excluded from the graph. 25
Piecewise Defined Functions
The next example of a piecewise defined function is the
absolute value function. Recall that the absolute value of a
number a, denoted by |a|, is the distance from a to 0 on the
real number line. Distances are always positive or 0, so we
have

|a|  0 for every number a

For example,

|3| = 3 |–3| = 3 |0| = 0 | –1| = –1

|3 –  | =  – 3
26
Piecewise Defined Functions
In general, we have

(Remember that if a is negative, then –a is positive.)

27
Example 8
Sketch the graph of the absolute value function f(x) = |x|.

Solution:
From the preceding discussion we know that

x if x  0
|x| =
–x if x < 0

28
Example 8 – Solution cont’d

Using the same method as in Example 7, we see that the

graph of f coincides with the line y = x to the right of the
y-axis and coincides with the line y = –x to the left of the
y-axis (see Figure 16).

Figure 16

29
Example 10
In Example C at the beginning of this section we
considered the cost C(w) of mailing a large envelope with
weight w.

In effect, this is a piecewise defined function

0.88 if 0 < w  1
1.05 if 1 < w  2
C(w) = 1.22 if 2 < w  3
1.39 if 3 < w  4

30
Example 10 cont’d

The graph is shown in Figure 18.

Figure 18

You can see why functions similar to this one are called
step functions—they jump from one value to the next.
31
Symmetry

32
Symmetry
If a function f satisfies f(–x) = f(x) for every number x in its
domain, then f is called an even function. For instance,
the function f(x) = x2 is even because

f(–x) = (–x)2 = x2 = f(x)

The geometric significance of an

even function is that its graph is
symmetric with respect to the y-axis
(see Figure 19).

An even function
Figure 19

33
Symmetry
This means that if we have plotted the graph of f for x  0,
we obtain the entire graph simply by reflecting this portion
about the y-axis.

If f satisfies f(–x) = –f(x) for every number x in its domain,

then f is called an odd function. For example, the function
f(x) = x3 is odd because

f(–x) = (–x)3 = –x3 = –f(x)

34
Symmetry
The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin
(see Figure 20).

An odd function
Figure 20

If we already have the graph of f for x  0, we can obtain

the entire graph by rotating this portion through 180 about
the origin.
35
Example 11
Determine whether each of the following functions is even,
odd, or neither even nor odd.
(a) f(x) = x5 + x (b) g(x) = 1 – x4 (c) h(x) = 2x – x2

Solution:
(a) f(–x) = (–x)5 + (–x) = (–1)5x5 + (–x)

= –x5 – x = –(x5 + x)

= –f(x)

Therefore f is an odd function.

36
Example 11 – Solution cont’d

(b) g(–x) = 1 – (–x)4 = 1 – x4 = g(x)

So g is even.

(c) h(–x) = 2(–x) – (–x)2 = –2x – x2

Since h(–x)  h(x) and h(–x)  –h(x), we conclude that h

is neither even nor odd.

37
Symmetry
The graphs of the functions in Example 11 are shown in
Figure 21. Notice that the graph of h is symmetric neither
about the y-axis nor about the origin.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 21

38
Increasing and Decreasing
Functions

39
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
The graph shown in Figure 22 rises from A to B, falls from
B to C, and rises again from C to D. The function f is said to
be increasing on the interval [a, b], decreasing on [b, c],
and increasing again on [c, d].

Figure 22

40
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Notice that if x1 and x2 are any two numbers between
a and b with x1 < x2, then f(x1) < f(x2).

We use this as the defining property of an increasing

function.

41
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
In the definition of an increasing function it is important to
realize that the inequality f(x1) < f(x2) must be satisfied for
every pair of numbers x1 and x2 in I with x1 < x2.

You can see from Figure 23

that the function f(x) = x2 is
decreasing on the interval (– , 0]
and increasing on the interval
[0, ).

Figure 23

42
Polynomials (多項式函數)

43
Polynomials
A function P is called a polynomial if

P(x) = anxn + an –1xn–1 + . . . + a2x2 + a1x + a0

where n is a nonnegative integer and the numbers

a0, a1, a2, . . ., an are constants called the coefficients of
the polynomial.

