Central Force Motion

Reduced Mass

m1


r

r1
CM

R
m2


r2
O

     
r1 = r2 + r ⟹ r = r1 - r2
 
 m 1 r 1 + m2 r 2   
R= ⟹ m1 r1 + m2 r2 = (m1 + m2 ) R
m 1 + m2
  
F = - ∇ U (r) = f (r) r
  central force
U r1 , r2  U (r)

1 
 1 

L= m1 (r1 )2 + m2 (r2 )2 - U (r)
2 2
?
First Task : 2 - body problem 1 - body problem
   
Let ' s write r 1 , r2  in terms of r , R

  
m1 r1 + m2 r2 = (m1 + m2 ) R
  
m 2 r 1 - m2 r 2 = m 2 r
  
(m1 + m2 ) r1 = (m1 + m2 ) R + m2 r

 (m1 + m2 )  m2   m2   m2 
r1 = R+ r = R+ r = R+ r
(m1 + m2 ) (m1 + m2 ) (m1 + m2 ) M
  m2    m1 
r1 = R + r, similarly, r 2 = R - r
M M
M = m1 + m2 = total mass
2 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb

1 
 m2  
 m1 
 2 1  2
L= m1 R + r + m2 R - r - U (r)
2 M 2 M

 m1 m2  
  m1 m2 
since, R r-R r=0
M M
1  1 m2   m1 
  2 1  1  2
L = m1 (R)2 + m1 r + m2 (R)2 + m2 r - U (r)
2 2 M 2 2 M
1 
 1 m1 m2 

L = (m1 + m2 ) (R)2 + (m1 + m2 ) (r)2 - U (r)
2 2 M 2

1 
 1 m1 m2 

L= M (R)2 + (r)2 - U (r)
2 2 M
m1 m2
μ= = reduced mass
M
1 
 1 

L= M (R)2 + μ (r)2 - U (r)
2 2

As R = cyclic  ignorable coordinate

d ∂L ∂L d ∂L ..
 

 = =0 ⟹  = 0, R = 0 ⟹ R = constant
dt ∂ Ri ∂ Ri dt ∂ Ri
1 

⟹ M (R)2 = Constant = L0
2
1 

L = L0 + μ (r)2 - U (r)
2
In CM - frame, L0 = 0
1 

L= μ (r)2 - U (r)
2
This Lagraingain describes the motion of
 
single particle of mass μ under central force F = f (r) r

First Task completed : 2 - body problem ⟶ 1 - body problem

Conservation of Angular Momentum & Total Energy

          
L = r 1 × p 1 + r 2 × p 2 = m1 r 1 × r 1 + m2 r 2 × r 2
  m2   m1 
In CM - frame, R = 0, r1 = r, r2 = - r
M M
 m2  m2  m1  m1 

L = m1 r× r + m2 r× r
M M M M

 m1 m2   
r= r×r
M
 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb 3


  
     
..
 ..
  μ   
L = μ r × r + r × μ r = r × μ r = r × F = r × f (r) r = 0
M
  

∴ L = r × μ r = constant
1 

E= μ (r)2 + U (r) =? constant
2
.. 
 1     .. 
    
.. 
       
E = μ  r · r + r · r  + r · ∇ U (r) = μ r · r - r · F = F · r - r · F = 0
2
1 

∴ E = μ (r)2 + U (r) = constant
2

3 - dim to 1 - dim reduction

  

Since L = r × μ r = constant
 
 
⟹ r & r will always lie in a plane normal to L

π
We choose this plane to be the xy - plane with θ =
2
(r, θ, ϕ) ⟶ (r, ϕ)
1  2
L= μ r2 + r2 ϕ  - U (r)
2
As ϕ = cyclic coordinate
∂L 2  l
pϕ =  = μ r ϕ = constant = l, ϕ=
∂ϕ μ r2

