Manage Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition

NQF Level:3 US No: 116267
Learner Guide
Primary Agriculture
Manage soil Fertility
and Plant Nutrition
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Manage Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition
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Primary Agriculture NQF Level 3 Unit Standard No: 116267
Before we start…
Dear Learner - This Learner Guide contains all the information to acquire
all the knowledge and skills leading to the unit standard:
Title: Manage Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition
US No: 116267 NQF Level: 3 Credits: 5

The full unit standard will be handed to you by your facilitator. Please read
the unit standard at your own time. Whilst reading the unit standard, make
a note of your questions and aspects that you do not understand, and
discuss it with your facilitator.
This unit standard is one of the building blocks in the qualifications listed
below. Please mark the qualification you are currently doing:
Title ID Number NQF Level Credits Mark
National Certificate in Animal Production 49048 3 120

National Certificate in Plant Production 49052 3 120
Are you enrolled in Y N

Please mark the learning program you are a:
enrolled in:
Y our facilitator should explain the above Learnership?
concepts to you. Skills Program?
Short Course?
This Learner Guide contains all the information, and more, as well as the
activities that you will be expected to do during the course of your study.
Please keep the activities that you have completed and include it in your
Portfolio of Evidence. Your PoE will be required during your final
assessment.
What is assessment all about?

You will be assessed during the course of your study. This is called
formative assessment. You will also be assessed on completion of this
unit standard. This is called summative assessment. Before your
assessment, your assessor will discuss the unit standard with you.
Assessment takes place at different intervals of the learning process and
includes various activities. Some activities will be done before the
commencement of the program whilst others will be done during
programme delivery and other after completion of the program.
The
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assessment experience should be user friendly, transparent and fair.
Should you feel that you have been treated unfairly, you have the right to
appeal. Please ask your facilitator about the appeals process and make
your own notes.
Your activities must be handed in from time to time on request of the
facilitator for the following purposes:
The activities that follow are designed to help you gain the skills,
knowledge and attitudes that you need in order to become
competent in this learning module.
It is important that you complete all the activities, as directed in the
learner guide and at the time indicated by the facilitator.
It is important that you ask questions and participate as much as
possible in order to play an active roll in reaching competence.
When you have completed all the activities hand this in to the
assessor who will mark it and guide you in areas where additional
learning might be required.
You should not move on to the next step in the assessment process
until this step is completed, marked and you have received
feedback from the assessor.
Sources of information to complete these activities should be
identified by your facilitator.
Please note that all completed activities, tasks and other items on
which you were assessed must be kept in good order as it becomes
part of your Portfolio of Evidence for final assessment.
Enjoy this learning experience!
How to use this guide …

Throughout this guide, you will come across certain re-occurring “boxes”.
These boxes each represent a certain aspect of the learning process,
containing information, which would help you with the identification and
understanding of these aspects. The following is a list of these boxes and
what they represent:
What does it Each learning field is characterized by unique

definition
mean? – it is important
terms andto know and use these terms and definitions correctly. 4
terms and
s definitions
These are highlighted throughout
Primary Agriculture NQF Level 3 the guide in thisNo: 116267
Unit Standard
manner.
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My Notes …
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to mi understand,
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What are we going to learn?

What will I be able to do? ..................................................... 6
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Learning outcomes 6
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What do I need to know? .................................................….. 6
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Introduction 7
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Session 1 Prepare for soil and foliar nutrient applications using
specialized equipment............................................ 11
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Session 2 Collection, storage and dispatch of samples for
nutrient analyses............................................ 21
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Session 3 Nutritional deficiencies in crop ....... 28
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Session 4 Demonstrate an Understanding of the Properties of
soil and how these impact on Plant Nutrition and Soil 40
Preparation …..
Session 5 Supervise and implement Soil
Remediation............................................................... 50
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Glossary .................................................................... 59
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Am I ready for my 60
test? ...........................................................
Checklist for Practical 63
assessment..........................................
Paperwork to be 64
done..............................................................
Bibliography.............................................................. 65
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Terms and conditions 65
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Acknowledgements.................................................... 66
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SAQA Unit standard
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What will I be able to do?

When you have achieved this unit standard, you will be able to:
Supervise application of soil nutrient preparations in a safe, effective
and responsible manner for the benefit of plant/crop growth with
consideration to the environment.
Gain specific knowledge and skills in soil and plant nutrition.
Operate in a plant production environment implementing sustainable
and economically viable production principles.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this learning module, you must is able to
demonstrate a basic knowledge and understanding of:
Sampling procedures.
Chemical, properties of soil - pH, Nutrient status.
Physical properties of soil - Texture, structure, soil profiles.
Biological properties of soil.
Soil ecology e.g. soil organisms, food webs, role of water and oxygen
in soil.
Soil health and conservation.
Role of living organisms.
Conservation practices - Runoff control, contours.
Tillage operations - mechanical, non mechanical, organic, Minimum
and zero Tillage and application of nutrients (liquid and solid).
Primary and secondary soil preparation methods.
Soil preparation and Fertilizer application equipment.
Nutrients - Mixtures, limes, calcite and dolomite lime, single nutrients
and compost, liquids, etc.
Calibration of equipment.
What do I need to know?