The domain of any polynomial is If the leading

coefficient an  0, then the degree of the polynomial is n.
For example, the function

is a polynomial of degree 6.
44
Polynomials
A polynomial of degree 1 is of the form P(x) = mx + b and
so it is a linear function.

A polynomial of degree 2 is of the form P(x) = ax2 + bx + c

and is called a quadratic function (二次函數).

45
Polynomials
Its graph is always a parabola obtained by shifting the
parabola y = ax2. The parabola opens upward if a > 0 and
downward if a < 0. (See Figure 7.)

The graphs of quadratic functions are parabolas.

Figure 7
46
Polynomials
A polynomial of degree 3 is of the form
P(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d a0
and is called a cubic function (三次函數). Figure 8 shows
the graph of a cubic function in part (a) and graphs of
polynomials of degrees 4 and 5 in parts (b) and (c).

Figure 8 47
Power Functions (冪函數)

48
Power Functions
A function of the form f(x) = xa, where a is a constant, is
called a power function. We consider several cases.

(i) a = n, where n is a positive integer

The graphs of f(x) = xn for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are shown in
Figure 11. (These are polynomials with only one term.)

We already know the shape of the graphs of y = x (a line

through the origin with slope 1) and y = x2 (a parabola).

49
Power Functions

Graphs of f(x) = xn for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Figure 11 50
Power Functions
The general shape of the graph of f(x) = xn depends on
whether n is even or odd.

If n is even, then f(x) = xn is an even function and its graph

is similar to the parabola y = x2.

If n is odd, then f(x) = xn is an odd function and its graph is

similar to that of y = x3.

51
Power Functions
Notice from Figure 12, however, that as n increases, the
graph of y = xn becomes flatter near 0 and steeper when
|x|  1. (If x is small, then x2 is smaller, x3 is even smaller,
x4 is smaller still, and so on.)

Families of power functions

Figure 12 52
Power Functions
(ii) a = 1/n, where n is a positive integer
The function is a root function (根函數).
For n = 2 it is the square root function whose domain is
[0, ) and whose graph is the upper half of the parabola
x = y2. [See Figure 13(a).]

Graph of root function

Figure 13(a) 53
Power Functions
For other even values of n, the graph of is similar
to that of
For n = 3 we have the cube root function whose
domain is (recall that every real number has a cube root)
and whose graph is shown in Figure 13(b). The graph of
for n odd (n > 3) is similar to that of

Graph of root function

Figure 13(b) 54
Power Functions
(iii) a = –1
The graph of the reciprocal function (倒數函數) f(x) = x –1
= 1/x is shown in Figure 14. Its graph has the equation y =
1/x, or xy = 1, and is a hyperbola with the coordinate axes
as its asymptotes.

The reciprocal function

Figure 14
55
Rational Functions (有理函數)

56
Rational Functions
A rational function f is a ratio of two polynomials:

where P and Q are polynomials.

The domain consists of all values
of x such that Q(x)  0.

A simple example of a rational

function is the function f(x) = 1/x,
whose domain is {x|x  0}; this
is the reciprocal function graphed
in Figure 14. The reciprocal function

Figure 14 57
Rational Functions
The function

is a rational function with domain {x|x  2}. Its graph is

shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16 58
Algebraic Functions (代數函數)

59
Algebraic Functions
A function f is called an algebraic function if it can be
constructed using algebraic operations (such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking roots)
starting with polynomials. Any rational function is
automatically an algebraic function.

Here are two more examples:

60
Trigonometric Functions (三角函數)

61
Trigonometric Functions
In calculus the convention is that radian measure is always
used (except when otherwise indicated).

For example, when we use the function f(x) = sin x, it is

understood that sin x means the sine of the angle whose
radian measure is x.

62
Trigonometric Functions
Thus the graphs of the sine and cosine functions are as
shown in Figure 18.

(a) ƒ(x) = sin x

(b) g(x) = cos x

Figure 18 63
Trigonometric Functions
Notice that for both the sine and cosine functions the domain
is ( , ) and the range is the closed interval [–1, 1].