 1  
dA = r×dr
2
      
r = r cosϕ x + sinϕ y, d r = r dr + r - sinϕ x + cosϕ y dϕ,
     
r × d r = r cosϕ x + sinϕ y × r - sinϕ x + cosϕ y dϕ

 1   1 
d A = r × d r = r2 dϕ z
2 2
4 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb

1 dA 1 dϕ 1  1 l
dA = r2 dϕ, = r2 = r2 ϕ = r2
2 dt 2 dt 2 2 μ r2
dA l
= = constant
dt 2μ
"Areal velocity is constant in time" [Kepler ' s second law]

(r, θ, ϕ) ⟶ (r, ϕ)
1  2  l
L= μ r2 + r2 ϕ  - U (r), ϕ=
2 μ r2
1  l2
L= μ r2 + - U (r)
2 μ2 r2

Effective Potential (V)

1 2 l2
E= μr + + U (r) = K.E + V (r)
2 2 μr2
V (r) = Uc + U (r) = Effective P.E
l2
Uc = = Centrifugal Energy
2 μ r2
∂Uc l2 2
Fc = - = = μ r ϕ = Centrifugal force
∂r μ r3

 dr 2 (E - V (r))
r= =±
dt μ

dϕ dϕ dt ϕ l ±1
= =  =
dr dt dr r μ r2
2 (E-V (r))
μ
 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb 5

l dr
ϕ (r) = ± 
μ r2
2 (E-V (r))
μ

Turning points and Various Orbits

1 2 l2
E= μr + + U (r) = K.E + V (r)
2 2 μr2
l2
V (r) = + U (r)
2 μ r2
1 2
μ r = E - V (r) ≥ 0
2
 l2
In order to find turning points, take r = 0, E - - U (r) = 0
2 μ r2
l
If U (r) = U0, r= ;
2 μ (E - U0)
1
If U (r) = k r2 , r=?
2
k l2 k
If U (r) = - , E- + = 0, [In general, 2 - roots]
r 2 μ r2 r
l2 k
2 μ r2E - + =0
2 μ r2 r
(2 μ E) r2 + (2 μ k) r - l2 = 0, a r2 + b r + c = 0
6 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb

-b ± b2 - 4 ac -(2 μ k) ± (2 μ k)2 - 4 -l2  (2 μ E)

r= =
2a 2 (2 μ E)

2 l2 E
-k ± k2 + μ
r=
2E

2 l2 E
-k + k2 + μ
If E > 0 [Hyperbola] : r=
2E
2 l2 E 1/2 2 l2 E
-k + k 1 + μk2
 -k + k 1 + 2 μk2
+  (E2 )
If E = 0 [Parabola] : r = =
2E 2E
l2
If E = 0 [Parabola] : r=
2 μk

2 l2 E
k∓ k2 - μ
If E < 0 [Ellipse], let' s E = - E , r=
2 E

2
2 l2 E
As, k > k - , there will be two roots
μ

2 l2 E 2 l2 E
k- k2 - μ
k+ k2 - μ
rmin = , rmax =
2 E 2 E
μ k2
E = = Vmin [Circle]
2 l2
2 l2 E μ k2
When k2 - =0⟹ E = = Vmin ,
μ 2 l2
k k l2
then rmin = rmax = = = =? r0
2
2 E 2  μ k2  μk
2l

l2 k l2 k l2
V (r) = - , V' (r) = - + = 0 ⟹ r0 =
2 μ r2 r μ r3 r2 μk
3 l2 2k 1 3 l2 k
V'' (r0 ) = - = -2k = > 0 [V (r0 ) = Vmin ]
μ r0 4 r0 3 r0 3 μ r0 r0 3
 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb 7

l2 k μ k2 μk2 μ k2
Vmin = V (r0 ) = - = - =-
l 2 2 l2 2 l2 l2 2 l2
2 μ  μk  μk

μ k2
Vmin = -
2 l2
l2 k
V (r) = 2
-
2μr r
r>>r0 k r>>r0 r <<r0 l2 r <<r0
V (r) - 0 & V (r) ∞
r 2 μ r2

