EC 25 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

AND
ELECTRON DEVICES


SEM:II Branch: CSE

Staff-in-Charge: M.UMA SORNA RANI






UNIT I CIRCUIT ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
INTRODUCTION
Circuit Definitions
Node any point where 2 or more circuit elements are connected together
Wires usually have negligible resistance
Each node has one voltage (w.r.t. ground)
Branch a circuit element between two nodes
Loop a collection of branches that form a closed path returning to the same node
without going through any other nodes or branches twice
Voltage-current characteristic of ideal resistor:


A Node is a point of connection between two or more circuit elements
Nodes can be spread out by perfect conductors






) ( ) ( t i R t v =
Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL)
The algebraic sum of all currents entering (or leaving) a node is zero
Equivalently: The sum of the currents entering a node equals the sum of the
currents leaving a node
Mathematically:

When applying KCL, the current directions (entering or leaving a node) are based on
the assumed directions of the currents
Also need to decide whether currents entering the node are positive or negative;
this dictates the sign of the currents leaving the node
As long all assumptions are consistent, the final result will reflect the actual
current directions in the circuit
Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
- The algebraic sum of all voltage differences around any closed loop is zero
- Equivalently: The sum of the voltage rises around a closed loop is equal to the sum of the
voltage drops around the loop
- Mathematically:
- Voltage polarities are based on assumed polarities
- If assumptions are consistent, the final results will reflect the actual polarities
- The algebraic sum of voltages around each loop is zero
- Beginning with one node, add voltages across each branch in the loop (if you encounter a
+ sign first) and subtract voltages (if you encounter a sign first)
- voltage drops - voltage rises = 0
- Or voltage drops = voltage rises

=
=
N
k
k
t i
1
0 ) (

=
=
N
k
k
t v
1
0 ) (
NETWORK THEOREMS
This chapter introduces important fundamental theorems of network analysis. They are
the
Superposition theorem
Thvenins theorem
Nortons theorem
Maximum power transfer theorem
Superposition Theorem
Used to find the solution to networks with two or more sources that are not in series or
parallel.
The current through, or voltage across, an element in a network is equal to the algebraic
sum of the currents or voltages produced independently by each source.
Since the effect of each source will be determined independently, the number of
networks to be analyzed will equal the number of sources.
The total power delivered to a resistive element must be determined using the total
current through or the total voltage across the element and cannot be determined by a
simple sum of the power levels established by each source.
Thvenins Theorem
Any two-terminal dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source and a series resistor.


Thvenins theorem can be used to:
Analyze networks with sources that are not in series or parallel.
Reduce the number of components required to establish the same characteristics at the
output terminals.
Investigate the effect of changing a particular component on the behavior of a network
without having to analyze the entire network after each change.
Procedure to determine the proper values of R
Th
and E
Th

Preliminary
Remove that portion of the network across which the Thvenin equation circuit is to be
found. In the figure below, this requires that the load resistor R
L
be temporarily removed
from the network.


Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network. (The importance of this step
will become obvious as we progress through some complex networks.)
R
Th
:
Calculate R
Th
by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced by short
circuits, and current sources by open circuits) and then finding the resultant resistance
between the two marked terminals. (If the internal resistance of the voltage and/or current
sources is included in the original network, it must remain when the sources are set to
zero.)
E
Th
:
Calculate E
Th
by first returning all sources to their original position and finding the open-
circuit voltage between the marked terminals. (This step is invariably the one that will
lead to the most confusion and errors. In all cases, keep in mind that it is the open-circuit
potential between the two terminals marked in step 2.)
Draw the Thvenin equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously removed
replaced between the terminals of the equivalent circuit. This step is indicated by the
placement of the resistor R
L
between the terminals of the Thvenin equivalent circuit.

Nortons Theorem
Nortons theorem states the following:
Any two-terminal linear bilateral dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current and a parallel resistor.
The steps leading to the proper values of I
N
and R
N
.
Preliminary steps:
Remove that portion of the network across which the Norton equivalent circuit is found.
Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network.
Finding R
N
:
Calculate R
N
by first setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are replaced with short
circuits, and current sources with open circuits) and then finding the resultant resistance
between the two marked terminals. (If the internal resistance of the voltage and/or
current sources is included in the original network, it must remain when the sources are
set to zero.) Since R
N
= R
Th
the procedure and value obtained using the approach
described for Thvenins theorem will determine the proper value of R
N
.
Finding I
N
:
Calculate I
N
by first returning all the sources to their original position and then finding
the short-circuit current between the marked terminals. It is the same current that would
be measured by an ammeter placed between the marked terminals.
Conclusion:
Draw the Norton equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously removed
replaced between the terminals of the equivalent circuit.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
For loads connected directly to a dc voltage supply, maximum power will be delivered to
the load when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the source; that is,
when: R
L
= R
int

The maximum power transfer theorem states the following:
A load will receive maximum power from a network when its total resistive value is
exactly equal to the Thvenin resistance of the network applied to the load. That is,
R
L
= R
Th


Series resistors & voltage division
Series: Two or more elements are in series if they are cascaded or connected sequentially
and consequently carry the same current.
The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in a series is the sum of
the individual resistances





Parallel resistors & current division
Parallel: Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes and
consequently have the same voltage across them.
The equivalent resistance of a circuit with N resistors in parallel is:

=
= + + + =
N
n
n N eq
R R R R R
1
2 1
v
2 1
2
2
R R
R
v
+
=
v
2 1
1
1
R R
R
v
+
=
N eq
R R R R
1 1 1 1
2 1
+ + + =
i
R R
R
i
2 1
1
2

+
=
i
R R
R
i
2 1
2
1
+
=
Delta -> Star transformation




Star -> Delta transformation


2
1 3 3 2 2 1
R
R R R R R R
R
b
+ +
=











) (
1
c b a
c b
R R R
R R
R
+ +
=
) (
2
c b a
a c
R R R
R R
R
+ +
=
) (
3
c b a
b a
R R R
R R
R
+ +
=
1
1 3 3 2 2 1
R
R R R R R R
R
a
+ +
=
3
1 3 3 2 2 1
R
R R R R R R
R
c
+ +
=
UNIT II TRANSIENT RESONANCE IN RLC CIRCUITS
INTRODUCTION
The fundamental passive linear circuit elements are the
resistor (R),
capacitor (C)
inductor (L).
These circuit elements can be combined to form an electrical circuit in four distinct ways:
the RC circuit,
the RL circuit,
the LC circuit
the RLC circuit
These circuits exhibit important types of behaviour that are fundamental to analogue
electronics.
RL CIRCUIT
A resistor-inductor circuit (RL circuit), or RL filter or RL network, is one of the simplest
analogue infinite impulse response electronic filters. It consists of a resistor and an inductor,
either in series or in parallel, driven by a voltage source.

