HINDUSTHAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited with ‘A’ Grade by

NAAC (An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna
University, Chennai) COIMBATORE – 641 032
MAY 2024

SMART STICK FOR ASSISTING BLIND PEOPLE

A PROJECT BASED LEARNING REPORT

Submitted by

RIYAS S (720721106089)

SANJAY S (720721106092)

SYED SAABIQ S G (720721106113)

VINISHYA K (720721106122)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

in

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

HINDUSTHAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited with ‘A’ Grade by NAAC

(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University,Chennai)
 COIMBATORE – 641 032
MAY 2024

HINDUSTHAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Accredited with ‘A’ Grade
by NAAC (An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna
University, Chennai) COIMBATORE – 641 032

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that project report “A SMART STICK

FOR ASSISTING BLIND PEOPLE ” is the bonafide work of
“RIYAS S (720721106089) , SANJAY S (720721106092) ,SYED SAABIQ S G
(720721106113) and VINISHYA K (720721106122)” who carried out the
project work under my supervision

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
SUPERVISOR HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
Dr.K.Kalaiselvi M.E., Ph.D., Dr.P.Vijayalakshmi M.E., PH.D.,
Associate Professor, Associate Professor and Head of the
Department of Electronics and Department,
Communication Engineering. Department of Electronics and
Hindusthan Communication Engineering.
College of Engineering and Hindusthan College of Engineering and
Technology,Coimbatore-641032 Technology, Coimbatore-
641032

Submitted for Autonomous Project Viva-Voce examination held on

………………

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our profound gratitude to our Honourable Chairman, Shri.

T.S.R. KHANNAIYANN and our Managing Trustee, Smt.T.R.K. SARASUWATHI
of Hindusthan Educational and Charitable Trust for providing the necessary facilities
and support for successful completion of the project within the college.

We extend our sincere thanks to our Chief Executive Officer, Hindusthan

Institutions Dr. K. KARUNAKARAN, Ph.D., for his constant support and motivation.

We extend our thanks to our Principal, Dr. J. JAYA M.Tech, Ph.D., for her constant
support and motivation.

We are highly indebted to our Head of the Department Dr. P.

VIJAYALAKSHIMI, M.E, Ph.D., for her scholastic guidance and supervision in
completing the project.

We are grateful to our Project Coordinators Mr. T. ANANDA

SELVAKARTHIK M.E. and Mrs. K.KAVITHA M.E. for their valuable guidance
and support to complete the assigned task.

We are also thankful to all our teaching and non-teaching staff members of the
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering for their kind cooperation
and encouragement.
 TABLE CONTENT
CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO
ABSTRACT i
LIST OF FIGURES ii
LIST OF ABBREVIATION iii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 LITERATURE SURVEY 2
3 EXISTING SYSTEM 4
4 PROPOSED SYSTEM 5
BLOCK DIAGRAM 5
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 5
WORKING PRINCIPLE 6
5 COMPONENTS DETAILS 8
HARDWARE COMPONENTS 8
SOFTWARE COMPONENTS 8
NODE MCU 9
ARDUINO IDE 11
POWER SUPPLY 13
ULTRASONIC SENSOR 14
FIRE DETECTION SENSOR 17
WATER SENSOR 17
BUZZER 20
6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE 21
SCORE
7 RESULT 22
8 REFERENCE 23
 ABSTRACT

In this project, we introduce a smart stick system for assisting blind people. The smart stick
comes as a proposed solution to enable visually impaired people to find difficulties in detecting
obstacles and dangers in front of them during walking and to identify the world around. The
system is designed to act like an artificial vision and alarm unit The system consists of two
sensors: ultrasonic sensor, and water sensor, microcontroller (NODEMCU) to receive the sensor
signals and process them to short pulses to the NODEMCU pins where buzzers, alarms are
connected, And also we connect emergency button to aNODEMCU, in case any emergency
situation that person press that button then emergency buzzer will be turn on. We seek in our
project to provide a smart stick affordable and suitable for most blind people, and also it is light
in weight. It can be ma de available to all segments of the society and their families who need
them. While the user moves the stick in the forward direction, the ultrasonic sensor with Arduino
mega fixed to the stick tries to detect the obstacle if any present in the path. If the sensor
recognizes the obstacle, the output of the recipient triggers, and this change will be identified by
the microcontroller since the output of the receiver is given as inputs to the microcontroller. This
stick recognizes the article before the individual and offers a reaction to the client either by
vibrating or through the order. In this way, the individual can walk with no fear. This gadget will
be the best answer for defeat the troubles of the visually impaired individual.