It is assumed that the learner has successfully completed the unit
standards listed below:
NQF2, Literacy and Numeracy
NQF2, 116053, Understand basic soil fertility and plant nutrition
NQF 3, 116269, Supervise the collection of agricultural data
NQF 3 (F), 116269
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Introduction
Preparing and Measuring Soil Nutrient Applications
Plants need sunlight, water, air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) and
nutrients in varying quantities to grow well and produce food.
Nutrients are also called essential nutrient elements.
To grow crop successfully, we need to know which nutrients are
required, the quantities of nutrients required, the right time to
apply them, and the best way to apply them.
Essential nutrient elements are divided into macro and micro nutrient
element groups.
Essential nutrient elements play various roles in the physiological
processes in plants, some of which are still not understood.
Nutrients, or fertilizers, are applied through soil applications (manual
or mechanical), foliar applications, and fertigation.
Fertilizers can be from organic (natural or synthetic) or inorganic
(chemical) sources. In commercial citrus production inorganic,
commercial fertilizers are mostly used.
Compost and manure are forms of organic fertilizers that are produced
by allowing organic material to decompose.
Commercial fertilizers are available in granular, powdered and liquid
form.
A fertilization program is developed to provide for the application of
fertilizers that need to be applied during a specific period, usually a
year.
Soil and leaf analyses are used to guide the development of the
fertilization program and to detect nutrient deficiencies and
excesses.
When the fertilization program has been developed, preparations are
made for the fertilizer applications by calculating the total amount
of fertilizer required, collecting the fertilizer from storage and
measuring the fertilizer to determine the volume relative to the
weight prescribed on the fertilization program.
The total amount of fertilizer required is calculated by determining the
number of trees in the orchard, and multiplying that with the
amount prescribed per tree.
When fertilizer is collected from the storeroom, the active ingredient
and the weight of the bags must be checked.
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The volume of fertilizer that must be applied to each tree is
determined by weighing the required amount. Scoops of the exact
volume are made to be used during the application.
Fertilizers are applied manually by irrigating the orchard first to
demarcate the area where the feeder roots are concentrated, and
then scooping the correct amount of fertiliser and applying it to the
wetted area.
Sampling for Nutrient Analysis

A nutrient deficiency means that there is not enough of a specific
nutrient for the plant to complete a physiological process.
Nutrient deficiencies of each nutrient cause very specific symptoms.
Nutrient deficiencies are confirmed by doing leaf and soil analysis.
Fertilization programs cannot be developed in response to a detected
nutrient deficiency as the deficiency would already have had a
negative influence on the growth and production of the plant.
Sampling and analyses are used as a diagnostic tool.
Soil analyses are used to determine the chemical composition and
nutrient content of the soil, and certain physical and chemical
properties.
Leaf analyses are used to determine the nutrient status of the plant.
Fruit sampling is not used to determine the nutrient status of the plant
in citrus production, but is only used for maturity indexing.
Fertilizer samples are taken and analysed if there is uncertainty about
the content of the container or the chemical composition.
A sample must be representative of a unit.
Sampling equipment must be washed thoroughly with clean water
before being used.
Leaf and soil samples must be taken at the same trees every time.
Leaf samples are taken in South Africa between February and May
before harvesting.
Between 50 and 100 leaves must be taken for a leaf sample from
fruitbearing twigs.
Soil samples are taken by combining a number of smaller samples, or
subsamples, and taking a sample from the mixture.
Sub-samples are also taken from fertilizers and mixed. The final
sample is taken from the mixture.
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Sample labels must contain all the necessary information, with at
least one label containing all the contact information of the farm or
producer.
Properties and Composition of Soil

Plants need soil to stay upright and to get nutrients, water and air
(oxygen and carbon dioxide).
It is important to understand chemical and physical soil properties to
understand their influence on the ability of plants to grow.
Soil with optimal properties is not always available for cultivation, and
steps can be taken during soil preparation to correct or at least
improve the conditions.
Physical soil properties include texture, structure, depth, layering
(stratification) and aeration.
Texture is a fixed soil property and ranges from clay to sand.
Soil with a clay content of between 7% and 30% is optimal for citrus
production.
Soil ranges from having no structure to being granular. Soil structure
determines the aeration, water penetration and drainage of the soil.
Soil with a depth of at least 500mm is required for citrus production.
Soil layers are formed over many years, and the differences in the
properties of soil in various layers determines the ability of water
and roots to move from one layer into the next.
Aeration refers to ability of the soil profile to supply air to the roots.
Poorly drained soil becomes water-logged and anaerobic, which can
cause roots to die.
Chemical soil properties include pH, resistance and electrical
conductivity, salinity, fertility level, cation exchange capacity, and
organic matter.
pH indicates the acidity of soil. The optimal water pH of soil for citrus
production is between 6.5 and 7.5.
Electrical conductivity and resistance indicate the salinity of the soil.
Soil salinity affects soil fertility and physical soil properties.
Soil fertility indicates the ability of soil to sustain plant growth.
The cation exchange capacity of soil determines the ability of soil
particles to bind with nutrients and keep them available to plants.
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Organic matter in soil consists of dead plant and animal material,
organic and microbial debris, and humus. Humus contributes to the
activity in soil.
Basic Symptoms of Nutritional Deficiencies