The complex impedance Z
L
(in ohms) of an inductor with inductance L (in henries) is

The complex frequency s is a complex number,

where
- j represents the imaginary unit:
j
2
= 1
- is the exponential decay constant (in radians per second), and
- is the angular frequency (in radians per second).
RC circuit
The simplest RC circuit is a capacitor and a resistor in series.
When a circuit composes of only a charged capacitor and a resistor,
then the capacitor would discharge its energy into the resistor.
This voltage across the capacitor over time could be found through KCL, where the
current coming out of the capacitor must equal the current going through the resistor.
This results in the linear differential equation
Natural response
The simplest RC circuit is a capacitor and a resistor in series.
When a circuit composes of only a charged capacitor and a resistor,
then the capacitor would discharge its energy into the resistor.
This voltage across the capacitor over time could be found through KCL,
where the current coming out of the capacitor must equal the current going through the
resistor.
This results in the linear differential equation
RLC circuit
Time dependences
Now we study an AC circuit, where the resistor R, coil L, and capacitor C are in series
connection. The circuit is ideal, because the internal resistances of the coil and the capacitor are
ignored. The connections are given in figure 10-1. The power source gives a periodic voltage, u
= sinet, where the frequency, f = e/2t, can be adjusted.



Figure 10-1. RLC circuit

When the circuit is closed and the system has stabilized, the current is given by (compare with
eqn. U = RI I = U/R)
), sin( ) ( e = t
Z

t i
where
2 2
)
1
(
C
L R Z
e
e =
)
/ 1
arctan(
R
C L e e

= .
The impedance Z and phase difference (between voltage and current) depend on the frequency
of the source voltage. The angle actually tells how much the current i comes after the total
voltage (source voltage) u. The time dependences of i and u are given in figure 10-2, where >
0.




Resonance
The circuit is said to be in resonance, if the impedance is the same as R, i.e. the effects due to the
inductance and the capacitance cancel each other. In the resonance, the power transferred from
the source to the circuit is in maximum. From figure 10-3 is seen that the requirement for
resonance is
eL = 1/eC
From the same figure is seen that = 0 and Z = Z
min
. The current is given by
I = U/Z = U/R= I
max
.

Q factor
. The ratio of the inductance L to the resistance R of a coil remains constant for different winding
arrangements in the same volume and shape. It makes sense to define this value as a figure of
merit to distinguish different coil structures. The quality factor Q is defined by this ratio.
The voltage, which is induced by the same current in an inductor scales with the frequency f and
thus the apparent power in the device. The general definition of the quality factor is based on the
ratio of apparent power to the power losses in a device. From this definition, the quality factor of
a coil results to:

with = 2f
RC and RL Transient Analysis Basics
Transient State:
If a network contains energy storage elements, with change in excitation, the current and
voltages change from one state to another state is called transient state. The behavior of the
voltage or current when it is changed from one state to another state is called transient state.
Transient Time:
The time taken for the circuit to change from one steady state to another steady state is
called the transient time.
Natural response:
If we consider a circuit containing storage elements which are independent of sources, the
response depends upon the nature of the circuit, it is called natural response.
Transient response:
The storage elements deliver their energy to the resistances, hence the response changes
with time, gets saturated after sometime, and is referred to the transient response.
Laplace Transform:
The Laplace transform of any time dependent function f(t) is given by F(s).
Where SA complex frequency given by S= + j

Inverse Laplace Transform:
Inverse Laplace transforms permits going back in the reverse direction i.e. from s domain
to time domain.

Order of a System:
The order of the system is given by the order of the differential equation governing the
system. If the system is governed by n
th
order differential equation, than the system is called n
th
order system.
Q(s) = a
0
s
n
+ a
1
s
n-1
+ a
2
s
n-2
+ ..+a
n-1
s +a
n

the order of the system is equal to n.
Initial Value Theorem
The initial value theorem states that if x (t) and x (t) both are laplace transformable, then

Final Value Theorem
The final value theorem states that if x (t) and x (t) both are laplace transformable, then

Driving Point impedance
The ratio of the Laplace transform of the voltage at the port to the laplace transform of
the current at the same port is called driving point impedance.
Transfer Point impedance
The ratio of the voltage transform at one port to the current transform at the other port is
called transfer point impedance.
Resonant Circuit
- The circuit that treat a narrow range of frequencies very differently than all other
frequencies are referred to as resonant circuit.
- The gain of a highly resonant circuit attains a sharp maximum or minimum at its resonant
frequency.
Resonance
Resonance is defined as a phenomenon in which applied voltage and resulting current are
in phase.
Bandwidth
The Bandwidth is defined as the frequency difference between upper cut-off frequency
(f
2
) and lower cut-off frequency (f
1
).
Half Power frequencies
The upper and lower cut-off frequencies are called the half-power frequencies. At these
frequencies the power from the source is half of the power delivered at the resonant frequency.
Selectivity
Selectivity is defined as the ratio of bandwidth to the resonant frequency of resonant
circuit.
Q factor
The quality factor, Q, is the ratio of the reactive power in the inductor or capacitor to the
true power in the resistance in series with the coil or capacitor.
Series Resonance in RLC circuit
- In series RLC circuit resonance may be produced by either varying frequency for given
constant values of L and C or varying either L and C or both for a given frequency.
- At resonance inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive reactance.
- If f < f
0
the current I leads the resultant supply voltage V and so the circuit behaves as a
capacitive circuit at the frequencies which are less than f
0
.
- At f = f
0
, the voltage and current are in phase. The circuit behaves as pure resistive circuit
at the resonant frequency with unit power factor.
- If f > f
0
, the current I lags the resultant supply voltage V and so the circuit behaves as an
inductive circuit at the frequencies which are more than f
0
.
- At resonance series RLC circuit acts as a voltage amplifier.
- Series resonance circuit is always driven by a voltage source with very small internal
resistance to maintain high selectivity of the circuit.
Parallel Resonance
- A parallel circuit is said to be in resonance when applied voltage and resulting current are
in phase that gives unity power factor condition.
- Parallel resonance is also known as Anti resonance.
- At anti resonance the parallel resonant circuit acts as current amplifier.

Reactance curves
The graph of individual reactance versus the frequency is called Reactance Curve.
Types of Tuned circuits
Single tuned circuit
Double tuned circuit
Single tuned circuit
In RF circuit design, tuned circuits are generally employed for obtaining maximum
power transfer to the load connected to secondary or for obtaining maximum possible value of
secondary voltage.
A single tuned circuit is used for coupling an amplifier and radio receiver circuits.
Double tuned circuit
- In double tuned circuits, a variable capacitor is used at input as well as output side.
- With the help of adjustable capacitive reactance, impedance matching is possible if the
coupling is critical, sufficient or above.
- It is also possible to adjust phase angle such that impedance at generator side becomes
resistive.
- The magnitude matching can be achieved by adjusting mutual inductance to the critical
value, which effectively fulfills maximum power transfer condition.