i
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIG NO TITLE PAGE NO

3.1 WHITE CANE AND GUIDING 4

DOG
3.2 SMART APPLICATION 4
4.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM 5
4.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 6
5.1 NODE MCU 9
5.2 ADRUINO IDE SOFTWARE 12
5.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM 13
5.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 13
5.5 ULTRASONIC SENSOR 15
5.6 FIRE DETECTION SENSOR 17
5.7 WATER SENSOR 18
5.8 BUZZER 20
7.1 OUTPUT 22

ii
 LIST OF ABBREVATIONS

ASCII - AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION

INTERCHANGE

FTP - FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL

HF - HIGH FREQUENCY

HTTP - HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL

HTML - HYPERTEXT MARKUP LANGUAGE

IC - INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

I/O -INPUT/OUTPUT

IDE - INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT

KHZ - KILO HERTZ

LCD - LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

LED - LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

LF - LOW FREQUENCY

MHZ - MEGA HERTZ

PWM - PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

RAM - RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY

iii
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Moving through an unknown environment becomes a real challenge when we can’t rely on
ouown eyes. Since dynamic obstacles usually produce noise while moving, blind people develop
their sense of hearing to localize them. A white cane is the most common mobility aid for the
visually challenged. However, it does not give information about the obstacles above knee level
and those which are at a distance greater than 1m. Even though guide dogs were the initial
companion of the blind, later on technologies played a vital role. Walking sticks with adjustable
length, elbow canes, were developed in the market to guide the visually challenged. However,
these attempts were not completely successful in assisting the user.

To alleviate these issues the Smart electronic aid is designed in such a way that it includes an
Ultrasonic sensor for Obstacle detection, supported with heat and water detection.

1
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE
SURVEY

Kumar et al., 2017[1] Proposed a system which consists of Intelligent Voice Stick along with five
sensors: ultrasonic, infrared, water, fire and light (LDR). Based on the distance range between the
user and the obstacle the system generates a specific output alert signal. It uses voice assistant,
vibrator, buzzer and flashlight for providing alerts in day and night time specifically. The entire
solution is based on the following methodologies; Small Obstacle Detection for obstacles like pit,
staircase or stone are detected by the IR sensor as it is located at the lower side of the stick. Muddy
Surface Detection using water sensor which is located at the base of stick to detect wet or muddy
patches, Fire Detection by using heat sensor which checks for the heat radiating from the ignited
body and direction of the source, and Smart Night Lamp using a LDR sensor which alerts the other
people around about the presence of blind person.

Adhe et al., 2016[2] proposed a system based on ultrasonic sensors, water sensor, buzzer, and
Bluetooth module. The alert notification is sent if the obstacle lies in the range between 2cm –
200cm. two sonar sensors, a microcontroller, and two vibrators are placed in a wearable jacket.
The sensors are fixed on the shoulders to increase the field of sensing and side determination. The
system also comprises dual camera system for stereo vision, worn as glasses and an acoustic sensor
system worn on top of a shoe. The system uses wireless RF based remote which activates the

buzzer when the blind person presses it to find their stick.

2
Nada et al., 2015[3] proposed a system using Microcontroller PIC 16F877A, two IR sensors, and
message recording ISD1932. The Microcontroller PIC 16F877A receives values from the IR
sensor, calculated results decide the type of obstacle and a specific alert is generated based on the
distance between the person and the obstacle. The Message Recording ISD1932 is used to play
the appropriate audio as required for the alerting the blind person for the obstacle.

