Lecture # 2 (Ex:2.1 to 2.

5)
Set
A set is any collection of objects, if it is possible to decide whether a given object belongs to the
collection or not.
These objects are called the elements or members of the set.
Representation of a Set
There are three different ways of describing a set.
(i) The Descriptive Method
A set may be described in words. For example, the set of all vowels of the Englis alphabets.
(ii) The Tabular or Roster Method
A set may be described by listing its elements within curly brackets. For example, the set A of all vowels
of English alphabets can be written as: A = a, e, i, o, u
Note: In Tabular Method, every element of the set is listed only once.
(iii) Set-Builder or Rule Method
In this method, we write a variable (say x) representing any member of the set followed by a property
satisfied by each member of the set.
For example, the set A = a, e, i, o, u may be written as
A = {x/x is a vowel of the English alphabets}
This is read as A is set of all x such that x is a vowel of English alphabets.
Types of Sets
Empty Set or Null set
A set which has no element is called empty set or null set. It is denoted by  or  .
Singleton Set
A set having only one element is called singleton set. For example 2 is a singleton set.
Finite and Infinite Set
A set which has finite number of elements is called finite set. Otherwise, it is called infinite set.
Order of a Set
The number of distinct elements in a finite set A is called order or cardinal number of set A and it is
denoted by n(A).
Note: Order of an infinite set is not defined.
One-to-One Correspondence
If the elements of two sets A and B can be paired in such a way that each element of A is paired with
unique element of B and vice versa, then such pairing is called a one-to-one correspondence between A
and B.
Equivalent Sets
Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if a one-to-one correspondence can be established between
them. If A and B are equivalent we write A ~ B .
Note:
(i) N ~ O and N ~ W but N is not equivalent to R.
(ii) Equal sets are equivalent but equivalent sets need not be equal.
Subset
If every element of a set A is an element of set B, then A is called subset of B. Symbolically this is
written as A  B (A is subset of B), B is called super set of A. i.e. A  B iff x  A  x  B
Note:
(i) Every set is a subset and a super set of itself.
(ii) The empty set is the subset of every set.
(iii) If a set A has n elements then number of its subsets are 2 n .
(iv) If a set A has n elements then number of subsets containing r elements are nCr .
Proper Subset
If A is a subset of B and B contains at least one element which is not an element of A,
then A is said to be a proper subset of B.
Note:
(i) If a set A has n elements then number of its proper subsets are 2n − 1 .
(ii) If a set A has n elements then number of its non-empty proper subsets are 2n − 2 .
Improper Subset
If A is a subset of B and A = B , then A is said to be a improper subset of B.
Note:
Every set A is an improper subset of itself.
Power Set
The power set of a given set A, is a set containing all the possible subsets of A. It is denoted by P(A).
For example, if A = a, b , then P( A) =  , a , b , a, b
Note:
(i) The power set of an empty set is not empty.
(ii) If a set A has m elements, then its power set P(A) contains exactly 2m elements.
Universal Set
If all the sets under consideration are the subsets of a fixed set U, then U is called the universal set or the
universe of discourse.
Operations on Sets
Union of two Sets
The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A  B is the set of all elements,
which belongs to A or B. i.e. A  B =  x / x  A  x  B
Clearly, if x  ( A  B )  x  A or x  B and if x  ( A  B )  x  A and x  B
Intersection of two Sets
The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A  B is the set of all elements,
which belongs to A and B. i.e. A  B =  x / x  A  x  B
Clearly, if x  ( A  B )  x  A and x  B and if x  ( A  B )  x  A or x  B
Disjoint Sets
Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint, if A  B =  , i.e. A and B have no element in common.
Overlapping Sets
If the intersection of two sets is non-empty but neither is a subset of other,
the sets are called overlapping sets.
Difference of Two Sets
The difference set of two sets A and B is denoted by A − B consists of all the elements which
belongs to A but do not belong to B. i.e. A − B =  x / x  A  x  B Similarly, B − A =  x / x  B  x  A
Note:
(i) A−B  B−A
(ii) The sets A − B and B − A are disjoint sets.
(iii) A − B  A and B − A  B
(iv) A −  = A and A − A = 
Compliment of a Set
If U is a universal set and A is subset of U, then the compliment of A is the set of all elements of U,
which do not belong to A. It is denoted by A or Ac . i.e. A =  x / x U  x  A
Note:
(i) U =  (ii)  = U (iii) A  A = U (iv) A  A = 
Venn Diagrams
A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets in which sets are
represented enclosed areas in plane. Venn diagrams were first used by English mathematician John Venn.
The universal set U is represented by the interior of a rectangle and the others sets are represented by the
circles lying within the rectangle.
Properties of Union and Intersection
(i) Commutative Property of Union (ii) Commutative Property of Intersection
A B = B  A A B = B  A
(iii) Associative Property of Union (iv) Associative Property of Intersection
( A  B)  C = A  ( B  C ) ( A  B)  C = A  ( B  C )
(v) Distributivity of Union over Intersection (vi) Distributivity of Intersection over Union
A  ( B  C ) = ( A  B)  ( A  C ) A  ( B  C ) = ( A  B)  ( A  C )
(vii) De Morgan’s Laws