1 2
μ r = E - V (r) ≥ 0 ⟹ E ≥ V (r) ≥ V (r3) = Vmin
2
E1 ≥ 0, 1 - turning point at r1 , [unbounded motion]

Vmin < E2 < 0, 2 - turning points r2 ≤ r ≤ r4 , [bounded motion]

E3 = Vmin , 1 - turning points r = r3 , [bounded circular motion]


With initial condition, r(t=0) = R, r(t=0) = 0
1  l2 k 1 k
E= μ r2 + - = μ v2 -
2 2 μ r2 r 2 r

1 k 2k
E=0 ⟹ μ v2esc = ⟹ vesc =
2 R μR

dE (R) μ vorb2 k k
=0 ⟹ = 2 ⟹ vorb =
dR R R μR
mM
In M >>> m limit with k = GM & μ = →m
m+M
8 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb

m vorb2 GmM GM
= 2 ⟹ vorb =
R R R

1 GmM 2 GM
m vesc2 = ⟹ vesc =
2 R R

Summary-I
v = vorb, Circular orbit [E = Vmin]
vorb < v < vesc, Ellipse orbit [Vmin < E < 0]
v = vesc, parabola orbit [E = 0]
v > vesc, hyperpola orbit [E > 0]

μ 2 2
L= r + r2 ϕ  - U (r)
2
d ∂L ∂L ∂L 2 ∂U
  = , = μr ϕ -
dt ∂ r ∂r ∂r ∂r
 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb 9

d ∂L .. 2 ∂U
   = μ r = μr ϕ -
dt ∂ r ∂r
.. 2 ∂U
μ r = μr ϕ -
∂r
1
Let' s define, u =
r
 l
ϕ=
μ r2
 
du du dr dt 1 r r  l
= = - 2  = -μ ϕ = 
dϕ dr dt dϕ r ϕ l μr2
 
d2 u d du d r dt d r
=   = -μ = -μ
dϕ2 dϕ dϕ dϕ l dϕ dt l
2.. ..
r 2 2 r r
= -μ  = -μ
lϕ l2
.. 1 l2 d2 u l2 2 d2 u  l l 2
r =- 2 2 2
=- 2
u 2
, ϕ= 2
= u ,
μ r dθ μ dθ μr μ
k ∂U k
U (r) = - = -k u, = 2 = k u2
r ∂r r

.. 2 ∂U l2 d2 u l2 ∂U
r =rϕ - ⟹ - u2 = u3 -
∂r μ2 dϕ2 μ2 ∂r
d2 u μ2∂U
= - u+
dϕ2 l2 u2 ∂r
d2 u μ F[u]
2
+u = - [orbital equation]
dϕ l2 u2
Important to note that for inverse square law force,
r2 r2 k μk
-μ F[r] = μ = = constant
l2 l2 r2 l2
d2 u k
+u = μ
dϕ2 l2
k d2 w d2 u
Define, w = u - μ , =
l2 dϕ2 dϕ2
10 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb

d2 u k d2 w
+ u-μ =0 ⟹ +w=0
dϕ2 l2 dϕ2
w = A cos (ϕ - ϕ0 ), ϕ0 = 0, w = A cosϕ
μk 1 1
u = A cosϕ + = , r=
l2 r A cosϕ + μk
l2

l2 l2
μk μk
r= =
A
cosϕ + 1 Al2
μk 1+ μk
cosϕ
l2

α Al2 l2
r= , ε= , α=
1 + ε cosϕ μk μk
This is the equation of conic section which is formed by the intersection of a plane and a cone.