Anwar, 2017[4] proposed a system based on Arduino Uno R3 microcontroller, ultrasonic

transducers, IR sensors, water sensors, heat sensors, LDR (Light Dependent Resistor), GPS unit,
buzzer, and vibration motor. The system classifies obstacle detection based on the distance range.
According to the proposed classifications, more than 4m is the safe zone, between 2m – 4m is the
near zone, between 1m – 2m is the close zone and less than 1m is the danger zone in which the
system generates alerts using a buzzer and vibration motor. IR sensor in the downward direction
for pothole detection, water sensor at the bottom of the stick for detecting water. The heat sensor
detects any elevated radiations in the surrounding. LDR sensor generates flashlight alerts for the
nearby people in the night time. For navigation system uses GPS.

Shah et al., 2017[5] Proposed a system consisting of four ultrasonic sensors, three are used for
front obstacle detection and one for downward obstacles such as potholes. All the sensors are
controlled using the Arduino board, which sends a signal to an android app as the calculated data
gets more than the threshold value. To calculate the threshold values it first finds the average value
by adding past 9 received values from front 3 sensors and present values from it and divide it by
10 and the fluctuation value by finding the difference between max among 10 values and average
value and finds threshold value by adding up twice the fluctuation values and average value. The
user is provided with object alert from the front, left and right.

3
 CHAPTER 3
EXISTING SYSTEM

 The smart stick, is basically an embedded system integrating the following: pair of ultrasonic
sensor to detect obstacles in front of the blind from ground level height to head level height of
the stick in the range of 400 cm ahead. After processing, the microcontroller will alert with
buzzer. The white cane helps people who are blind or severely visually impaired know when
there are tripping hazards such as cracks, poles, etc. The cane is swept from side to side to
clear one’s path from these and other obstacles. Other techniques allow us to know when
we’ve reached a crosswalk or the entrance to a room. Guide dogs are service animals that
have received special and extensive training to guide blind and visually impaired individuals.
These dogs guide their handlers around obstacles and can also help find things like entrances,
escalators and elevators. It is up to the handler to tell the dog where to go – it is only there to
lead the person and help him or her arrive safely to the desired destination. A sighted (or
human) guide is probably the simplest of all the methods, and is the proper way of assisting
someone who may need help getting somewhere. A blind person is guided by someone else
by holding on to their arm. This method is preferred by some of us when in unfamiliar places
or if there are large crowds.fig 3.1 and 3.2 represents white cane ,guiding dog and smart
application methods.

Fig 3.1 white cane and guiding dog fig 3.2 smart application

4
 CHAPTER 4

PROPOSED SYSTEM

The proposed method of smart stick, as shown in Fig. 1, is basically an embedded system
integrating the following: pair of ultrasonic sensor to detect obstacles in front of the blind from
ground level height to head level height of the stick in the range of 400 cm ahead, fire sensor to
detect fire, water sensor for detecting puddles. The sensors collect the real-time data and send it to
the microcontroller for processing. After processing, the microcontroller will enable the buzzer.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

POWER

NODEM
ULTRASON
SENSO

BUZZE

WATER

FIRE SENSOR

Fig 4.1 block diagrsm of proposed system

5
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 4.2 circuit digram of proposed method

6
WORKING PRINCIPLE

The Smart electronic aid consists of 3 modules namely Obstacle Detection, fire sensor and Water
Detection. The presence of an obstacle in front of the user is identified by using Ultrasonic
Sensor. The distance is measured in centimeters and corresponding to the distance, the buzzer
alerts and voice command to blind person. Water sensor is designed for water detection, water
level connecting a water sensor to an arduino is a great way to detect a water level etc. it can be
used to detect the presence ,the level volume of water in this we will connect the water sensor
to digital pin on Arduino and will enlist led to help identify when water sensor comes into a
contact with a source of water .
For the water sensor we use two metallic plate under the stick ,when water touches on this stick
then buzzer is on, fire sensor used to identify the fire, It is very sensitive to the heat and can
detect the heat from long distance. If the sensor detects the heat radiation it will send an electrical
signal to the controller and thus voice instruction will be sent to person and also the buzzer start
alarming.