The plant’s ability to complete its physiological process, grow and
produce food depends on the concentration of the most limiting
element.
Each nutrient element has a very specific role and function in the
metabolism or life of a plant.
The most limiting element is the nutrient element present at the
lowest percentage of its optimum concentration. Even if only one
nutrient element is not at optimum concentration, the plant will be
limited in its ability to grow.
Nutrient deficiency symptoms are specific to the nutrient that is not at
the optimum level, but can be blurred by a combination of
deficiency symptoms or symptoms of other factors.
The fertilization program should provide for keeping nutrient elements
at optimum levels. Mild deficiencies can be tolerated during certain
times of the year.
The cause of the deficiency has to be identified in order to deal with it
effectively.
My Notes …
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. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . Primary Agriculture NQF Level 3 Unit Standard No: 116267
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Prepare for soil and foliar Session
1 nutrient applications using

specialized equipment
After completing this session, you should be
able to: SO 1: Prepare for soil nutrient
applications using specialized equipment.
In this session we explore the following concepts:
The ability to use specialized equipment is demonstrated.
The ability to calibrate specialized equipment is demonstrated.
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The ability to select the appropriate nutrients for application from
storage facilities is demonstrated.
1.1 Introduction
Fertilizers and other compounds used in soil management, such as
potassium sulphate, can be applied either to the soil or to the leaves of
crops. Leaf applications tend to be prevalent in longer term crops such as
orchard crops and hydroponics grown tomato. Soil application of fertilizers
can be done manually or through the use of mechanical application
equipment, or via the irrigation systems (fertigation).
The following steps are followed in for fertiliser application:
Determine the fertilization need. Collect a sample for fertilizer
requirements analyses, have the sample analysed, and obtain a
fertilizer recommendation.
Calculate the volume of fertilizer required, either per field
or orchard– The total amount of fertilizer required is calculated
by using the information supplied in a fertilization program.
Decide on the type of fertiliser that is to be used. – Most
fertilizer recommendations will suggest the use of a specific type.
Collect the fertilizer form storage or purchase fertilizer. – The
correct fertilizer is identified and collected from storage. In most
cases there will be control systems in place on the farm that control
the collection and use of the compounds. In such instances farms
may have their own procedures for fertilizer use that should be
followed.
Measurement – The correct amount of fertilizer is carefully
measured. Over-application of a fertiliser harmful to crops. In the
case where underapplication occurs, the crop will not produce, as it
should.
Preparation – Some fertilizers may require preparation, such as
mixing and making up solutions to be applied using application
equipment. Where fertigation is applied, a stock solution is made
up to certain strength, and then diluted in the irrigation system
using specialised dosing equipment.
Calibration – Certain application methods require the calibration of
equipment to ensure that the fertilizer is applied at the correct rate.
Application – Fertilizer is applied to the crop following predetermined
methods and procedures.
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Please complete Activity 1 – Group Activity:

1. Develop and draw a flow diagram of the steps that you would follow
when you need to apply a granular fertiliser.
2. Discuss these steps in your group according to the principles below, and
make notes for yourself:
3. Possible risk areas for the personal safety of the staff who is involved in
the process.
4. Possible mistakes that can be made in the process and what the
financial consequences of those mistakes might be.
5. Possible impacts that the process or mistakes in the process might have
on the ecological environment.
Activity 1.2
Supervise a fellow learner whilst he/she demonstrate the calibration of the
fertilizer application equipment used commonly at your place of work.
Fertilisation activities
Fertilization requirements
The table below is an example of a typical fertilization program. The
programme provided is for a citrus farm. Because there may be
differences in soil type and chemical composition between different
orchards, and even fields on a single farm, fertiliser requirements are best
determined for individual fields or units. In the example below the orchard
has been planted to Valencia Oranges with 316 trees per ha. The specific
orchard is 3 ha in size.
FERTILISATION PROGRAM – CITRUS
Orchard: Orchard 10 Size: 3.0ha

Cultivar/Variety: Delta Valencias Trees per ha: 316
Time of
Fertiliser Quantity
Application
Soil Applications g per tree
Limestone Ammonium Nitrate (LAN) 500g July
LAN 250g August
LAN 250g September