Thus, for all values of x, we have

or, in terms of absolute values,

|sin x|  1 |cos x|  1

64
Trigonometric Functions
Also, the zeros of the sine function occur at the integer
multiples of  ; that is,

sin x = 0 when x = n n an integer

An important property of the sine and cosine functions is

that they are periodic functions and have period 2.

This means that, for all values of x,

65
Trigonometric Functions
The tangent function is related to the sine and cosine
functions by the equation

and its graph is shown in

Figure 19. It is undefined
whenever cos x = 0, that is,
when x =  /2, 3 /2, . . . .
y = tan x
Figure 19
Its range is ( , ).
66
Trigonometric Functions
Notice that the tangent function has period  :

tan(x + ) = tan x for all x

The remaining three trigonometric functions (cosecant,

secant, and cotangent) are the reciprocals of the sine,
cosine, and tangent functions.

67
Exponential Functions (指數函數)

68
Exponential Functions
The exponential functions are the functions of the form
f(x) = ax, where the base a is a positive constant.

The graphs of y = 2x and y = (0.5)x are shown in Figure 20.

In both cases the domain is ( , ) and the range is
(0, ).

(a) y = 2x (b) y = (o.5)x

Figure 20
69
Exponential Functions
Exponential functions are useful for modeling many natural
phenomena, such as population growth (if a > 1) and
radioactive decay (if a < 1).

70
Logarithmic Functions (對數函數)

71
Logarithmic Functions
The logarithmic functions f(x) = logax, where the base a is a
positive constant, are the inverse functions of the exponential
functions. Figure 21 shows the graphs of four logarithmic
functions with various bases.

In each case the domain is

(0, ), the range is ( , ),
and the function increases
slowly when x > 1.

Figure 21
72
Example 5
Classify the following functions as one of the types of
functions that we have discussed.

(a) f(x) = 5x

(b) g(x) = x5

(c)

(d) u(t) = 1 – t + 5t 4

73
Example 5 – Solution
(a) f(x) = 5x is an exponential function.
(The x is the exponent.)

(b) g(x) = x5 is a power function. (The x is the base.)

We could also consider it to be a polynomial of degree 5.

(c) is an algebraic function.

(d) u(t) = 1 – t + 5t 4 is a polynomial of degree 4.

74
Transformations of Functions
(函數轉換)

75
Transformations of Functions
By applying certain transformations to the graph of a given
function we can obtain the graphs of certain related
functions.

This will give us the ability to sketch the graphs of many

functions quickly by hand. It will also enable us to write
equations for given graphs.

Let’s first consider translations (平移). If c is a positive

number, then the graph of y = f(x) + c is just the graph of
y = f(x) shifted upward a distance of c units (because each
y-coordinate is increased by the same number c).
76
Transformations of Functions
Likewise, if g(x) = f(x – c), where c > 0, then the value of
g at x is the same as the value of f at x – c (c units to the left
of x).

Therefore the graph of

y = f(x – c), is just the
graph of y = f(x) shifted
c units to the right
(see Figure 1).

Translating the graph of ƒ

Figure 1
77
Transformations of Functions

Now let’s consider the stretching (伸縮) and reflecting (反射)

transformations. If c > 1, then the graph of y = cf(x) is the
graph of y = f(x) stretched by a factor of c in the vertical
direction (because each y-coordinate is multiplied by the
same number c).

78
Transformations of Functions
The graph of y = –f(x) is the graph of y = f(x) reflected about
the x-axis because the point (x, y) is replaced by the
point (x, –y).

(See Figure 2 and the

following chart, where the
results of other stretching,
shrinking, and reflecting
transformations are also
given.)
Stretching and reflecting the graph of f
Figure 2 79
Transformations of Functions

80
Transformations of Functions
Figure 3 illustrates these stretching transformations when
applied to the cosine function with c = 2.

Figure 3

81
Transformations of Functions
For instance, in order to get the graph of y = 2 cos x we
multiply the y-coordinate of each point on the graph of
y = cos x by 2.