ε = eccentricity, 2 α = latus rectum

For ε < 1, 1 + ε cosϕ ≠ 0 because - 1 ≤ cosϕ ≤ 1
α α
cosϕ ⟹-1 ⟹ rmax = ; cosϕ ⟹ 1 ⟹ rmin =
1-ε 1+ε
using x = rcosϕ, y = rsinϕ we can obtain
(x + d)2 y2
+ = 1 [Eq. of an Ellipse]
a2 b2

a = semi major axis, b = semi minor axis

α α
a - d = rmin = ; a + d = rmax = ;
1+ε 1-ε
α α 2α
2 a = rmax + rmin = + =
1-ε 1+ε 1 - ε2
 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb 11

α α
a= [aphelion], b = [perihelion]
1 - ε2
1 - ε2
α α 2ε αε
2d= - =α ⟹ d= =aε
1-ε 1+ε 1- ε2 1 - ε2

Kepler' s First Law

Planets move in elliptical orbits about the Sun with the Sun at one focus.

For circle, R = rmax = rmin = α, with ε = 0

α α
a= , b=
1 - ε2
1 - ε2
b
ε ⟶ 1 , d = a ⟶∞ , b ⟶∞ such that = 1 - ε2 ⟶ 0
a
x d 2 y2 x 2 y2
+ + =1 ⟶  + 1 + =1
a a b2 a b2
x 2 x y 2 b2
  + 2   +   = 0, =α
a a b a
b 2 b2 b2
x2 + 2 x + y2 = 0, =α
a a a
b 2
x2 + 2 (α) x + y2 = 0 ⟶ 2 α x + y2 = 0
a
For ε = 1, y2 = -2 α x [Parabola]
α α
For ε > 1, A = , B=
ε2 - 1
ε2 - 1
(x + d)2 y2 (x + d)2 y2
+ =1 ⟹ - = 1 [Hyperbola]
a2 b2 A2 B2

Relation between ε and E

α k l2
rmin = , E = V (rmin) = - +
1+ε rmin 2 μ r2min
12 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb

k l2 k αk k
E=- α
+ =- α
+ = ε2 - 1
1+ε 2μ α
 1+ε 2 1+ε 2 α
 1+ε 2 2α

2Eα l2
ε= 1+ , α=
k μk

Summary-II
2Eα
ε= 1+
k
k
ε = 0, Circular orbit E = Vmin = - 
2α
0 < ε < 1, Elliptic orbit [Vmin < E < 0]
ε = 1, Parabolic orbit [E = 0]
ε > 1, Hyperpolic orbit [E > 0]

The Orbital Period : Kepler' s third Law

 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb 13

For circular orbit

m vorb 2 GmM 2 πR
= , vorb =
R R2 T
2 πR 2 GM
vorb 2 = =
T R
4 π2
T2 = R3
GM

Stability of Circular Orbits

 ∂V
For circular orbits : At r = R, (r )r=R = 0 ⟹ =0
∂r r=R

∂2 V
Stability requires >0
∂r2 r=R

Special form of central force

k k
F (r) = - ⟶ U (r) = -  Fdr = k  r-n dr = r-n+1
rn (-n + 1)
k
U (r) = r-n+1 , n ≠ 1
(1 - n)
k dr r
For n = 1, F (r) = - ⟶ U (r) = k  = k ln 
r r r0
l2 l2 k
V (r) = U (r) + = + r-n+1
2μ r2 2μ r2 (1 - n)
14 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb

∂V l2 k (1 - n) l2 l2
=- + R-n = - + k R-n = 0 ⟹ k R-n-1 =
∂r r=R μ R3 (1 - n) μ R3 μ R4
μk
Rn-3 =
l2
∂2 V 3 l2 3 l2 nl2 l2
= - n k R-n-1 = - = (3 - n) >0
∂r2 r=R μ R4 μ R4 μ R4 μ R4

stability of circular orbits requires, n < 3

General Treatment
.. 2 ∂U
μ r - r ϕ  = - = F (r) = -μ g (r)
∂r
 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb 15