Potassium Chloride (KCL) 500g September
Dolomitic Lime 4000g October
Foliar Sprays g per 100l
water
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Low Biuret Urea 1000g July

Manganese Sulphate 200g October
Solubor® 150g October
Remarks:
The programme is split into 2 sections, the firsts is for soil applications and
the second for foliar applications. For soil applications the fertilizer rates
provided are per tree. The recommendation is for the application of LAN
at three different occasions during the season, in July, August and
September. This type of application is known as a split application with
the initial (July) application is the highest. The programme further
recommends the use of KCl and dolomite lime. The inclusion of lime in
such programme could indicate a soil acidity problem.
In the case of foliar applications, the rates are provided as g per 100 l of
water of hectoliters (HL) water. For these applications there are
recommendations for Urea, Manganese Sulphate and Boron as Solubor.
Foliar applications are normally applied as a full cover spray. This means
that the application will be such that the tree as a whole will be treated
and that the applicator should penetrate the inner canopy of the tree.
1.2 Manual soil applications

Manual application refers to the application of the fertilizer by hand. In
other words, directly to the soil. During a manual application, the amount
of granular or powdered fertilizer is applied to each tree by hand.
Calculation of the Total Fertilizer Requirement

The total fertilizer requirement is calculated by multiplying the
number of trees in the orchard by the recommended amount of
fertiliser per tree. If we use the example of a fertilization program
provided earlier the calculations are done as follows:
The total amount of LAN required for the September application:
Number of Trees in Orchard = Orchard Size in Hectare (ha) x Number
of Trees per Ha
= 3.0ha x 316
= 948 trees in the orchard
Total Amount of LAN Required = LAN required per Tree (g) x Number
of Trees in Orchard
=
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250g x 948 trees
= 237,000g (/1,000 to convert to kg)
= 237kg
So the calculations show that we require 237 kg of LAN the September
application to Orchard 10.
Similarly the LAN required for July and August can be calculated as well as
The KCl requirements.
Collection from Storage

Granular and powdered fertilizers are most commonly supplied in 25kg or
50kg bags. The number of bags that have to be collected from storage is
calculated by rounding the total amount required up to the nearest 25- or
50-kg. This number is then divided by 25 or 50 (depending on the bags
used on the farm) to give the number of bags required.
If we assume that the LAN is available in 50kg bags on our farm, we can
calculate the number of bags as:
If 237 kg is rounded up to the nearest 50 kg it is 250 kg
We will therefore need to collect 250 Kg of LAN.
Number 50kg of bags required = total rounded up amount ÷ 50
= 259 Kg ÷ 50
= 5 bags of LAN must be collected from storage
Note that there should be 13kg (250-237) of fertilizer left in the last bag if
the application is done correctly. This bag should be returned to the
storeroom and sealed to be used at a later stage.
When collecting fertilizer from storage, check for the following:
The names and descriptions on the bags. Even though good
agricultural practices (GAP) prescribe that fertilizer of the same
type should be stored together, do not assume that this is the case.
Make sure that all the bags required have the same labeling.
The concentration of the fertilizer specified on the bag or container is
the same as that which is prescribed in the programme. Some
fertilizers are made in more than one concentration. Zinc nitrate,
for instance, is supplied in formulations with an active ingredient
(Zn) concentration ranging from 5.5% to 16%.
The mass of each bag.
That used bags are sealed properly before use.
Make sure that where an opened bag is to be used that the bag
contains fertilizer and that nothing else had been added to it. Some
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granular herbicides look similar to fertilizer granules, make sure
that these are not mixed up or confused as you could cause serious
damage to the crops.
Measurement
Even though the fertilization program usually states the amount of
fertiliser to be applied in grams per tree, it is impractical and unproductive
to weigh it off in the field.
To solve this problem the fertilizer is weighed off accurately once and the
volume that corresponds with the weight is determined. Scoops are then
manufactured by cutting used tin cans or plastics containers to the
determined volume. It is important that empty pesticides
containers are not used for this purpose.
If the scoop is filled with fertilizer, the scoop will contain the correct,
prescribed mass of fertilizer.
Each fieldworker is the supplied with a scoop of the correct volume, and
the fertilizer is scooped out of the bag and applied.
Application
Fertilizer is applied in the area around the tree trunk where irrigation
water is applied, and where the feeder-roots are present. The majority of
the feeder-roots in citrus are concentrated in a strip of 50cm inside to
50cm outside the drip-line of the tree, provided this area is irrigated. It is
useful to irrigate the orchard for about 30 minutes before applying
fertilizer to demarcate the area where the feeder-roots are. Fieldworkers
scoop the fertilizer from a bag and spread it below the canopy of the tree
on the wetted zone with avoiding contact of the fertiliser on the trunk.
1.3 Mechanical Applications