UNIT III SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

Review of intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductor
An intrinsic semiconductor is one, which is pure enough that impurities do
not appreciably affect its electrical behavior. In this case, all carriers are created due to thermally
or optically excited electrons from the full valence band into the empty conduction band. Thus
equal numbers of electrons and holes are present in an intrinsic semiconductor. Electrons and
holes flow in opposite directions in an electric field, though they contribute to current in the
same direction since they are oppositely charged. Hole current and electron current are not
necessarily equal in an intrinsic semiconductor, however, because electrons and holes have
different effective masses (crystalline analogues to free inertial masses).
The concentration of carriers is strongly dependent on the temperature. At low
temperatures, the valence band is completely full making the material an insulator. Increasing the
temperature leads to an increase in the number of carriers and a corresponding increase in
conductivity. This characteristic shown by intrinsic semiconductor is different from the behavior
of most metals, which tend to become less conductive at higher temperatures due to increased
phonon scattering.
Both silicon and germanium are tetravalent, i.e. each has four electrons (valence
electrons) in their outermost shell. Both elements crystallize with a diamond-like structure, i.e. in
such a way that each atom in the crystal is inside a tetrahedron formed by the four atoms which
are closest to it. Each atom shares its four valence electrons with its four immediate
neighbours, so that each atom is involved in four covalent bonds.



Extrinsic semiconductor
An extrinsic semiconductor is one that has been doped with impurities to modify the
number and type of free charge carriers. An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor that has
been doped, that is, into which a doping agent has been introduced, giving it different electrical
properties than the intrinsic (pure) semiconductor.
Doping involves adding dopant atoms to an intrinsic semiconductor, which changes the
electron and hole carrier concentrations of the semiconductor at thermal equilibrium. Dominant
carrier concentrations in an extrinsic semiconductor classify it as either an n-type or p-type
semiconductor. The electrical properties of extrinsic semiconductors make them essential
components of many electronic devices.
A pure or intrinsic conductor has thermally generated holes and electrons. However
these are relatively few in number. An enormous increase in the number of charge carriers can
by achieved by introducing impurities into the semiconductor in a controlled manner. The result
is the formation of an extrinsic semiconductor. This process is referred to as doping. There are
basically two types of impurities: donor impurities and acceptor impurities. Donor impurities are
made up of atoms (arsenic for example) which have five valence electrons. Acceptor impurities
are made up of atoms (gallium for example) which have three valence electrons.
The two types of extrinsic semiconductor
N-type semiconductors
Extrinsic semiconductors with a larger electron concentration than hole concentration
are known as n-type semiconductors. The phrase 'n-type' comes from the negative charge of the
electron. In n-type semiconductors, electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority
carriers. N-type semiconductors are created by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with donor
impurities. In an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi energy level is greater than that of the intrinsic
semiconductor and lies closer to the conduction band than the valence band.
Arsenic has 5 valence electrons, however, only 4 of them form part of covalent
bonds. The 5
th
electron is then free to take part in conduction. The electrons are said to be the
majority carriers and the holes are said to be the minority carriers.
P-type semiconductors
As opposed to n-type semiconductors, p-type semiconductors have a larger hole
concentration than electron concentration. The phrase 'p-type' refers to the positive charge of the
hole. In p-type semiconductors, holes are the majority carriers and electrons are the minority
carriers. P-type semiconductors are created by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with acceptor
impurities. P-type semiconductors have Fermi energy levels below the intrinsic Fermi energy
level. The Fermi energy level lies closer to the valence band than the conduction band in a p-type
semiconductor.
Gallium has 3 valence electrons, however, there are 4 covalent bonds to fill. The 4
th

bond therefore remains vacant producing a hole. The holes are said to be the majority carriers
and the electrons are said to be the minority carriers
Theory of PN junction diode
On its own a p-type or n-type semiconductor is not very useful. However when combined very
useful devices can be made. The p-n junction can be formed by allowing a p-type material to
diffuse into a n-type region at high temperatures.
The p-n junction has led to many inventions like the diode, transistors and integrated circuits.




Free electrons on the n-side and free holes on the p-side can initially diffuse across the
junction. Uncovered charges are left in the neighbourhood of the junction. This region is
depleted of mobile carriers and is called the DEPLETION REGION (thickness 0.5 1.0 m).
The diffusion of electrons and holes stop due to the barrier potential difference (p.d across the
junction) reaching some critical value. The barrier potential difference (or the contact potential)
depends on the type of semiconductor, temperature and doping densities.
At room temperature, typical values of barrier p.d. are:
Ge ~ 0.2 0.4 V
Si ~ 0.6 0.8 V
FORWARD BIAS P-N JUNCTION
When an external voltage is applied to the P-N junction making the P side positive with
respect to the N side the diode is said to be forward biased (F.B). The barrier p.d. is decreased
by the external applied voltage. The depletion band narrows which urges majority carriers to
flow across the junction. A F.B. diode has a very low resistance.
REVERSE BIAS P-N JUNCTION
When an external voltage is applied to the PN junction making the P side negative with
respect to the N side the diode is said to be Reverse Biased (R.B.). The barrier p.d. increases.
The depletion band widens preventing the movement of majority carriers across the junction.
A R.B. diode has a very high resistance.
REVERSE BIAS P-N JUNCTION
Only thermally generated minority carriers are urged across the p-n junction. Therefore the
magnitude of the reverse saturation current (or reverse leakage current) depends on the
temperature of the semiconductor.
When the PN junction is reversed biased the width of the depletion layer increases, however
if the reverse voltage gets too large a phenomenon known as diode breakdown occurs.
I-V CHARACTERISTICS



I-V CHARACTERISTICS
When the diode is F.B., the current increases exponentially with voltage except for a small
range close to the origin.
When the diode is R.B., the reverse current is constant and independent of the applied reverse
bias.
Turn-on or cut-in (threshold) voltage V: for a F.B. diode it is the voltage when the current
increases appreciably from zero.
It is roughly equal to the barrier p.d.:
For Ge, V ~ 0.2 0.4 V (at room temp.)
For Si, V ~ 0.6 0.8 V (at room temp.)
Energy Band structure
The highest electronic energy band in a semiconductor or insulator which can be filled with
electrons. The electrons in the valence band correspond to the valence electrons of the
constituent atoms. In a semiconductor or insulator, at sufficiently low temperatures, the valence
band is completely filled and the conduction band is empty of electrons. Some of the high energy
levels in the valence band may become vacant as a result of thermal excitation of electrons to
higher energy bands or as a result of the presence of impurities. The net effect of the valence
band is then equivalent to that of a few particles which are equal in number and similar in motion
to the missing electrons but each of which carries a positive electronic charge. These particles
are referred to as holes.