.. l2
r- = - g (r), put r = R + x, x << R
μ2 r 3
.. l2
x- (R + x)-3 = - g (R + x)
μ2
.. l2 x -3
x- 1 +  = - g (R + x)
μ2 R 3 R
.. l2 3x dg
x- 1- = - g (R) - x
μ2 R 3 R dr r=R

l2
- = - g (R)
μ2 R 3
.. 3x dg
x - g (R) 1 - = - g (R) - x
R dr r=R

.. 3x dg
x - g (R) + g (R) = - g (R) - x
R dr r=R

.. 3 dg
x = - g (R) + x = -ω2 x
R dr r=R

.. 3 dg
x = -ω2 x, ω2 = g (R) + >0
R dr r=R

3  dg 
dr r=R 3  dF 
dr r=R
+ >0 ⇔ + >0
R g (R) R F (R)

k 3 -n k R-n-1
F (R) = - ⇔ + >0
Rn R k R-n
3 n (3 - n)
- = >0 ⟹ n<3
R R R
k
k 3 -
R2 ?
F (R) = - ⇔ + >0
R R k
R

3 1 2
- = > 0 [therefore, circular orbits are stable in this case]
R R R

Screened Coulomb Potential

k r dU (r) 1 1 r
U (r) = - e- a ⟹ F (r) = - = -k + e- a
r dr r2 ar
16 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb

R
1 1 -
R dF (R) 2k 1 -
R k k e- a
F (R) = -k + e a, =- - - e a - + -
R2 aR dR R3 a R2 R2 aR a

dF (R) 2k 2k k R 1 1 R
= + + e- a , F (R) = -k + e- a
dR R3 a R2 a2 R R2 aR
R
-
3  2 3k + 2k
+ k
 e a
R a R2 a2 R
- >0
R
R -
 k2 + k
 e a
R aR

R R2
2 + 2 + 
a a2
3- >0
1 + R 
a

R R2 R R
2+2 + < 3 1+ = 3+3
a a2 a a
R 2 R a 2 a
- - 1 < 0, + -1 > 0
a a R R

a 2 a a -1 ± 1+4 -1 ± 5
+ - 1 = 0, = =
R R R 2 2

a 5 -1
= = 0.618
R 2
 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb 17

a 5 -1
q= > = 0.618 [for the stability of circular orbits]
R 2
a 5 -1
q= > = 0.618
R 2

3
q2 +q-1

-1
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
q

l= μ
1.0

0.8

0.6
V(r)

0.4

0.2

0.0

-0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5
r/R
18 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb

μ c2 GM l2 GM l2
V[r] = ϵ -ϵ + -
2 r 2 μ r2 r3 μc2
ϵ = 0 for light and ϵ = 1 for massive particles

Anomalous Perihelion Shift of Mercury

d2 u k
+u = μ [Orbital eqn. in Newtonian Gravity]
dϕ2 l2
 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb 19

d2 u GM
+u= + 3 GM u2 [Orbital eqn. in GR]
dϕ2 l2
mM M>>m
μ= m
m+M
1 k m GmM GM GM
[u] =   = μ = =  ⟹   = L0 
L l2 m2 v2 r2 (v r)2 v2 r
G MSun
v << c ⟹ << r
c2
Dimensions with c = 1, [GM] = [L], m = 1;
d2 u GM
+u = [Orbital eqn. in Newtonian Gravity]
dϕ2 l2

d2 u GM
+u= + 3 GM u2 [Orbital eqn. in GR]
dϕ2 l2
1
[l] = [L]⟹ [β] = & [δ] = [L]0
L
3 (GM)2
GM 3 (GM)2 δ l2
β= , δ= << 1, = = 3 GM
l2 l2 β GM
l2

Here, δ is the perturbation parameter

d2 u δ 2
2
+u = β+ u
dϕ β
u = u0 + δ u1 + δ2 u2 + ...
2
u2 = u0 + δ u1 + δ2 u2 + ... = u20 + δ (2 u0 u1) + δ2 2 u0 u2 + u21 + ....
'' '' ''
u 0 + δ u 1 + δ2 u 2 + u0 + δ u1 + δ2 u2 + ... =
δ
β + u20 + δ (2 u0 u1) + δ2 2 u0 u2 + u21 + ..
β
'' '' ''
 u 0 + u0 + δ  u 1 + u1 + δ2  u 2 + u2 + .. =
u20 δ2
β+δ + (2 u0 u1) + δ 2 u0 u2 + u21 + ..
β β