Mechanical application is another soil application method. Lime and other
fertilizers are often applied using mechanical spreaders. For tree crops
the spreaders are adapted to apply the fertilizer from either one or both of
the sides, but not from behind. This means the application will be made to
the soil around the tree but not in the paths between the trees.
Often contractors used for these types of applications. The operators and
supervisors of the contractor will then take responsibility for equipment
calibration and the correct application of the fertilizer. Fertilizer suppliers
may also offer such a service.
Where fertilizers are specially prepared as suspensions or slurries to be
applied to the soil, special equipment will be required. This is a specialised
service
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and
will normally be requested from the supplier. Mixing the fertilizers and
calibrating the equipment are part of the service.
Calculation of the Total Requirement and Collection from Storage

The amount of fertilizer required for a mechanical application is calculated
in the same way as for manual application, and the same procedures are
followed for when fertilizer is collected from storage.
Measurement
The total amount of fertilizer required for a mechanical application is
weighed carefully and loaded into the spreading equipment.
Calibration
The spreader is calibrated to deliver a certain mass of fertilizers onto a
specific area. This can be affected by the delivery volume as well as the
application speed. The equipment should be calibrated before use.
Tractor speed and settings on the fertilizer spreader are interrelated and
must be kept constant for a specific calibration.
In field crops the spreaders are set to apply a band of fertilizer behind the
applicator. In the case of tree crops, the applicators are set to apply the
fertilizers in a strip of about one meter wide, on each side of the
applicator, under the trees. In orchards spreaders are set so that
fertilizers are not applied paths between rows.
Application
The mechanical spreader is attached to the tractor and drawn through the
orchard, spreading fertiliser from one or both sides. The driver must
ensure that the application speed to which the calibration was done is
adhered to.
1.4 Fertigation
Fertigation is a method of soil application of a nutrient solution. In this
case liquid fertilizer are added into to the irrigation stream and applied
through the irrigation system during normal irrigation. Fertigation is one
of the more recent developments in the application of nutrient solutions or
single-element solutions.
Application
Fertigation systems can apply any number of essential nutrient elements
at the same time. It is important that workers, who work with this type of
system and the associated equipment, receive clear instructions on
operations and must be trained in the use of fertigation equipment. The
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operating instructions and training will usually be provided by fertigation
equipment suppliers.
Fertigation systems are normally made up of a reservoir containing the
fertilizer stock solutions, and a dosing system that introduces the mixture
into the irrigation system. It is thus critical that the irrigation system
operates effectively.
Measurement and Calibration

The fertilization instruction will specify the mass or volume of fertiliser to
be added to the fertilizer reservoir / tank. It is made up tank with irrigation
water and the applied into the irrigation lines a pre determined rate and
ratio.
Note that one should be careful if liquid fertilizers are used and the
recommendation is specified as a mass. The density of liquids is seldom
1.00, meaning that one litre is not the same as one kilogram. Be careful to
make sure that the correct amount of active ingredient is used.
Guidelines and Principles of Fertigation

The principle of applying a fertilizer only to the wetted zone is easy to
adhere to with fertigation systems as water carries the fertiliser.
The fertilizers are e applied in small dosages during 90% to 100% of
the duration of the irrigation cycle.
When fertigation is used on drip irrigation systems, the depth to which
the fertilizers are applied must be controlled. The system must be
calibrated to apply the mixture to the top 60% to 70% of the root-
zone.
Phosphate fertilizer fertigation through micro-jets systems is not
always successful.
Fertigation systems vary widely in the way fertilizers are measured,
prepared, diluted and introduced into the system. It is important
that the operating instructions for each unit are followed carefully.
1.5 Foliar Applications