In solids, the valence band is the highest range of electron energies in which electrons are
normally present at absolute zero temperature.The valence electrons are bound to individual
atoms, as opposed to conduction electrons (found in conductors and semiconductors), which can
move freely within the atomic lattice of the material. On a graph of the electronic band structure
of a material, the valence band is located below the conduction band, separated from it in
insulators and semiconductors by a band gap. In metals, the conduction band has no energy gap
separating it from the valence band.




Energy-band diagram of pn junction in thermal equilibrium in which both the n and p region are
degenerately doped.



Zener diode
A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward direction
like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown
voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The device was named after Clarence
Zener, who discovered this electrical property.
A conventional solid-state diode will not allow significant current if it is reverse-biased
below its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a
conventional diode is subject to high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is
limited by circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged due to overheating. In case of large
forward bias (current in the direction of the arrow), the diode exhibits a voltage drop due to its
junction built-in voltage and internal resistance. The amount of the voltage drop depends on the
semiconductor material and the doping concentrations.
A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially
designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. By
contrast with the conventional device, a reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled
breakdown and allow the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode close to the Zener
voltage. For example, a diode with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage
drop of very nearly 3.2 V across a wide range of reverse currents. The Zener diode is therefore
ideal for applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifier stage),
or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications.
Zener diode characteristics
A zener diode is much like a normal diode, the exception being is that it is placed in the
circuit in reverse bias and operates in reverse breakdown. This typical characteristic curve
illustrates the operating range for a zener. Note that its forward characteristics are just like a
normal diode.

The zener diodes breakdown characteristics are determined by the doping
process. Low voltage zeners (>5V), operate in the zener breakdown range. Those designed to
operate <5 V operate mostly in avalanche breakdown range. Zeners are available with voltage
breakdowns of 1.8 V to 200 V.

Note very small reverse current (before knee).
Breakdown occurs @ knee.
Breakdown Characteristics:
V
Z
remains near constant
V
Z
provides:
-Reference voltage
-Voltage regulation
I
Z
escalates rapidly
I
ZMAX
is achieved quickly
Exceeding I
ZMAX
is fatal
Zener Diodes Equivalent Circuit
Ideal Zener exhibits a constant voltage, regardless of current draw.
Ideal Zener exhibits no resistance characteristics.

Zener exhibits a near constant voltage, varied by current draw through the series
resistance Z
Z
.
As Iz increases, Vz also increases.
Zener Diodes Characteristic Curve
AVz results from AIz.
AIz thru Zz produce this.

Zener diodes have given characteristics such as;
Temperature coefficients describes the % AVz for ATemp (
0
C)
AVz = Vz x T
0C
x AT %/
o
C
Power ratings the zener incurs power dissipation based on Iz and Zz P = I
2
Z
Power derating factor specifies the reduced power rating for device operating temperatures in
excess of the rated maximum temperature.
P
D(derated)
= P
D(max)
(mW/
0
C)AT mW












UNIT IV TRANSISTORS

TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS:
The basic of electronic system nowadays is semiconductor device.
The famous and commonly use of this device is BJTs
(Bipolar Junction Transistors).
It can be use as amplifier and logic switches.
BJT consists of three terminal:
collector : C
base : B
emitter : E
Two types of BJT : pnp and npn
Transistor Construction
3 layer semiconductor device consisting:
2 n- and 1 p-type layers of material npn transistor
2 p- and 1 n-type layers of material pnp transistor
The term bipolar reflects the fact that holes and electrons participate in the injection
process into the oppositely polarized material
A single pn junction has two different types of bias:
forward bias
reverse bias
Thus, a two-pn-junction device has four types of bias.



Position of the terminals and symbol of BJT.
Base is located at the middle and more thin from the level of collector
and emitter
The emitter and collector terminals are made of the same type of
semiconductor material, while the base of the other type of material

Transistor currents

- The arrow is always drawn on the emitter The arrow always point
toward the n-type
- The arrow indicates the direction of the emitter current:
pnp:E B
npn: B E
I
C
=the collector current
I
B
= the base current
I
E
= the emitter current
Transistor Operation
The basic operation will be described using the pnp transistor. The operation of the pnp
transistor is exactly the same if the roles played by the electron and hole are interchanged.
One p-n junction of a transistor is reverse-biased, whereas the other is forward-biased



Forward-biased junction Reverse-biased junction of a pnp transistor
of a pnp transistor


Both biasing potentials have been applied to a pnp transistor and resulting majority and
minority carrier flows indicated.
Majority carriers (+) will diffuse across the forward-biased p-n junction into the n-type
material.
A very small number of carriers (+) will through n-type material to the base terminal.
Resulting IB is typically in order of microamperes.
The large number of majority carriers will diffuse across the reverse-biased junction into
the p-type material connected to the collector terminal.
Majority carriers can cross the reverse-biased junction because the injected majority
carriers will appear as minority carriers in the n-type material.
Applying KCL to the transistor :
I
E
= I
C
+ I
B

The comprises of two components the majority and minority carriers
I
C
= I
Cmajority
+ I
COminority

I
CO
I
C
current with emitter terminal open and is called leakage current.
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION
Common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the :
- base is common to both input and output of the configuration.
- base is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential.
All current directions will refer to conventional (hole) flow and the arrows in all
electronic symbols have a direction defined by this convention.
Note that the applied biasing (voltage sources) are such as to establish current in the
direction indicated for each branch.

To describe the behavior of common-base amplifiers requires two set of characteristics:
- Input or driving point characteristics.
- Output or collector characteristics
The output characteristics has 3 basic regions:
- Active region defined by the biasing arrangements
- Cutoff region region where the collector current is 0A
- Saturation region- region of the characteristics to the left of V
CB
= 0V



The curves (output characteristics) clearly indicate that a first approximation to the
relationship between IE and IC in the active region is given by
I
C
IE
Once a transistor is in the on state, the base-emitter voltage will be assumed to be
V
BE
= 0.7V
In the dc mode the level of I
C
and I
E
due to the majority carriers are related by a quantity
called alpha
o=
I
C
= oI
E
+ I
CBO

E
C
I
I
It can then be summarize to I
C
= oI
E
(ignore I
CBO
due to small value)
For ac situations where the point of operation moves on the characteristics curve, an ac
alpha defined by

Alpha a common base current gain factor that shows the efficiency by calculating the
current percent from current flow from emitter to collector.The value of o is typical from
0.9 ~ 0.998.

COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION
It is called common-emitter configuration since :
- emitter is common or reference to both input and output terminals.
- emitter is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential.
Almost amplifier design is using connection of CE due to the high gain for current and
voltage.
Two set of characteristics are necessary to describe the behavior for CE ;input (base
terminal) and output (collector terminal) parameters.