7
 CHAPTER 5
COMPONENTS DETAILS

HARDWARE
CONFIGURATIONS

 NODEMCU
 Power Supply
 Ultrasonic sensor ❖ Water sensor
 Fire sensor
 Buzzer

SOFTWARE
CONFIGURATIONS

Software = arduino IDE

Language = embedded C.

8
Node MCU

NodeMCU is an open-source firmware for which open-source prototyping board designs are
available. The name “NodeMCU” combines “node” and “MCU” (micro-controller unit). The term
“NodeMCU” strictly speaking refers to the firmware rather than the associated development kits.
Both the firmware and prototyping board designs are open source. Nodemcu ESP8266 and
Nodemcu ESP32 are becoming very popular and are almost used in more then 50% IoT based
projects today.

Fig 5.1 node mcu

The firmware uses the Lua scripting language. The firmware is based on the eLua project and built
on the Espressif Non-OS SDK for ESP8266. It uses many open source projects, such as lua-cjson
and SPIFFS. Due to resource constraints, users need to select the modules relevant for their project
and build a firmware tailored to their needs. Support for the 32-bit ESP32 has also been
implemented.

The prototyping hardware typically used is a circuit board functioning as a dual in-line package
(DIP) which integrates a USB controller with a smaller surface-mounted board containing the
MCU and antenna. The choice of the DIP format allows for easy prototyping on breadboards.
The design was initially was based on the ESP-12 module of the ESP8266, which is a Wi-Fi SoC
integrated with a Tensilica Xtensa LX106 core, widely used in IoT applications.

9
NodeMCU ESP8266 Specifications & Features

• Microcontroller: Tensilica 32-bit RISC CPU Xtensa LX106

• Operating Voltage: 3.3V

• Input Voltage: 7-12V

• Digital I/O Pins (DIO): 16

• Analog Input Pins (ADC): 1

• UARTs: 1

• SPIs: 1

• I2Cs: 1

• Flash Memory: 4 MB

• SRAM: 64 KB

• Clock Speed: 80 MHz

• USB-TTL based on CP2102 is included onboard, Enabling Plug n Play

• PCB Antenna

• Small Sized module to fit smartly inside your IoT projects

Applications

• Prototyping of IoT devices

• Low power battery operated applications

• Network projects
• Projects requiring multiple I/O interfaces with Wi-Fi and Bluetooth functionalities.

10
ARDUINO IDE
The Integrated Development Environment (IDE)is a combination of editor,
linker and a compiler which helps the developer to make their Firmware for their
Innovative Projects. Arduino IDE play a major role in open source platform for fast
prototyping and easy to access of library. It is user friendly tool for beginners and it
supports programming language like embedded C, Luna etc. Over the years Arduino
has been the brain of thousands of projects, from everyday objects to complex
scientific instruments. Its supports all the variant of Arduino boards like Arduino
Uno, Nano and Mega etc. As soon as it reaches a wider community, the Arduino
board started changing to adapt to new needs and challenges, differentiating its offer
from simple 8-bit boards to products for IoT applications, wearable, 3D printing, and
embedded environments

ARDUINO IDE SOFTWARE

With this Arduino Integrated Development Environment you can edit, compile
and upload Arduino sketches the Arduino.

Fig.5.2 Arduino IDE software

11
POWER SUPPLY

This is a simple approach to obtain a 12V and 5V DC power supply using a single circuit.
The circuit uses two ICs 7812 and 7805 for obtaining the required voltages. The AC
mains voltage will be stepped down by the transformer, rectified by bridge and filtered
by capacitor to obtain a steady DC level.The 7812 regulates this voltage to obtain a
steady 12V DC. The output of the IC1 will be regulated by the 7805 to obtain a steady
5V DC at its output. In this way both 12V and 5V DC are obtained.

