LESSON 1.

INTRODUCTION:

Thermodynamics: the study of energy, energy transformations and its relation to matter.

Thermodynamics: is the branch of the physical sciences that treats of various phenomena of energy and the
related properties of matter, especially of the laws of transformation of heat into other forms of energy and vice
versa. It deals generally with energy and with relationships among the properties of matter.
Thermo Greek word “thermo”mean heat
Dynamics Greek word “dynamis”mean force

Heat Transfer: the study of energy in transit including the relationship between energy, matter,
space and time. The three principal modes of heat transfer examined are conduction, convection and radiation,
where all three modes are affected by the thermophysical properties,
geometrical constraints and the temperatures associated with the heat sources and sinks used
to drive heat transfer.

Fluid Mechanics: the study of fluids at rest or in motion. While this course will not deal extensively with fluid
mechanics, we will be influenced by the governing equations for fluid flow, namely Conservation of
Momentum and Conservation of Mass.

Macroscopic and Microscopic Views of Thermodynamics

Macroscopic approach to thermodynamics is concerned with the gross or overall behavior. This is sometimes
called Classical Thermodynamics.

Microscopic approach to thermodynamics is concerned directly with the structure of matter. This is known as
Statistical Thermodynamics.
Thermodynamic System

System - is a region enclosed by specified boundaries, which maybe imaginary either fixed or moving, that one
wishes to study.
- it is whatever we want to study.

Surroundings - external to the system

Boundary - it is a partition that separates the system from the surroundings

Types of System

a) Closed system or control mass - is one in which there is no exchange of matter with the surroundings.
Fixed mass in the system.

b) Open system or control volume - is one across whose boundaries there is a flow mass.

Property, State, Process and Equilibrium

Property - is a macroscopic characteristic of a system such as mass, volume, energy, pressure, and temperature
to which numerical values can be assigned at a given time without the knowledge of the history of the system.

State - refers to the condition of a system as described by its properties.

Process - is a transformation from one state to another.

Steady state - if the system does not exhibit change of its properties with time.

Thermodynamic cycle - is a sequence of processes that begins and ends at the same state.

Classification of Property
a) Intensive - those which are independent of the mass.
b) Extensive - those which are dependent of the mass.

Intensive property - is not achieve. Its value as independent of the size or extent of a system and may from place
to place within the system at any moment. It is a function of both position and time.
Example: specific volume, pressure, and temperature

Extensive property - varies directly with the mass. If its value for an overall system as the sum of its values for
the parts into which the system is divided. Its value depends on the size or extent of a system. It changes with
time.
Example: mass, volume, and energy
Equilibrium - is a condition of complete balance.

Requirement for complete balance.

a) mechanical equilibrium c) phase equilibrium
b) thermal equilibrium d) chemical equilibrium

Between the system and surroundings, if there is no difference in

Phase Working Substance and Fluid

Phase - refers to a quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout in both chemical composition and physical
structure.

Example: solid phase, liquid phase, vapor phase

Working substance - a fluid in which energy can be stored or from which it can be removed.

Fluid - is a substance characterized by low resistance to flow and the tendency to assume the shape of its container.

Substances - something that is usually made up of molecules, a matter.

Pure substances - is one that is uniform and invariable in chemical composition. It can exist in more than one
phase but its chemical composition must be the same in each phase.

Basic Definitions
Thermodynamic Property: Any observable or measurable characteristic of a system. Any mathematical
combination of the measurable characteristics of a system
Intensive Properties: Properties which are independent of the size (or mass) of the system

• they are not additive ⇒ XA+B /= XA + XB

• examples include: pressure, temperature, and density
Extensive Properties: Properties which are dependent of the size (or mass) of the system

• they are additive ⇒ XA+B = XA + XB

• examples include: volume, energy, entropy and surface area
Specific Properties: Extensive properties expressed per unit mass to make them intensive properties
Measurable Properties

P, V, T, and m are important because they are measurable quantities. Many other thermodynamic
quantities can only be calculated and used in calculations when they are related to P, V, T, and m
Pressure (P ) and Temperature (T ) are easily measured intensive properties.
Note: They are not always independent of one another.
Volume (V ) and mass (m) are easily measured extensive properties