( A  B ) = A  B and ( A  B ) = A  B
MCQs

1. Let A be the set of squares of natural numbers and x , y be any two elements of A. Then
x
(A) x − y  A (B) x + y  A (C) xy  A (D)  A
y
Let x = n 2 , y = m 2 , then xy = n2 m2 = ( nm )  A Thus x, y  A  xy  A
2
2. Let A = a, b , B = a , b , C = a , a, b , then which of the following is true?
(A) A = B (B) A  C (C) A  C (D) B  C
a, b a , a, b  A  C
3. The set A = x / x  R, x 2 = 16  2 x = 8 is equal to:
intersection

(A)  (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 3, 4, −4

x = 16
2
 x = 4 , 2x = 8 x = 4
x = 16  2 x = 8  x = 4  4
2

4. Which of the following is a singleton set?

(A) x : x = 5, x  N (B) x : x = 6, x  Z
(C) x : x 2 + 2x + 1 = 0, x  N (D) None of these
x : x = 5, x  N = 5 which is singleton set.
5. The number of subsets of a set containing n distinct objects is:
(A) 2n − 1 (B) 2n − 2
(C) nC1 + nC2 + nC3 + ... + nCn (D) nC0 + nC1 + nC2 + nC3 + ... + nCn
No. of subsets = 2 = C0 + C1 + C2 + C3 + ... + Cn
n n n n n n

6. The number of non empty proper subsets of the set  x | x  N  1  x  6 is:

(A) 32 (B) 16 (C) 14 (D) 15
The set is 2,3, 4,5 , No. of non empty proper subsets = 2 − 2 = 2 − 2 = 16 − 2 = 14
n 4

7. The number of subsets of the set a, b , b, c , d , e containing two elements is:
(A) 8 (B) 7 (C) 6 (D) 3
n
Cr = 3C2 = 3
8. Which of the following statement is not true?
(A)  is subset of every set (B) R ~ C
(C) Each set is the improper sub set of itself (D) 2 is only even prime number
Set of real numbers is not equivalent to set of complex numbers, option B is wrong.
9. In a city 20% of the population travel by car, 50% by bus and 10% by both car and bus.
The persons travelling either by car or by bus is:
(A) 30% (B) 40% (C) 60% (D) 70%
n ( A  B ) = n ( A) + n ( B ) − n ( A  B ) = 20 + 50 − 10 = 60%

10. In a school, there are 20 teachers who teach Maths or Physics. Of them 12 teach Maths and 4 teach both
Maths and Physics. The number of teachers who teach only physics, is:
(A) 4 (B) 8 (C) 12 (D) 16
n ( M  P ) = n ( M ) + n ( P ) − n ( M  P )  n ( P ) = n ( M  P ) + n ( M  P ) − n ( M ) = 20 + 4 − 12 = 12
Who teach only physics = n ( P ) − n ( M  P ) = 12 − 4 = 8