E
C
I
I
A
A
=
o
Input characteristics for a common-emitter NPN transistor

Output characteristics for a common-emitter npn transistor

For small V
CE
(V
CE
< V
CESAT
, I
C
increase linearly with increasing of V
CE

V
CE
> V
CESAT
I
C
not totally depends on V
CE
constant I
C

I
B
(uA) is very small compare to I
C
(mA). Small increase in I
B
cause big increase in I
C

I
B
=0 A I
CEO
occur.
Noticing the value when I
C
=0A. There is still some value of current flows.
COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION
Also called emitter-follower (EF).
It is called common-emitter configuration since both the
signal source and the load share the collector terminal as a common connection point.
The output voltage is obtained at emitter terminal.
The input characteristic of common-collector configuration is similar with common-
emitter. configuration.
Common-collector circuit configuration is provided with the load resistor connected from
emitter to ground.
It is used primarily for impedance-matching purpose since it has high input impedance
and low output impedance.

Notation and symbols used with the common-collector configuration:
(a) pnp transistor ; (b) npn transistor

For the common-collector configuration, the output characteristics are a plot of I
E
vs V
CE
for a
range of values of I
B
.



Limits of Operation
Many BJT transistor used as an amplifier. Thus it is
important to notice the limits of operations.
At least 3 maximum values is mentioned in data sheet.
There are:
a) Maximum power dissipation at collector: P
Cmax
or P
D

b) Maximum collector-emitter voltage: V
CEmax
sometimes named as V
BR(CEO
) or V
CEO
.
c) Maximum collector current: ICmax
There are few rules that need to be followed for BJT
transistor used as an amplifier. The rules are:
i) transistor need to be operate in active region!
ii) I
C
< I
Cmax

ii) P
C
< P
Cmax
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FET)
Field effect devices are those in which current is controlled by the action of an electron
field, rather than carrier injection.
Field-effect transistors are so named because a weak electrical signal coming in through
one electrode creates an electrical field through the rest of the transistor.
The FET was known as a unipolar transistor.
The term refers to the fact that current is transported by carriers of one polarity
(majority), whereas in the conventional bipolar transistor carriers of both polarities
(majority and minority) are involved.
The family of FET devices may be divided into :
Junction FET
Depletion Mode MOSFET
Enhancement Mode MOSFET

Junction FETs (JFETs

JFETs consists of a piece of high-resistivity semiconductor material (usually Si) which
constitutes a channel for the majority carrier flow.
Conducting semiconductor channel between two ohmic contacts source & drain

JFET is a high-input resistance device, while the BJT is comparatively low.
If the channel is doped with a donor impurity, n-type material is formed and the channel
current will consist of electrons.
If the channel is doped with an acceptor impurity, p-type material will be formed and the
channel current will consist of holes.
N-channel devices have greater conductivity than p-channel types, since electrons have higher
mobility than do holes; thus n-channel JFETs are approximately twice as efficient conductors
compared to their p-channel counterparts
The magnitude of this current is controlled by a voltage applied to a gate, which is a
reverse-biased.
The fundamental difference between JFET and BJT devices: when the JFET junction is
reverse-biased the gate current is practically zero, whereas the base current of the BJT is
always some value greater than zero.
Basic structure of JFETs
In addition to the channel, a JFET contains two ohmic contacts: the source and the drain.
The JFET will conduct current equally well in either direction and the source and drain
leads are usually interchangeable.
N-channel JFET
This transistor is made by forming a channel of N-type material in a P-type substrate.
Three wires are then connected to the device.
One at each end of the channel.
One connected to the substrate.
In a sense, the device is a bit like a PN-junction diode, except that there are two wires
connected to the N-type side
The gate is connected to the source.
Since the pn junction is reverse-biased, little current will flow in the gate connection.
The potential gradient established will form a depletion layer, where almost all the
electrons present in the n-type channel will be swept away.
The most depleted portion is in the high field between the G and the D, and the least-depleted
area is between the G and the S.




Because the flow of current along the channel from the (+ve) drain to the (-ve) source is
really a flow of free electrons from S to D in the n-type Si, the magnitude of this current
will fall as more Si becomes depleted of free electrons.
There is a limit to the drain current (I
D
) which increased V
DS
can drive through the
channel.
This limiting current is known as I
DSS
(Drain-to-Source current with the gate shorted to
the source).

The output characteristics of an n-channel JFET with the gate short-circuited to the
source.
The initial rise in I
D
is related to the buildup of the depletion layer as V
DS
increases.
The curve approaches the level of the limiting current I
DSS
when I
D
begins to be pinched
off.
The physical meaning of this term leads to one definition of pinch-off voltage, V
P
, which
is the value of V
DS
at which the maximum I
DSS
flows.
With a steady gate-source voltage of 1 V there is always 1 V across the wall of the
channel at the source end.
A drain-source voltage of 1 V means that there will be 2 V across the wall at the drain
end. (The drain is up 1V from the source potential and the gate is 1V down, hence the
total difference is 2V.)
The higher voltage difference at the drain end means that the electron channel is squeezed
down a bit more at this end.
When the drain-source voltage is increased to 10V the voltage across the channel walls at
the drain end increases to 11V, but remains just 1V at the source end.
The field across the walls near the drain end is now a lot larger than at the source end.
As a result the channel near the drain is squeezed down quite a lot.
Increasing the source-drain voltage to 20V squeezes down this end of the channel still
more.
As we increase this voltage we increase the electric field which drives electrons along the
open part of the channel.
However, also squeezes down the channel near the drain end.
This reduction in the open channel width makes it harder for electrons to pass.
As a result the drain-source current tends to remain constant when we increase the drain-
source voltage.

Increasing V
DS
increases the widths of depletion layers, which penetrate more into
channel and hence result in more channel narrowing toward the drain.
The resistance of the n-channel, R
AB
therefore increases with V
DS
.
The drain current: I
DS
= V
DS
/R
AB

I
D
versus V
DS
exhibits a sub linear behavior, see figure for V
DS
< 5V.
The pinch-off voltage, V
P
is the magnitude of reverse bias needed across the p
+
n junction
to make them just touch at the drain end.
Since actual bias voltage across p
+
n junction at drain end is V
GD
, the pinch-off occur
whenever: V
GD
= -V
P
.



JFET: I-V characteristics


MOSFETs and Their Characteristics
The metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistor has a gate, source, and drain just
like the JFET.
The drain current in a MOSFET is controlled by the gate-source voltage V
GS
.
There are two basic types of MOSFETS: the enhancement-type and the depletion-type.
The enhancement-type MOSFET is usually referred to as an E-MOSFET, and the
depletion-type, a D-MOSFET.
The MOSFET is also referred to as an IGFET because the gate is insulated from the channel



n-channel, enhancement-type MOSFET
The p-type substrate makes contact with the SiO2 insulator.
Because of this, there is no channel for conduction between the drain and source terminals.