Foliar applications imply that the nutrients are applied to the leaves of the
crop.
The applications are made using a variety of mist blowers and other
spraying equipment in orchards and back-pack type applicators for other
crops including tunnels. The spraying equipment is normally not
19
dedicated for use in foliar nutrient applications, but also used for pesticide
application. The requirements for foliar application of nutrients and
pesticides vary and the same calibration should not be used for both types
of sprays.
Plant leaves can only absorb nutrients that are dissolved in water. The
leaves must therefore stay wet with the nutrient solution for as long as
possible. The mass of nutrient and therefore the volume of nutrient
solution that stays on the leaves are therefore important. To create an
effective period of absorption, the following calibration requirements are
important:
The concentration of the nutrient element in the spray solution must
be as high as possible, while avoiding the potential for scorching
the leaves or fruit.
The droplets applied to the leaves must be larger than 500 micron in
diameter. This will prevent excessive runoff and quick drying.
The leaves must be kept wet for as long as possible, preferably
exceeding 15 minutes. These applications are typically not done
during windy or very hot periods. Spraying after sundown night is
the most effective.
Foliar applications are normally applied to the leaves in the outer
50cm layer of the canopy (medium cover spray).
20
Please complete Activity 2 – Case Study:
Joe is a citrus farmer in the Limpopo province of South Africa. Two years ago he
upgraded his irrigation system to a micro-jet system. Last year he changed
from manual fertiliser to a fertigation system. He has found that the system
works very well in some areas of his farm, but in a small area there are some
problems.
He decided to resolve the plan step-by-step. He went out and beaconed off
the exact area where the problems are experienced. Then he checked
exactly what kinds of problems were occurring. He identified the following:
Indicator: Two-year old and older leaves on the trees
Symptoms: A large number of the old leaves have a light yellow colour.
These leaves started yellowing just before or during a new leaf flush with some
immediate leaf drop after that.
Deficiency Identified: Nitrogen (N)
He then decided to consult an expert and increase the application of nitrogen
(N) and potassium (K) in his fertigation program. Unfortunately the problem
still did not improve. Then he decided to take some soil samples to see whether
there might be any clues to be found in the soil. The laboratory results showed
that the pH of the soil was high and that the clay content of the soil was also
quite high. He then decided to include a super phosphate in his fertigation
program, which helped to alleviate the problem.
Now answer the questions below:
1. What was the first indication that Joe had that there is a problem?
2. Explain in your own words what steps Joe followed to try and identify the
reasons for the problem.
3. What would you have done differently?
4. Do you think that Joe came to the correct conclusion and applied the
correct solution to the problem? Motivate your answer.
Please complete Activity 3 – Questions:
Complete the following questions on worksheets that will be handed to you by

your facilitator.
1. Name three important considerations when calibrating for manual soil

applications of granular fertilisers.
2. Name three major considerations when calibrating equipment to apply
foliar nutrient sprays.
3. Name the most important issue when applying fertilisers (nutrient
solutions) by means of fertigation through micro-jets.
Concept (SO 1) I Questions that I

understand still would like to
this ask
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concept
The ability to use specialized equipment is

demonstrated.
The ability to calibrate specialized

equipment is demonstrated.
The ability to select the appropriate

nutrients for application from storage
facilities is demonstrated.
My N otes …
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. 22 .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Primary Agriculture NQF Level 3 Unit Standard No: 116267 .
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21
Collection, storage and

2
dispatch of samples for

Session
nutrient analyses
After completing this session, you should be able to:
SO 2: Supervise the collection of samples, and the
storage and dispatch of samples to appropriate
service providers
Sampling orchards.
Sampling pitfalls.
Handling samples.
Dispatching samples.
Recording sample information.
2.1 Introduction
During any sampling procedure, the actual sample taking is usually the
part where errors occur. Taking samples according to prescribed
procedures requires much effort. It may be tempting to take shortcuts to
speed-up the process. The quality of the samples will be jeopardized by
what may seem like insignificant deviations from a prescribed procedure.
Deviations usually occur when the person taking the sample is not fully
aware of the details of the procedure or does not appreciate the
importance of following the procedure.
Being aware of the pitfalls of sampling is important when supervising
these activities. There are also certain preparations to be made.
In most tree fruit crops, the fruit is not sampled for nutrient analyses and
fertilizer recommendations. Fruit is usually sampled to determine
whether the fruit are mature and ready for harvest.
Version: 01 Version Date: September 2024

24
To constantly achieve the same high quality result in sampling, it is a good idea
to divide your sampling process into clear and effective steps. What do you
think the steps for each stage of sampling should be?
• List the steps that you believe should be taken when taking leaf
and soil samples.
• Next to each step, write down who would normally do it on a

citrus farm.
• Write down the safety instructions that you would have to give to
your team for each specific step. • Write down any cautionary
information that you would have to tell your team to ensure that
the integrity of the sample is not compromised, meaning that the
samples would not become confused or contaminated .
After finalising the group discussion and deciding on the best options, write
them down on the worksheets provided by your facilitator and make keynotes
for yourself.
2.2 Sampling Orchards

In a permanent crop such as most tree crops, it is important that
sampling preparation is done. Some of the activities include:
Identify and mark the index rows in each orchard where samples will
be taken for the first time.
Ensure that the demarcation of the index rows is still in place and
visible in orchards where samples had previously been taken.
Prepare a list of the orchards to be sampled and indicate whether leaf-
or soil samples or both should be collected.
Ensure that the containers (specialised boxes or plastics bags) are
marked according to the requirements of the laboratory and the
site procedures. Some laboratories provide sample containers for
orchards, which are registered with them at the beginning of each
season.
Allocate specific sampling tasks to specific people who have been
trained and briefed in the application of specific procedures.
Provide cautionary advice and health and safety instructions to the
sampling team.
Accompany the team to the orchards / fields where the sampling is to
take place.