This means that the graph of y = cos x gets stretched

vertically by a factor of 2.

82
Example 1
Given the graph of use transformations to graph
and

Solution:
The graph of the square root function , is shown in
Figure 4(a).

Figure 4 83
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Figure 4

In the other parts of the figure we sketch by

shifting 2 units downward, by shifting 2 units to
the right, by reflecting about the x-axis,
by stretching vertically by a factor of 2, and by
reflecting about the y-axis. 84
Transformations of Functions
Another transformation of some interest is taking the
absolute value of a function. If y = |f(x)|, then according to
the definition of absolute value, y = f(x) when f(x) ≥ 0 and
y = –f(x) when f(x) < 0.

This tells us how to get the graph of y = |f(x)| from the graph
of y = f(x): The part of the graph that lies above the x-axis
remains the same; the part that lies below the x-axis is
reflected about the x-axis.

85
Combinations of Functions
(函數組合)

86
Combinations of Functions
Two functions f and g can be combined to form new
functions f + g, f – g, fg, and f/g in a manner similar to the
way we add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers.
The sum and difference functions are defined by
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) (f – g)(x) = f(x) – g(x)
If the domain of f is A and the domain of g is B, then the
domain of f + g is the intersection A ∩ B because both
f(x) and g(x) have to be defined.
For example, the domain of is A = [0, ) and the
domain of is B = ( , 2], so the domain of
is A ∩ B = [0, 2].
87
Combinations of Functions
Similarly, the product and quotient functions are defined by

The domain of fg is A ∩ B, but we can’t divide by 0 and so

the domain of f/g is {x  A ∩ B | g(x)  0}.

For instance, if f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x – 1, then the domain of

the rational function (f/g)(x) = x2/(x – 1) is {x | x  1},
or ( , 1) U (1, ).

88
Combinations of Functions
There is another way of combining two functions to obtain a
new function. For example, suppose that y = f(u) =
and u = g(x) = x2 + 1.

Since y is a function of u and u is, in turn, a function of x, it

follows that y is ultimately a function of x. We compute
this by substitution:

y = f(u) = f(g(x)) = f(x2 + 1) =

The procedure is called composition because the new

function is composed of the two given functions f and g.
89
Combinations of Functions
In general, given any two functions f and g, we start with a
number x in the domain of g and find its image g(x). If this
number g(x) is in the domain of f, then we can calculate the
value of f(g(x)).

The result is a new function h(x) = f(g(x)) obtained by

substituting g into f. It is called the composition
(or composite) of f and g and is denoted by f  g (“f circle g”).

90
Combinations of Functions
The domain of f  g is the set of all x in the domain of g such
that g(x) is in the domain of f.

In other words, (f  g)(x) is

defined whenever both
g(x) and f(g(x)) are defined.

Figure 11 shows how to

picture f  g in terms of machines.

The f  g machine is composed of

the g machine (first) and then
the f machine.
Figure 11
91
Example 6
If f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x – 3, find the composite functions
f  g and g  f.

Solution:
We have
(f  g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x – 3) = (x – 3)2

(g  f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x2) = x2 – 3

92
Combinations of Functions
Remember, the notation f  g means that the function g is
applied first and then f is applied second. In Example 6,
f  g is the function that first subtracts 3 and then squares;
g  f is the function that first squares and then subtracts 3.

It is possible to take the composition of three or more

functions. For instance, the composite function f  g  h is
found by first applying h, then g, and then f as follows:

(f  g  h)(x) = f(g(h(x)))

93
Exponential Functions
One reason for the importance of the exponential function
lies in the following properties.

If x and y are rational numbers, then these laws are well

known from elementary algebra. It can be proved that they
remain true for arbitrary real numbers x and y.

94
Example 1
Sketch the graph of the function y = 3 – 2x and determine
its domain and range.

Solution:
First we reflect the graph of y = 2x in Figure 5(a) about the
x-axis to get the graph of y = –2x in Figure 5(b).

y = 2x, x real (a) y = 2x (b) y = –2x

Figure 2 Figure 5 95
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Then we shift the graph of y = –2x upward 3 units to obtain

the graph of y = 3 – 2x in Figure 5(c).