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

The acceleration of a particular body is three of proportional to the resultant (net) force acting on it and
inversely proportional to its mass.

a = F/m or F = m a (eq1-1) and is re-consistent system of units

 SI units English units
m = mass of the body kg slug lb
a = acceleration of the body m/s ft/s2 ft/s2
F = net force acting on the body N lb poundal

Mass, Weight, and Gravitational Acceleration

• The mass of a body is the absolute quantity of matter in it; an unchanging when the speed of the mass is small
compared to the speed of light (186,000 miles per second)
• The weight of the body (Fg) means the force of gravity on the body.

𝑭𝒈 = 𝒎𝒈 (eq 1-2) where: Fg= is the weight of the body N lb

m= is the mass of the body kg slug
g = is the gravitational acceleration m/s2 ft/s2

**at different elevation

where: g0 = is the gravitational acceleration at sea level

𝑭𝒈 𝑭𝒈𝒐
= (eq1-3) = 9.81 m/s2 = 32.2 ft/s2
𝒈 𝒈𝒐
Fgo = weight of the body at sea level.
Fg = weight at any location of gravitational acceleration.

Specific Volume, Density, and Specific weight

𝒎
density ρ = mass / volume = (eq 1-4) kg/m³, slug/ft³
𝒗

𝑽 𝟏
specific volume ν = volume / mass = = (eq1-5) m³/kg, ft³/ slugft³/lb.
𝒎 𝝆

𝑭𝒈
specific weight γ = force of gravity / volume = (eq1-6) N/m³, lb./ft³
𝒗

*Specific weight and density relationship 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 (eq1-7)

* In the English units, density should be slug/ft³

Pressure
𝐹
P = The force applied normal to a unit area = (eq1-8) N/m² or Pa, lb./in² or psi
𝐴

1 Pa = 1 N/ m² 1 kPa = 1000 Pa 1 bar = 100 kPa

The pressure of a gas inside a container is caused by the pounding of a large number of gas molecules on
the surface of the container. It is the consequence of the rate of change of momentum of the molecules striking
the surface.

In fluids, this is pressure (normal component of force per unit area). In solids, this is stress

1. Barometer - use to measure the atmospheric pressure.

At sea level: Patm = 101.325 kPa = 14.7 psi = 760 mm HG = 29.92 in HG

2. Manometers - these give a reading as a function of the depth of the liquid column.
Ex. 10 inches of water, 10 cm of water

3. Bourdon pressure gage - this gives a reading wherein the dial is being actuated by mechanism due to the
exerted pressure. The reading is a function of the pressure exerted.
 Pressure
pressure

ATMOSPHERIC

vacuum pressure

• All pressure readings determine by the pressure measuring devices are called gage pressure, Pg

• gage pressure, Pg - is the pressure difference between system’s absolute pressure and surrounding,
absolute pressure where the device is located.

absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure ± gage pressure

𝑷𝑨𝑩𝑺 = 𝑷𝑨𝑻𝑴 ± 𝑷𝑮 (eq1-9)

* Use (-) if it involves vacuum or negative reading relative to the atmospheric pressure.

Fluid pressure: Fluid pressure is the pressure exerted due to a column of a fluid or liquid.

𝑷 = 𝜸 𝒉 = 𝝆𝒈 (eq1-10)

The fluid pressure or pressure at designated level is;

At pt. 1 P1 = ᵞh1 if ᵞ = N/m³, lb/ft³

At pt.2: P2 = ᵞh2 = ᵞ (h1 +  h12) h = m, ft

=ᵞ h1 +  h12 then; P = N/m², lb/ft²

𝑃2 = 𝑃1 + 𝛾  ℎ (eq1-11)

Temperature: T

Temperature is a measure of the speed of the molecules of a body. It is a measure then of the internal
energy of a body.

Thermometer - is the device used to measure temperature of a certain body.

Conversion of one reading into another temperature scale.