Unit V SPECIAL SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
Tunnel diode( Esaki Diode)
It was introduced by Leo Esaki in 1958.
Heavily-doped p-n junction
Impurity concentration is 1 part in 10^3 as compared to 1 part in 10^8 in p-n
junction diode
Width of the depletion layer is very small
(about 100 A).
It is generally made up of Ge and GaAs.
It shows tunneling phenomenon.
Circuit symbol of tunnel diode is :

Tunnelling Effect
Classically, carrier must have energy at least equal to potential-barrier height to cross the
junction .
But according to Quantum mechanics there is finite probability that it can penetrate
through the barrier for a thin width.
This phenomenon is called tunneling and hence the Esaki Diode is known as Tunnel
Diode.







CHARACTERISTIC OF TUNNEL DIODE
Ip:- Peak Current
Iv :- Valley Current
Vp:- Peak Voltage
Vv:- Valley Voltage
Vf:- Peak Forward Voltage
ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM
Energy-band diagram of pn junction in thermal equilibrium in which both the n and p region are
degenerately doped


AT ZERO BIAS
Simplified energy-band diagram and I-V characteristics of the tunnel diode at zero bias.


- Zero current on the I-V diagram;
- All energy states are filled below E
F
on both sides of the junction;
AT SMALL FORWARD VOLTAGE
Simplified energy-band diagram and I-V characteristics of the tunnel diode at a slight
forward bias

- Electrons in the conduction band of the n region are directly opposite to the empty states
in the valence band of the p region.
So a finite probability that some electrons tunnel directly into the empty states resulting in
forward-bias tunneling current.





AT MAXIMUM TUNNELING CURENT
Simplified energy-band diagraam and I-V characteristics of the tunnel diode at a forward bias
producing maximum tunneling current.


- The maximum number of electrons in the n region are opposite to the maximum number
of empty states in the p region.
- Hence tunneling current is maximum.
TUNNEL DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
This is the equivalent circuit of tunnel diode when biased in negative resistance region.
At higher frequencies the series R and L can be ignored.
Hence equivalent circuit can be reduced to parallel combination of junction capacitance
and negative resistance.
VARACTOR DIODE
A varactor diode is best explained as a variable capacitor. Think of the depletion region as a
variable dielectric. The diode is placed in reverse bias. The dielectric is adjusted by reverse
bias voltage changes.
Junction capacitance is present in all reverse biased diodes because of the depletion
region.
Junction capacitance is optimized in a varactor diode and is used for high frequencies and
switching applications.
Varactor diodes are often used for electronic tuning applications in FM radios and
televisions.
They are also called voltage-variable capacitance diodes.
A Junction diode which acts as a variable capacitor under changing reverse
bias is known as VARACTOR DIODE
A varactor diode is specially constructed to have high resistance under reverse
bias. Capacitance for varactor diode are Pico farad. (10-12 ) range
CT = A / Wd
CT =Total Capacitance of the junction
= Permittivity of the semiconductor material
A = Cross sectional area of the junction
WD= Width of the depletion layer
Curve between Reverse bias voltage Vr across varactor diode and total junction capacitance
Ct and Ct can be changed by changing Vr.



Application for Varactor diode
Use of varactor diode in a tuned circuit. Capacitance of the varactor in parallel with the
inductor.(LC circuit)
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

Three terminals
anode - P-layer
cathode - N-layer (opposite end)
gate - P-layer near the cathode
Three junctions - four layers
Connect power such that the anode is positive with respect to the cathode - no current will flow
A silicon controlled rectifier is a semiconductor device that acts as a true electronic
switch. it can change alternating current and at the same time can control the amount of power
fed to the load. SCR combines the features of a rectifier and a transistor.
CONSTRUCTION
When a pn junction is added to a junction transistor the resulting three pn junction device
is called a SCR. ordinary rectifier (pn) and a junction transistor (npn) combined in one unit to
form pnpn device. three terminals are taken : one from the outer p- type material called anode a
second from the outer n- type material called cathode K and the third from the base of transistor
called Gate. GSCR is a solid state equivalent of thyratron. the gate anode and cathode of SCR
correspond to the grid plate and cathode of thyratron SCR is called thyristor



WORKING PRINCIPLE
Load is connected in series with anode the anode is always kept at positive potential w.r.t
cathode.
WHEN GATE IS OPEN


No voltage applied to the gate, j2 is reverse biased while j1 and j3 are FB . J1 and J3 is
just in npn transistor with base open .no current flows through the load RL and SCR is cut off. if
the applied voltage is gradually increased a stage is reached when RB junction J2 breakdown .the
SCR now conducts heavily and is said to be ON state. the applied voltage at which SCR
conducts heavily without gate voltage is called Break over Voltage.




WHEN GATE IS POSITIVE W.R.T CATHODE.


The SCR can be made to conduct heavily at smaller applied voltage by applying small
positive potential to the gate.J3 is FB and J2 is RB the electron from n type material start moving
across J3 towards left holes from p type toward right. electrons from j3 are attracted across
junction J2 and gate current starts flowing. as soon as gate current flows anode current increases.
the increased anode current in turn makes more electrons available at J2 breakdown and SCR
starts conducting heavily. the gate looses all control if the gate voltage is removed anode current
does not decrease at all. The only way to stop conduction is to reduce the applied voltage to zero.
BREAKOVER VOLTAGE
It is the minimum forward voltage gate being open at which SCR starts conducting
heavily i.e turned on
PEAK REVERSE VOLTAGE( PRV)
It is the maximum reverse voltage applied to an SCR without conducting in the reverse
direction
HOLDING CURRENT
It is the maximum anode current gate being open at which SCR is turned off from on
conditions.
FORWARD CURRENT RATING
It is the maximum anode current that an SCR is capable of passing without destruction
CIRCUIT FUSING RATING
It is the product of of square of forward surge current and the time of duration of the
surge
VI CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR


FORWARD CHARCTERISTICS
When anode is +ve w.r.t cathode the curve between V & I is called Forward
characteristics. OABC is the forward characteristics of the SCR at Ig =0. if the supplied voltage
is increased from zero point A is reached .SCR starts conducting voltage across SCR suddenly
drops (dotted curve AB) most of supply voltage appears across RL
REVERSE CHARCTERISTICS
When anode is ve w.r.t.cathode the curve b/w V&I is known as reverse characteristics
reverse voltage come across SCR when it is operated with ac supply reverse voltage is increased
anode current remains small avalanche breakdown occurs and SCR starts conducting heavily is
known as reverse breakdown voltage
SCR as a switch
SCR Half and Full wave rectifier
Application
SCR as a static contactor
SCR for power control
SCR for speed control of d.c.shunt motor
Over light detector