BLOCK DIAGRAM
Zxsswtrrr54

OUTPUT

STEP DOWN BRIDGE RECTIFIER

(AC TO DC REGULATOR
TRANSFORMER
(230V TO 12V) VOLTAGE)

Fig.5.3 Block Diagram

Fig.5.4 Circuit diagram

12
 Initially small stepdown transformer is used to reduce the voltage level 230V AC
into 12V AC. The output of the transformer is a pulsating sinusoidal AC voltage,
which is converted to pulsating DC with the help of a rectifier. This output is given
to a filter circuit which reduces the AC ripples, and passes the DC components.

7812 regulator is used to converts 12V DC study voltage.

And 7805 regulator is converts constant 5V DC voltage.

ULTRASONIC SENSOR

Ultrasonic ranging module HC - SR04 provides 2cm - 40cm the ranging accuracy can
reach to 3mm. The modules includes ultrasonic transmitter, receiver and control
circuit. The basic principle of work:

(1) Using IO trigger for at least 10us high level signal,

(2) The Module automatically sends eight 40 kHz and detect whether there is a pulse signal
back.

(3) IF the signal back, through high level , time of high output IO duration is the time
from sending ultrasonic to returning.Test distance = (high level time×velocity of sound
(340M/S) / 2

13
 Fig 5.5 ultrasonic sensor

Ultrasonic transmitter emitted an ultrasonic wave in one direction, and started timing
when it launched. Ultrasonic spread in the air, and would return immediately when it
encountered obstacles on the way. At last, the ultrasonic receiver would stop timing
when it received the reflected wave. As Ultrasonic spread velocity is 340m / s in the air,
based on the timer record t, we can calculate the distance (s) between the obstacle and
transmitter, namely: s = 340t / 2, which is so- called time difference distance
measurement principle The principle of ultrasonic distance measurement used the
already-known air spreading velocity, measuring the time from launch to reflection
when it encountered obstacle, and then calculate the distance between the transmitter
and the obstacle according to the time and the velocity. Thus, the principle of ultrasonic
distance measurement is the same with radar. Distance Measurement formula is
expressed as: L = C X T In the formula, L is the measured distance, and C is the
ultrasonic spreading velocity in air, also, T represents time (T is half the time value from
transmitting to receiving ).

14
MODULE OPERATING PRINCIPLE
Set low the Trig and Echo port when the module initializes , firstly, transmit at least
10us high level pulse to the Trig pin (module automatically sends eight 40K square
wave), and then wait to capture the rising edge output by echo port, at the same time,
open the timer to start timing. Next, once again capture the falling edge output by echo
port, at the same time, read the time of the counter, which is the ultrasonic running time
in the air. According to the formular: test distance = (high level time * ultrasonic

spreading velocity in air) / 2, you can calculate the distance to the obstacle .

ELECTRIC PARAMETERS:

• Working Voltage DC 5 V

• Working Current 15mA

• Working Frequency 40Hz

• Max Range 400cm

• Min Range 2cm

• MeasuringAngle 15 degree

• Trigger Input Signal 10uS TTL pulse

• Echo Output Signal Input TTL lever signal and the range in
proportion

• Dimension 45*20*15mm

15
FIRE DETECTOR SENSOR

A flame detector is a sensor designed to detect and respond to the presence of a flame or fire,
allowing flame detection. Responses to a detected flame depend on the installation, but can include
sounding an alarm, deactivating a fuel line (such as a propane or a natural gas line), and activating
a fire suppression system. When used in applications such as industrial furnaces, their role is to
provide confirmation that the furnace is properly lit; in these cases they take no direct action
beyond notifying the operator or control system. A flame detector can often respond faster and
more accurately than a smoke or heat detector due to the mechanisms it uses to detect the flame.

fig 5.6 represents the fire detection sensor.

Fig 5.6 fire detection sensor

WORKING PRINCIPLE

This sensor/detector can be built with an electronic circuit using a receiver like electromagnetic
radiation. This sensor uses the infrared flame flash method, which allows the sensor to work
through a coating of oil, dust, water vapor, otherwise ice.