(c) y = 3 – 2x
Figure 5

The domain is and the range is ( , 3).

96
Inverse Functions and Logarithms
Functions that share this property with f are called
one-to-one functions.

97
Inverse Functions and Logarithms
If a horizontal line intersects the
graph of f in more than one point,
then we see from Figure 2 that
there are numbers x1 and x2
such that f(x1) = f(x2).
This function is not one-to-one
This means that f is not one-to-one. because f(x1) = f(x2).
Figure 2

Therefore we have the following geometric method for

determining whether a function is one-to-one.

98
Example 1
Is the function f(x) = x3 one-to-one?

Solution 1:
If x1 ≠ x2, then x13 ≠ x23 (two different numbers can’t have
the same cube).
Therefore, by Definition 1, f(x) = x3 is one-to-one.

Solution 2:
From Figure 3 we see that no
horizontal line intersects the
graph of f(x) = x3 more than once.
Therefore, by the Horizontal f(x) = x3 is one-to-one.
Line Test, f is one-to-one. Figure 3
99
Inverse Functions and Logarithms
One-to-one functions are important because they are
precisely the functions that possess inverse functions
according to the following definition.

This definition says that if f maps x into y, then f –1 maps y

back into x. (If f were not one-to-one, then f –1 would not be
uniquely defined.)
100
Inverse Functions and Logarithms
The arrow diagram in Figure 5 indicates that f –1 reverses
the effect of f.

Figure 5

Note that

101
Inverse Functions and Logarithms
For example, the inverse function of f(x) = x3 is f –1(x) = x1/3
because if y = x3, then

f –1(y) = f –1(x3) = (x3)1/3 = x

Caution
Do not mistake the –1 in f –1 for an exponent. Thus

f –1(x) does not mean

The reciprocal 1/f(x) could, however, be written as [f(x)] –1.

102
Example 3
If f(1) = 5, f(3) = 7, and f(8) = –10, find f –1(7), f –1(5), and
f –1(–10).

Solution:
From the definition of f –1 we have

f –1(7) = 3 because f(3) = 7

f –1(5) = 1 because f(1) = 5

f –1(–10) = 8 because f(8) = –10

103
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

The diagram in Figure 6 makes it clear how f –1 reverses the

effect of f in this case.

The inverse function reverses inputs and outputs.

Figure 6

104
Inverse Functions and Logarithms
The letter x is traditionally used as the independent
variable, so when we concentrate on f –1 rather than on f,
we usually reverse the roles of x and y in Definition 2 and
write

By substituting for y in Definition 2 and substituting for

x in (3), we get the following cancellation equations:

105
Inverse Functions and Logarithms
The first cancellation equation says that if we start with x,
apply f, and then apply f –1, we arrive back at x, where we
started (see the machine diagram in Figure 7).

Figure 7

Thus f –1 undoes what f does.

The second equation says that f undoes what f –1 does.

106
Inverse Functions and Logarithms
For example, if f(x) = x3, then f –1(x) = x1/3 and so the
cancellation equations become

f –1(f(x)) = (x3)1/3 = x
f(f –1(x)) = (x1/3)3 = x

These equations simply say that the cube function and the
cube root function cancel each other when applied in
succession.

107
Inverse Functions and Logarithms
Now let’s see how to compute inverse functions.
If we have a function y = f(x) and are able to solve this
equation for x in terms of y, then according to Definition 2
we must have x = f –1(y).
If we want to call the independent variable x, we then
interchange x and y and arrive at the equation y = f –1(x).

108
Inverse Functions and Logarithms
The principle of interchanging x and y to find the inverse
function also gives us the method for obtaining the graph of
f –1 from the graph of f.

Since f(a) = b if and only if f –1(b) = a, the point (a, b) is on

the graph of f if and only if the point (b, a) is on the graph
of f –1.

But we get the point (b, a)

from (a, b) by reflecting about
the line y = x. (See Figure 8.)