UJT unijunction transistor (UJT)
A unijunction transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device that has only one junction.
The UJT has three terminals: an emitter (E) and two bases (B1 and B2). The base is formed by
lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic contacts B1 and B2 are attached at its ends. The
emitter is of p-type and it is heavily doped. The resistance between B1 and B2, when the emitter
is open-circuit is called interbase resistance.
There are two types of unijunction transistor:
- The original unijunction transistor, or UJT, is a simple device that is essentially a bar of
N type semiconductor material into which P type material has been diffused somewhere
along its length, defining the device parameter . The 2N2646 is the most commonly
used version of the UJT.The programmable unijunction transistor, or PUT, is a close
cousin to the thyristor. Like the thyristor it consists of four P-N layers and has an anode
and a cathode connected to the first and the last layer, and a gate connected to one of the
inner layers. They are not directly interchangeable with conventional UJTs but perform a
similar function. The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This
causes a potential drop along the length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven
approximately one diode voltage above the voltage at the point where the P diffusion
(emitter) is, current will begin to flow from the emitter into the base region. Because the
base region is very lightly doped, the additional current (actually charges in the base
region) causes conductivity modulation which reduces the resistance of the portion of the
base between the emitter junction and the B2 terminal. This reduction in resistance means
that the emitter junction is more forward biased, and so even more current is injected.
Overall, the effect is a negative resistance at the emitter terminal. This is what makes the
UJT useful, especially in simple oscillator circuits.


Unijunction transistor circuits were popular in hobbyist electronics circuits in the 1970s
and early 1980s because they allowed simple oscillators to be built using just one active device.
Later, as integrated circuits became more popular, oscillators such as the 555 timer IC became
more commonly used.
In addition to its use as the active device in relaxation oscillators, one of the most important
applications of UJTs or PUTs is to trigger thyristors (SCR, TRIAC, etc.). In fact, a DC voltage
can be used to control a UJT or PUT circuit such that the "on-period" increases with an increase
in the DC control voltage. This application is important for large AC current control.






DIAC Diode A.C. switch
A Diac is two terminal , three layer bi directional device which can be switched from its
off state for either polarity of applied voltage.


Construction:
The diac can be constructed in either npn or pnp form.The two leads are connected to p-
regions of silicon separated by an n region. the structure of diac is similar to that of a transistor
differences are
There is no terminal attached to the base layer
The three regions are nearly identical in size. the doping concentrations are identical to
give the device symmetrical properties.
Operation
When a positive or negative voltage is applied across the terminals of Diac only a small
leakage current Ibo will flow through the device as the applied voltage is increased , the leakage
current will continue to flow until the voltage reaches breakover voltage Vbo at this point
avalanche breakdown of the reverse biased junction occurs and the device exhibits negative
resistance i.e current through the device increases with the decreasing values of applied voltage
the voltage across the device then drops to breakback voltage Vw



V- I CHARECTERISTICS OF A DIAC



For applied positive voltage less than + Vbo and Negative voltage less than -Vbo , a
small leakage current flows thrugh the device. Under such conditions the diac blocks flow of
current and behaves as an open circuit. the voltage +Vbo and -Vbo are the breakdown voltages
and usually have range of 30 to 50 volts.
When the positive or negative applied voltage is equal to or greater than tha breakdown
voltage Diac begins to conduct and voltage drop across it becomes a few volts conduction then
continues until the device current drops below its holding current breakover voltage and holding
current values are identical for the forward and reverse regions of operation.
Diacs are used for triggering of triacs in adjustable phase control of a c mains power.
Applications are light dimming heat control universal motor speed control
TRIAC
Triacs are three terminal devices that are used to switch large a.c. currents with a small trigger
signal. Triacs are commonly used in dimmer switches, motor speed control circuits and
equipment that automatically controls mains powered equipment including remote control. The
triac has many advantages over a relay, which could also be used to control mains equipment;
the triac is cheap, it has no moving parts making it reliable and it operates very quickly.

The three terminals on a triac are called Main Terminal 1
(MT1), Main Terminal 2 (MT2) and Gate (G). To turn on
the triac there needs to be a small current I
GT
flowing through
the gate, this current will only flow when the voltage between
G and MT1 is at least V
GT
. The signal that turns on the triac is
called the trigger signal. Once the triac is turned on it will stay
on even if there is no gate current until the current flowing
between MT2 and MT1 fall below the hold current I
H
.
The triac is always turned fully on or fully off. When the triac is on there is virtually no pd
between MT2 and MT1 so the power dissipated in the triac is low so it does not get hot or waste
electrical power. When the triac is off no current flows between MT2 and MT1 so the power
dissipated in the triac is low so it does not get hot or waste electrical power. This means that
triacs can be small and are very efficient.

Triacs can be used in d.c. circuits in which case when
the triac is triggered it will stay on until power is
removed from the triac. It is easy to calculate the value
of gate resistor needed to turn on a triac using the gate
characteristics and ohms law. The maximum value of
resistor can be found from the voltage across the
resistor (V
S
- V
GT
) divided by the gate current I
GT
. So,
R = (V
S
- V
GT
)/ I
GT


In a.c. circuits the triac needs to be repeatedly triggered because the triac turns off when the a.c.
current goes from positive to negative or negative to positive as the current become momentarily
zero. The triac is used in mains circuits to control the
amount of power by only turning the triac on for part
of the wave a bit like in pulse width modulation. This
can be done by varying the value of the gate resistor
so that the triac does not turn on until the a.c signal
reaches a particular voltage. The problem with this
first dimmer is that there is a very high voltage across
the variable resistor and it will get hot as there is a lot
of power to dissipate (P=V
2
/R).
To get round the problem of needing a high power components the variable resistor is usually
connected between MT2 and G so current will only flow through the resistor to trigger the
triac(fig 4), once the triac is on the voltage at MT2 falls to zero so no current flows through the



MT2
MT1
G
V
S

0v
R
resistor. The other problem with these circuits is that the minimum power is half the maximum
this is because the highest voltage, which will give the latest trigger point, occurs half way
through each half wave. Using a capacitor can solve this problem, the resistor is adjusted so that
the charging time allows the trigger to happen at any point in the half cycle (fig 5).