°F = 1.8 °C + 32 °R = °F + 460 (eq1-12)
°C = (°F - 32) / 1.8 °K = °C + 273 (eq1-13)

Conversion of change of temperature from one scale to another temperature scale.

  t °C =  T °K or  t °F =  T °R (eq1-14)
 t °F = 1.8  t °C (eq1-14-B)

TA > TB TA < TB

TB TB
TA TA

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

- state that when two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body then they are in thermal
equilibrium with one another.

Law of Conservation of Mass

The law of conservation of mass states that mass is indestructible; that is, mass can neither be created nor
destroyed.

The quantity of fluid passing through a (section 1 and 2) is given by;

Volume flow = velocity × area of cross section

𝑉1 = 𝑣1 𝐴1 𝑜𝑟 𝑉2 = 𝑣2 𝐴2 (eq1-15)
where; V = volume flow cu.m/s cu.ft/min
v = velocity of fluid m/s ft/min
A = area of cross section m² ft²

𝑚1 = 𝜌1 𝑉1 = 𝜌1 𝑣1 𝐴1 (eq1-15-B)
where; m = mass flow in a section kg/s lb/min
if;  = density of fluid in kg/m³ lb/ft³

Then; for any system:

Mass in into a system = Mass out from the system + The change of mass stored in a system

∑ 𝑀𝐼𝑁 = ∑ 𝑀𝑂𝑈𝑇 + ∆𝑀𝑆𝑇𝑂𝑅𝐸𝐷 𝐼𝑁 𝐴 𝑆𝑌𝑆𝑇𝐸𝑀 (eq1-16)

For a steady flow system, the change of stored mass is zero; then

 M IN =  M OUT (eq1-16-B)
Examples and Problems
1. A Bourdon pressure gage gives a reading of 100 psig. Atmospheric pressure is about 15 psia. Determine the
absolute pressure in Psia.\, kPa.
2. A Vacuum gage mounted on a condenser reads 660 mm HG. What is the absolute pressure in the condenser in
kPa when then atmospheric pressure is 101.325 kPa.
3. A car whose mass is 2 metric tons is accelerated uniformly from standstill to 100 km/hr in 5 sec. Find the (a)
mass in kg, (b) acceleration in m/s2, (c) driving force N, (d) distance traveled in m.
4. A system has a mass of 20 kg. Determine the external force necessary to accelerate it to 10 m/s2 (a) horizontally
along frictionless plane, N (b) vertically in a region where g= 9.81 m/s2 if the external force is applied vertically
upward, N (c) vertically downward, N.
5. A mass of 10 slugs in space is subjected to a n external vertical force of 500 lb. If local g = 30 ft/s2 and friction
effects are neglected, determine the acceleration of the mass if the vertical force is acting (a) upward (b)
downward.
6. A mass of 50 lbm is subjected to an internal force of 600 lb. If friction effects are neglected, determine the
acceleration of the mass if the external force is acting (a) upward, lb. (b) downward, lb.
7. Five masses in a region where local g=30 ft/s2 are as follows m1 = 500 g, m2 = 800g, m3 = 15 poundals, m4 =
3 lb., and m5 = 0.10 slug. What is the total mass in (a) kg, (b) lb. (c) slug
8. A cylindrical drum (2m x 3m) is filled with a fluid whose density is 640 kg/m3. Determine (a) volume of the
fluid, m3 (b) mass of the fluid, (c) weight of the fluid, N and kgf (d) specific weight of the fluid, N/m3 (e) specific
weight in a region where local g = 9.7 m/s3, N/m
9. A vertical composite fluid column whose upper end is open to the atmosphere is composed of 50 cm of Hg
(SG = 13.5), 80cm of oil (SG=0.8) and 65 cm of water. Determine the pressure at the (a) oil-water interface, kPa
(b) water-Hg interface (c) base of the column.
10. If a pump discharges 75 GPM of water whose specific weight is 61.5 lb/ft3 (g=31 ft/s2. Find (a) mass flow
rate in lbm/min (b) the time required to fill a vertical cylindrical tank 10 ft x 12 ft, min.