16
WATER SENSOR

A water sensor is one kind of switching device which is used to detect the rainfall or water flow.
It works like a switch and the working principle of this sensor is, whenever there is rain or water,
the switch will be normally closed. Fig 5.7 represents the water sensor.

Fig 5.7 water sensor

The water sensor module/board is shown below. Basically, this board includes nickel coated lines
and it works on the resistance principle. This sensor module permits to gauge moisture through

analog output pins & it gives a digital output while moisture threshold surpasses .

17
This module is similar to the LM393 IC because it includes the electronic module as well as a
PCB. Here PCB is used to collect the raindrops. When the rain falls on the board, then it creates a
parallel resistance path to calculate through the operational amplifier. This sensor is a resistive
dipole, and based on the moisture only it shows the resistance. For example, it shows more
resistance when it is dry and shows less resistance when it is wet.

SPECIFICATION

• This sensor module uses good quality of double-sided material.

• Anti-conductivity & oxidation with long time use

• The area of this sensor includes 5cm x 4cm and can be built with a nickel plate on the side

• The sensitivity can be adjusted by a potentiometer

• The required voltage is 5V

• The size of the small PCB is 3.2cm x 1.4cm

• For easy installation, it uses bolt holes

• It uses an LM393 comparator with wide voltage

• The output of the comparator is a clean waveform and driving capacity is above 15mA

18
PIN DESCRIPTION

• Pin1 (VCC): It is a 5V DC pin

• Pin2 (GND): it is a GND (ground) pin

• Pin3 (DO): It is a low/ high output pin

• Pin4 (AO): It is an analog output pin

APPLICATIONS

The applications of rain sensor include the following.

• This sensor is used as a water preservation device and this is connected to the irrigation
system to shut down the system in the event of rainfall.

• This sensor is used to guard the internal parts of an automobile against the rainfall as well
as to support the regular windscreen wiper’s mode.

• This sensor is used in specialized satellite communications aerials for activating a rain
blower over the opening of the aerial feed, to get rid of water droplets from the mylar
wrap to keep pressurized as well as dry air within the waveguides.

19
 BUZZER

A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be mechanical,

electromechanical, or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include
alarm devices, timers and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or key
stroke. Buzzer is an integrated structure of electronic transducers, DC power supply,
widely used in computers, printers, copiers, alarms, electronic toys, automotive
electronic equipment, telephones, timers and other electronic products for sound
devices. Active buzzer 5V Rated power can be directly connected to a continuous
sound, this section dedicated sensor expansion module and the board in combination,
can complete a simple circuit design, to "plug and play."

Using a suitably designed resonant system, this type can be used where large sound
volumes are needed. At Future Electronics we stock many of the most common types
categorized by Type, Sound Level, Frequency, Rated Voltage, Dimension and
Packaging Type.

Fig 5.8.Buzzer

20
 CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

CONCLUSION

The project proposed the design and architecture of a new concept of Smart Electronic Guiding
Stick for blind people. The advantage of the system lies in the fact that it can prove to be very
low cost solution to millions of blind person worldwide. The proposed combination of various
working units makes a real time system that provides feedback making navigation more safe and
secure.

FUTURE SCOPE

The system can be modified by adding flame detector sensor to alert them to escape from the fire
accidents. The principles of radar can be used to detect the long ranging target objects. By
identifying the colour of tablet box a blind person can intake the tablet for his health issues this
can be achieved by implementing the Colour recognition sensor technique so that the medication

problem.

21
 CHAPTER 7
RESULT
The project proposed the design and architecture of a new concept of Smart Electronic Guiding Stick for
blind people. The advantage of the system lies in the fact that it can prove to be very low cost solution to
millions of blind person worldwide. The proposed combination of various working units makes a real
time system that provides feedback making navigation more safe and secure. Fig. 7.1 represents the
proposed design of the blind stick with complete structure

Fig 7.1 output

22
 CHAPTER 8

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23
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