PHOTO DIODE
A photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into either current or
voltage, depending upon the mode of operation.
[1]
The common, traditional solar cell used to
generate electric solar power is a large area photodiode.
Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either
exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber connection
to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for use specifically
as a photodiode will also use a PIN junction rather than the typical PN junction.
A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy
strikes the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a free electron and a (positively charged
electron hole). If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length
away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field of the depletion
region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent
is produced.
P-N PHOTODIODE:
The simple p-n diode is illustrated in fig (3-1). The diode junction is reverse-biased, causing
mobile holes (electrons) from the p (n) region toward the n (p) region leaves behind the
immobile negative acceptor ions (positive donor ions), which, in turn, establish an electric field
distribution in the vicinity of the junction called depletion region, as shown in fig (3-1-b).
Because there are no free charges, the resistance in this region is high, so that the voltage drop
across the diode mostly occurs across the junction. When an incident photon is absorbed in the
depletion region after passing through the p-layer, it raises an electron from the valance to the
conduction band the electron is now free to move, and a hole is left in the a valance band. In this

Figure 4
Figure 5
way, free charge carrier pairs, commonly called photocurrents, are created by photon absorption.
These moving carriers then cause current flow through the external circuit.


fig(3-1) (a) p-n diode . (b) Electric field distribution across the diode


In order to generate the electron-hole pair, the incident photon must have energy larger than
that of the band gap E
g
between the valance and the conduction bands, that is, h w
0
> E
g
. In
terms of the cutoff wavelength
c
, we have

c
= 1.24 / E
g

With E
g
measured in electron volts, the cutoff wavelength is about 1.06m for silicon and 1.6
m for germanium, where their band-gap energies are 1.1 and .67 eV, respectively. Just as in
the case of the external photoelectric effect, not all wavelengths lower than c can generate
photocarrier, as the absorption of photons in the p and n regions is increased at the shorter
wavelengths. After photocarrier are generated in the p and n region, most of the free carriers
will diffused randomly through the diode and recombine before reaching the depletion
junction. The quantum efficiency for the semiconductor junction diode can then be defined
as the number of electron-hole pairs per incident photon.
Two main factors limit the response time of a photodiode:
1-the transit time of the photocarriers through the depletion region
2-the diffusion time of photocarriers (generated in the depletion region) through the diffusion
region.
Carrier diffusion is inherently a slow process. In order to have a high-speed photodiode, the
carriers should be generated in the depletion region in the high field intensity area or close to it
so that the diffusion times are less than the carrier transit times. This can be accomplished by
increasing the bias voltage, but practical constraints limits the applied bias voltage.
Photovoltaic mode
When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of photocurrent out of the device is
restricted and a voltage builds up. This mode exploits the photovoltaic effect, which is the basis
for solar cells in fact, a traditional solar cell is just a large area photodiode.
Photoconductive mode
In this mode the diode is often reverse biased, dramatically reducing the response time at the
expense of increased noise. This increases the width of the depletion layer, which decreases the
junction's capacitance resulting in faster response times. The reverse bias induces only a small
amount of current (known as saturation or back current) along its direction while the
photocurrent remains virtually the same. For a given spectral distribution, the photocurrent is
linearly proportional to the illuminance (and to the irradiance).
[2]

Although this mode is faster, the photoconductive mode tends to exhibit more electronic
noise.
[citation needed]
The leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low (< 1nA) that the Johnson
Nyquist noise of the load resistance in a typical circuit often dominates.
Other modes of operation
Avalanche photodiodes have a similar structure to regular photodiodes, but they are operated
with much higher reverse bias. This allows each photo-generated carrier to be multiplied by
avalanche breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which increases the
effective responsivity of the device.
Phototransistors also consist of a photodiode with internal gain. A phototransistor is in essence
nothing more than a bipolar transistor that is encased in a transparent case so that light can reach
the base-collector junction. The electrons that are generated by photons in the base-collector
junction are injected into the base, and this photodiode current is amplified by the transistor's
current gain (or h
fe
). Note that while phototransistors have a higher responsivity for light they
are not able to detect low levels of light any better than photodiodes.
[citation needed]
Phototransistors
also have significantly longer response times.
Critical performance parameters of a photodiode include:
Responsivity
The ratio of generated photocurrent to incident light power, typically expressed in A/W
when used in photoconductive mode. The responsivity may also be expressed as a
Quantum efficiency, or the ratio of the number of photogenerated carriers to incident
photons and thus a unitless quantity.
Dark current
The current through the photodiode in the absence of light, when it is operated in
photoconductive mode. The dark current includes photocurrent generated by background
radiation and the saturation current of the semiconductor junction. Dark current must be
accounted for by calibration if a photodiode is used to make an accurate optical power
measurement, and it is also a source of noise when a photodiode is used in an optical
communication system.
Noise-equivalent power
(NEP) The minimum input optical power to generate photocurrent, equal to the rms noise
current in a 1 hertz bandwidth. The related characteristic detectivity (D) is the inverse of
NEP, 1/NEP; and the specific detectivity ( ) is the detectivity normalized to the area
(A) of the photodetector, . The NEP is roughly the minimum detectable
input power of a photodiode.
When a photodiode is used in an optical communication system, these parameters contribute to
the sensitivity of the optical receiver, which is the minimum input power required for the receiver
to achieve a specified bit error ratio.
APPLICATIONS
P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such as
photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes.
Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke
detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions.
In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones that dim the display
when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often used rather than photodiodes,
although in principle either could be used.
Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and industry.
They generally have a better, more linear response than photoconductors.
They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for computed
tomography (coupled with scintillators) or instruments to analyze samples (immunoassay). They
are also used in pulse oximeters.
PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction diodes, and hence are
often used for optical communications and in lighting regulation.
P-N photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead, if high
sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices or
photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision
equipment and laser rangefinding.
P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such as
photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes.
Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke
detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions.
In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones that dim the display
when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often used rather than photodiodes,
although in principle either could be used.
Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and industry.
They generally have a better, more linear response than photoconductors.
They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for computed
tomography (coupled with scintillators) or instruments to analyze samples (immunoassay). They
are also used in pulse oximeters.
PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction diodes, and hence are
often used for optical communications and in lighting regulation.
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as
indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical
electronic component in 1962,
[2]
early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions
are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to
recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This
effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the
photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area
(less than 1 mm
2
), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation
pattern.
[3]
LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater
durability and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and
require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of
comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation
lighting, automotive lighting (particularly brake lamps, turn signals and indicators) as well as in
traffic signals. The compact size, the possibility of narrow bandwidth, switching speed, and
extreme reliability of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be
developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications
technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial
products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.
SYMBOL OF LED


WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LED

DIODE I-V CURVE



LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY
A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat electronic visual display that uses the light
modulating properties of liquid crystals (LCs). LCs do not emit light directly.
They are used in a wide range of applications, including computer monitors, television,
instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, signage, etc. They are common in consumer devices
such as video players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones. LCDs have
displaced cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in most applications. They are usually more compact,
lightweight, portable, less expensive, more reliable, and easier on the eyes.
[citation needed]
They are
available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not
use phosphors, they cannot suffer image burn-in.
LCDs are more energy efficient and offer safer disposal than CRTs. Its low electrical
power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an
electronically-modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled with liquid
crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in colour
or monochrome
Advantages of LCD
- Low power is required
- Good contrast
- Low cost
Disadvantages of LCD
- Speed of operation is slow
- LCD occupy a large area
- LCD life span is quite small, when used on d.c. Therefore, they are used with a.c.
suppliers.
Applications of LCD
Used as numerical counters for counting production items.
Analog quantities can also be displayed as a number on a suitable device. (e.g.) Digital
multimeter.
Used for solid state video displays.
Used for image sensing circuits.
Used for numerical display in pocket calculators.