Figure 8 109
Inverse Functions and Logarithms
Therefore, as illustrated by Figure 9:

Figure 9
110
Logarithmic Functions

111
Logarithmic Functions
If b > 0 and b ≠ 1, the exponential function f(x) = bx is either
increasing or decreasing and so it is one-to-one by the
Horizontal Line Test. It therefore has an inverse function
f –1, which is called the logarithmic function with base b
and is denoted by logb.

If we use the formulation of an inverse function given by ,

f –1(x) = y f(y) = x
then we have

112
Logarithmic Functions
Thus, if x > 0, then logb x is the exponent to which the
base b must be raised to give x.

For example, log10 0.001 = –3 because 10–3 = 0.001.

The cancellation equations (4), when applied to the

functions f(x) = bx and f –1(x) = logb x, become

113
Logarithmic Functions
The logarithmic function logb has domain (0, ) and
range . Its graph is the reflection of the graph of y = bx
about the line y = x.

Figure 11 shows the case

where b > 1. (The most
important logarithmic functions
have base b > 1.)

The fact that y = bx is a very

rapidly increasing function
for x > 0 is reflected in the fact
that y = logb x is a very slowly Figure 11
increasing function for x > 1.
114
Logarithmic Functions
Figure 12 shows the graphs of y = logb x with various
values of the base b > 1.
Since logb 1 = 0, the graphs of all logarithmic functions
pass through the point (1, 0).

Figure 12
115
Logarithmic Functions
The following properties of logarithmic functions follow from
the corresponding properties of exponential functions.

116
Example 6
Use the laws of logarithms to evaluate log2 80 – log2 5.

Solution:
Using Law 2, we have

log2 80 – log2 5 = log2

= log2 16

=4

because 24 = 16.

117
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

118
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
When we try to find the inverse trigonometric functions, we
have a slight difficulty: Because the trigonometric functions
are not one-to-one, they don’t have inverse functions.

The difficulty is overcome by restricting the domains of

these functions so that they become one-to-one.

119
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
You can see from Figure 17 that the sine function y = sin x
is not one-to-one (use the Horizontal Line Test).

Figure 17

But the function f(x) = sin x,

–/2  x  /2, is one-to-one
(see Figure 18).
y = sin x, x

Figure 18 120
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The inverse function of this restricted sine function f exists
and is denoted by sin–1 or arcsin. It is called the inverse
sine function or the arcsine function.

Since the definition of an inverse function says that

f –1(x) = y f(y) = x

we have

121
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Thus, if –1  x  1, sin–1x is the number between –/2 and
/2 whose sine is x.

122
Example 12
Evaluate (a) sin–1 and (b) tan(arcsin ).

Solution:
(a) We have

because sin(/6) = and /6 lies between –/2 and /2.

123
Example 12 – Solution cont’d

(b) Let  = arcsin , so sin  = .

Then we can draw a right triangle with angle  as in

Figure 19 and deduce from the Pythagorean Theorem that
the third side has length .

This enables us to read from the triangle that

Figure 19

124
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The cancellation equations for inverse functions become, in
this case,

125
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The inverse sine function, sin–1, has domain [–1, 1] and
range [–/2, /2], and its graph, shown in Figure 20, is
obtained from that of the restricted sine function (Figure 18)
by reflection about the line y = x.

y = sin x, x
y = sin–1 x = arcsin x
Figure 18
Figure 20

126
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The inverse cosine function is handled similarly. The
restricted cosine function f(x) = cos x, 0  x   , is
one-to-one (see Figure 21) and so it has an inverse
function denoted by cos–1 or arccos.

y = cos x, 0  x  
Figure 21 127
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The cancellation equations are

The inverse cosine function, cos–1,

has domain [–1, 1] and range [0, ].
Its graph is shown in Figure 22.

y = cos –1 x = arccos x
Figure 22
128
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The tangent function can be made one-to-one by restricting
it to the interval (–/2, /2). Thus the inverse tangent
function is defined as the inverse of the function
f(x) = tan x, –/2  x  /2. (See Figure 23.) It is denoted by
tan–1 or arctan.

y = tan x,

Figure 23 129
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The remaining inverse trigonometric functions are
summarized here.

130