Zeroth Order Solution [u0]

''
u 0 + u0 = β
20 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb

GM
u0 = β + A cosϕ = + A cosϕ
l2

First Order Solution [u1]

'' u20 (β + A cosϕ)2
u 1 + u1 = =
β β
'' A2
u 1 + u1 = β + 2 Acosϕ + cosϕ2
β
1 + cos2ϕ
cosϕ2 =
2
'' A2 1 + cos2ϕ
u 1 + u1 = β + 2 Acosϕ +  
β 2
'' A2 A2
u 1 + u1 = β + + 2 A cosϕ + cos2ϕ
2β 2β
u1 = a + b ϕ sinϕ + c cos2ϕ [Guess]

u1 = b sinϕ + b ϕ cosϕ - 2 c sin2ϕ
''
u 1 = b cosϕ + b cosϕ - b ϕ sinϕ - 4 c cos2ϕ
''
u 1 = 2 b cosϕ - b ϕ sinϕ - 4 c cos2ϕ
''
u 1 + u1 = (2 b cosϕ - b ϕ sinϕ - 4 c cos2ϕ) + a + b ϕ sinϕ + c cos2ϕ
''
u 1 + u1 = a + 2 b cosϕ - 3 c cos2ϕ
'' A2 A2
u 1 + u1 = β + + 2 A cosϕ + cos2ϕ
2β 2β
A2 A2
a = β+ , b = A, c = -
2β 6β
u1 = a + b ϕ sinϕ + c cos2ϕ

Complete Approximate Solution [u]

u = u0 + δ u1 = β + A cosϕ + δ (a + b ϕ sinϕ + c cos2ϕ)
 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb 21

u = u0 + δ u1 = β + A cosϕ + δ (a + b ϕ sinϕ + c cos2ϕ)

cos (ϕ - δϕ) = cosϕ cos (δϕ) + sinϕ sin (δϕ)
(δϕ)2 (δϕ)3
cos (δϕ) ≃ 1 + + ..., sin (δϕ) ≃ (δϕ) - + ..
2! 3!
cos (ϕ - δϕ) ≃ cosϕ + δ ϕ sinϕ
cos (ϕ - δϕ) - cosϕ ≃ δ ϕ sinϕ
u = β + A cosϕ + δa + A (cos (ϕ - δϕ) - cosϕ) + δ ccos2ϕ
A2 A2
u = β + A cos ((1 - δ) ϕ) + δ β + - cos2ϕ
2β 6β
The last term is periodic and has no effect as far as prehelion shift is concerned.
du
For prehelion, =0
dϕ
⟹ A (1 - δ) sin ((1 - δ)) ϕ = 0 ⟹ (1 - δ) ϕ = n π,
n = 1, 2, 3, ...

nπ
ϕn = ≃ n π (1 + δ),
(1 - δ)
Therefore, successive perihelia in u occur at the interval of
ϕ2 - ϕ1 = 2 π (1 + δ) instead of 2 π
22 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb

Thus, the perihelia of Mercury is given by

3 (GM)2 6 π G MSun
Δϕ = 2 π δ = 2 π = ≃ 0.1038'' per revolution
l2 a 1 - ε2  c2

where l2 = a 1 - ε2  GM,
m3
a = 5.8 × 1010 m, ε = 0.2056, MSun = 2 × 1030 kg, G = 6.67430 × 10-11
kg - s