11. A company employs 25 people for program A, 50 people for program B, 10 people for both.
The number of employees employed only for program A is:
(A) 25 (B) 50 (C) 10 (D) 15
n ( A) − n ( A  B ) = 25 − 10 = 15
12. If A has 3 elements and B has 6 elements, then:
(A) 0  n ( A  B )  9 (B) 3  n ( A  B )  6
(C) 6  n ( A  B )  9 (D) 0  n ( A  B )  9
Max. n ( A  B ) = 9 When A and B are disjoint ; Min. n ( A  B ) = 6 When A  B
Inductive and Deductive Logic
When we draw conclusions from limited number of observations or experiences. This way of drawing
conclusions is called Induction.
When we draw conclusions from accepted or well known facts. i.e.
drawing conclusions from premises believed to be true, is called deduction.
Proposition
A declarative sentence which may be true or false but not both, is called proposition or statement.
For example “Lahore is city of Pakistan” and “1+2 = 5” are both statements, the first because it is true and
second because it is false.
Aristotelian Logic
Deductive logic in which every statement is regarded as true or false and there is no other possibility, is
called Aristotelian logic. For Example, the statement a = b can be either true or false.

Non-Aristotelian Logic
Deductive logic in which there is scope for a third or fourth possibility, is called non-Aristotelian logic.
For Example, in statistical or social sciences it is some time not possible to divide all statements into two
mutually exclusive classes.
Negation
Negation of a statement p is denoted by ~ p , read “not p ” and defined as:
“If p is true then ~ p is false and if p is false then ~ p is true”.
Conjunction
Conjunction of two statements p and q is denoted by p  q and defined as:
“If p and q both are true, then p  q is true otherwise p  q is false”.
Disjunction
Disjunction of two statements p and q is denoted by p  q and defined as:
“If p and q both are false, then p  q is false otherwise p  q is true”.
Implication or Conditional
A compound statement of the form p → q is called an implication or conditional. p is called antecedent or
hypothesis and q is called the consequent or the conclusion.
“A conditional is regarded as false only when the first part p is true and the second part q is false. In all other
cases it is considered to be true”.
Biconditional
A compound statement of the form p  q read “ p if and only q ” is called biconditional or equivalence.
“A biconditional is true whenever p and q have same truth values otherwise it is false”.
Conditionals related with a given conditional
Let p → q be a given conditional, then
(i) q → p is called the converse of p → q (ii) ~ p → ~ q is called the inverse of p → q
(iii) ~ q → ~ p is called contrapositive of p → q
Note:
(i) Any conditional and its contrpositive are equivalent to each other.
(ii) The converse and inverse are equivalent to each other.
Tautology
“A statement which is true for all the possible values of the variable involved in it is called a tautology”.

Contradiction
“A statement which is always false is called a contradiction or absurdity”.
Contigency
“Any statement which can be true or false depending upon the truth values is called a contingency”.
Quantifiers
The words or symbols which convey the idea of quantity or number are called quantifiers.
Universal Quantifier
The symbol  which reads “for all” is called the universal quantifier.
Existential Quantifier
The symbol  which reads “there exists” is called the existential quantifier.
Note: The symbol  stands for “such that”

MCQs

1. Which conjunction is not true?

(A) ( 5  7 )  ( −3  0 ) (B) ( −7  −2 )  ( 2 + 5 = 5 + 2 )
(C) ( 3  1)  ( 2 − 1 = 1 − 2 ) (D) ( −3 = −3)  (1 = 1)
C is not true.
2. p  q is true only:
(A) Both p and q are true (B) Both p and q are false
(C) p and q have same truth values (D) All of the above

Option C is true

3. Let U be a universal set and x U , then contra positive of x   → x  A is:

(A) x  A → x   (B) x   → x  A (C) x  A → x   (D) x  A → x  
Contra positive of x   → x  A is x  A → x   .