0.3871 * 1.495 * 1011

5.78715 × 1010

1
* 100
0.2408
415.282

332 830 * 5.976 * 1024

1.98899 × 1030

6 * π * 6.67430 * 10-11 * 1.98899208 * 1030 180

* 3600 *
10 2 2 π
5.787145 * 10 * 1 - 0.2056  * 299 792 458

0.103614

Remember that a second of arc, arcsecond (arcsec) denoted by the symbol { ''} is
1
of a degree
3600

Since Mercury makes 415 revolutions per century, the prediction of GR is

 CM-I-Lec-Jan-01-2021.nb 23

Δϕ100 ≃ 43.03'' per century

1 6 * π * 6.67430 * 10-11 * 1.98899208 * 1030 180

* 100 * * 3600 *
0.2408 10 2 2 π
5.787145 * 10 * 1 - 0.2056  * 299 792 458

43.0289
Orbital Dynamics

Hohmann Transfer
"Path of minimum total energy expenditure"

k
E=- [for circular & elliptical orbits]
2a
For a circular orbit with radius r1 around Sun,

k 1 k k 1
E1 = - = T+U = mv21 - ⟹ = mv21
2 r1 2 r1 2 r1 2

k
v1 =
m r1

For transfer - elliptical orbit, 2 at = r1 + r2

k k 1 k
Et = - =- = m v2t1 - [At prehelion of transfer - oribit]
2 at r1 + r 2 2 r1
1 k k r2 k
m v2t1 = - + =
2 r1 + r 2 r1 (r1 + r2 ) r1
2 CM-I-Lec-Jan-22-25-2021.nb

2k r2
vt1 =
mr1 r1 + r 2

The speed transfer Δv1 needed is

Δv1 = vt1 - v1
For a circular orbit with radius r2 around Sun

k 1 k k
E2 = - = T+U = mv22 - ⟹ v2 =
2 r2 2 r2 m r2

For transfer - elliptical orbit

k 1 k
Et = - = m v2t2 - [At Aphelion of transfer - oribit]
r1 + r 2 2 r2

2k r1
vt2 =
mr2 (r1 + r2 )

The speed transfer Δv2 needed is

Δv2 = v2 - vt2 , where vt2 is the speed at Aphelion

The total speed transfer Δv needed is

Δv = Δv1 + Δv2

Delta - v budget

Transfer time
4 π2 μ
τ2 = a3 [Kepler ' s Third Law]
k
 CM-I-Lec-Jan-22-25-2021.nb 3

τt m
Tt = =π a3/2
t
2 k

Bi - elliptic transfer
The bi - elliptic transfer is an orbital maneuver that moves a spacecraft from one orbit to another and
may, in certain situations, require less delta - v than a Hohmann transfer maneuver.
4 CM-I-Lec-Jan-22-25-2021.nb

Round - Trip
Although the Hohmann transfer path represents the least energy expenditure,
it does not represent the shortest time

259 + 460 + 259 = 978 days = 2.7 years

 CM-I-Lec-Jan-22-25-2021.nb 5

Gravity Assisted Transfer

6 CM-I-Lec-Jan-22-25-2021.nb

The three body problem [3.12 Goldstein]

CM-I-Lec-Jan-22-25-2021.nb 7
8 CM-I-Lec-Jan-22-25-2021.nb
 CM-I-Lec-Jan-22-25-2021.nb 9

The restricted three-body problem [& Lagrange Points]

10 CM-I-Lec-Jan-22-25-2021.nb
 CM-I-Lec-Jan-22-25-2021.nb 11

Calculations of L1, L2 & L3

 
 M1 R 1 + M 2 R 2  
R= = 0 ⟹ M1 R1 = -M2 R2 ⟹ MS RS = ME RE
M1 + M 2
12 CM-I-Lec-Jan-22-25-2021.nb
 CM-I-Lec-Jan-22-25-2021.nb 13

Calculations of L4 & L5
14 CM-I-Lec-Jan-22-25-2021.nb
CM-I-Lec-Jan-22-25-2021.nb 15
16 CM-I-Lec-Jan-22-25-2021.nb