25
2.3 Sampling Pitfalls

Leaf Sampling
The leaves that are to be sampled and analysed are referred to as the
diagnostic leaves.
In tree crops the diagnostic leaf is one that is located on a new shoot
formed during the spring of the year of sampling. In citrus the
leaves on older twigs will be older than nine months and will have a
different nutrient composition than the diagnostic leaf.
The sampler must be aware of the difference between the diagnostic
leaf and older leaves.
The diagnostic leaf is taken from a fruit-bearing twig, meaning that
the shoot should carry fruit.
Usually only one or two leaves are taken from a single tree.
The final sample may be made up of leaves from a number of sample
trees or indicator trees
Soil Sampling – Orchards

The major pitfall with soil-sampling is taking the total mass of soil
required at one single tree.
A soil sample is made up of a number of sub-samples each collected
from a different spot in the orchard or field.
Soil samples are taken to a depth of 20-30cm.
The entire sub sampled are placed into one sample container (new
plastics bag or clean suitable container), making up a composite
sample. The subsamples are hen mixed thoroughly. This will leave
you with a larger sample volume that will be required by the
laboratory. The actual sample for analyses is taken as a sub
sample from the bulk or composite sample. For this reason it is
essential that the composite sample is well mixed (homogenous).
It may be difficult to reach the wetted and fertilized area below the
canopy, but samples must not be taken outside this specific area.
Soil Sampling – Field crops

Soil samples for field crops are usually taken before the crop is
established.
To collect a sample for a field crop, divide the field into 10 different
sections each approximately the same size. You now take a spade
and collect from

26
each of these areas a spade full of soil. Take a spade full from the
top 30 cm layer (top soil) of soil and place it on a plastics sheet.
Collect a second spade full from the same area from the 30 – 50 cm
soil layer (sub-soil) and place it on a separate plastics sheet.
Repeat the procedure for each of the 10 areas identified.
Now mix the combined spade full’s of the top soil. Do the same for
the soil from the next layer.
Collect approximately 1 kg of soil form the top soil heap and place it
in a plastics bag and seal. Repeat the procedure for the sub-soil.
For every field you require a soil analysis for you should have two
samples.
Label each sample properly with a sample number a field number
indicating the field it comes from and a sampling date. Indicate
whether it is a top soil or sub-soil sample.
2.4 Handling Samples

After the samples have been taken, they must be handled as follows:
Label the sample
Mark the sample list to indicate that the sample has been collected.
Seal the sample containers properly.
Keep samples in the shade until they can be transported to the office.
Laboratories may have special requirements or procedures for sample
handling and storage. These must be followed at all times, if they
differ from the on farm procedures.
2.5 Dispatching Samples

At the office, separate the leaf and soil samples, and place them in order
according to orchard or field number.
Check the numbers on the labels of the leaf and soil samples for each
orchard / field sampled, and record it on a list that will serve as a
consignment note.
Make a copy of the list and include that with the consignment of samples
in the container that is to be dispatched to the laboratory. The list serves
as a consignment note. Ensure that all the details that the laboratory
may require are included on the list.

27
2.6 Recording Sample Information

Keeping record of the samples is important for the communication
between the farm, laboratory and the expert developing the fertilization
program. It is important to streamline this process and to ensure that one
keeps track of the samples.
Keep record by means of a consignment note. Samples in a consignment
are listed on a consignment note, so that the laboratory can crosscheck
that they have received all the samples when they arrive. If a sample is
missing, it is easy to communicate that immediately to the farm, and
allow time to re-sample if required.
The table below contains an example of a consignment note.
AA Farming Telephone: (019) 222-9988

P O Box 21 Fax: (019) 222-9989
Sand River
0111
Contact Person: J Ralepele
To: CAL
Date: 25/03/05
Carrier: Sun Couriers
Waybill No: SC 2118/05
Number of Parcels: One
Special Please do the standard analyses on leaf and soil samples
Instructions: for fertilisation recommendations. For soil samples also
please determine organic content.
SAMPLES DISPATCHED
Sample type: Soil samples Top 30
Sample type: Citrus leaf Samples
cm soil layer
Sample Sample
Sample number Sample number
description description
1 Orange Cv Delta 4 Orange Cv Delta
Orchard 10 Orchard 10
2 Orange Cv Midknight 5 Orange Cv
Orchard 11 Midknight
Orchard 11
3 Mandaris Cv 6 Mandaris Cv
clemintine Orchard clemintine
12 Orchard 12

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Total of 3 leaf samples Total of 3 soil samples
Please complete Activity 5 :

Activity 5.1 – Questions:
Discuss the questions below with a partner and write down the conclusions that
you reach.
1. Why is it important to keep records of samples? What do you think
these records could be used for?
2. What could happen if no records were kept of samples?
Activity 5.2 – Groups of two:

Supervise one of your fellow learners whilst they implement the soil sampling
procedures (including labelling and dispatch), for fertilisation recommendation
analyses, that are practiced at your place of work
Sampling procedures must be followed carefully to ensure that the results of

analyses are accurate and meaningful.
In preparation for sampling, demarcate the orchards and trees, prepare a list
of samples, ensure that the sampling containers are clean and properly
marked, allocate specific tasks to specific team members and ensure that
they are aware of proper procedure, and health and safety instructions.
With leaf sampling, ensure that the leaves that are taken is on young shoots,
that the leaf is taken from a fruit-bearing shoot, and that not more than two
leaves are taken from a tree.
With soil samples, ensure that the correct number of sub-samples are taken,
that samples are taken at a depth of 20-30cm, that the sub-samples are
mixed thoroughly, and that samples are taken from the wetted area under
the canopy of the tree.
After samples have been taken, mark it off on the list, seal the containers
properly and keep it in the shade.
Before dispatching samples, separate the leaf and soil samples, check and
order the samples, and record them on a consignment note.
Samples must be recorded to facilitate communication between the farm and

laboratory. The most important record is the consignment note.

29
I
understand
this Questions that I still
Concept (SO 2) concept would like to ask
The ability to take and handle leaf,

soil and fruit samples according to
prescribed procedures are
demonstrated.
The process of recording and

dispatching the samples to the
appropriate service provider is
explained.
My Notes …
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Nutritional deficiencies in
Session 3 crops
After completing this session, you should be able
to: SO 4: Identify and interpret symptoms of
nutritional deficiencies in various crops and
make basic recommendations.
Plant nutrition.
Plant nutrition elements.
Plant nutrient macro-elements.
Plant nutrient trace elements.
The relationship between fruit quality and tree nutrient status in
orchard crops.
3.1 Plant Nutrition

This section deals with the identification of deficits of nutrients in plants,
and will allow you to identify such deficits by inspecting the plant. The
section also provides a short explanation of what the nutrients are and
why they are needed, so that you can understand the deficit symptom
better.

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3.2 Plant Nutrition elements

There are 16 main nutrients or elements that plants require for normal
growth and development. These nutrients are divided into two main
groups, the macro-elements that are required in relatively large quantities
and the micro-elements or trace elements, which are required in very
small quantities.
The macro-elements are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), Nitrogen
(N), potassium (K), phosphorous (P), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and
sulphur (S).
The trace elements are iron (Fe), copper (Cu), boron (B), molybdenum
(Mo), chlorine (Cl), manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn).
The three elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, make up about 95% of
the fresh mass of plant tissue. These three nutrients however occur
naturally in large quantities and do not require addition.
The remaining elements are generally present in soils/growth media, but
are not always present in the correct ratios or the correct amounts.
These nutrients are taken up primarily through roots from the soil, but
some can be taken up through leaves.
The next three most important elements that can be added to soil for
plant growth is nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) and potassium (K). In
fertilizer terms these are the most well known nutrients. The number that
appears on fertilizer packaging such as
3:1:3, indicates the N: P: K ratio that the specific fertilizer in the bag
contains. In a 3:1:3 fertilizer for example, there are 3 parts N for every 1
Part of P and every 3 parts of K.
Fertilizers that are high in nitrogen (those with a high N ratio) are suitable
for leafy vegetables such as lettuce and spinach and also for grass and
lawns because it will stimulate growth of leaf tissue (vegetative growth).
An example is a lawn fertilizer with a NPK ratio of 7:3:2.
A more balanced NPK ratio such as a 3:2:3 ratio such as found in
fertilizers made for roses, will tend to encourage the production of
flowers.
Although N, P and K are the most well known elements that plants
require, the remaining macro elements (phosphorous (P), calcium (Ca),
magnesium (Mg) and sulphur (S)) are also important.
What follows is a short discussion of the main reasons why each nutrient
is important. There is also a discussion on how to identify their deficit.

32
3.3 Plant Nutrient macro-elements

Nitrogen (N)
Why does a plant need N?
Nitrogen is essential for the synthesis of proteins in plants.
Nitrogen is necessary as a building block for genetic material.
Nitrogen is an essential part of the green pigment chlorophyll.
Nitrogen is good for leafy vegetables or as a general tonic to boost
plant growth.
Where do we find N?
Plants use nitrogen in two forms, these are ammonium and nitrate
These are both available as inorganic fertilizers.
Ammonium will stimulate leafy growth.
Applying nitrate or urea as an inorganic fertilizer as a foliar spray very
quickly stimulates crop growth.
Take care when applying these as crops are easily scorched when
overdosing.
Nitrogen is also found in organic matter, such as lawn clippings,
compost, manure as well as blood or bone meal.
What does a plant that is deficient in N look like?
Plants are stunted
Leaves become pale green or yellow (chlorosis)
Yellowing is normally seen on older leaves first
On closer inspection yellowing starts at the tip of the leaf progressing
down the middle of the leaf to the leaf base, spreading across the
leaf blade as a whole.
Phosphorus (P)
Why does a plant need P?
Plants require phosphorous all the time.
There is a strong relationship between phosphorous and nitrogen
requirements.
If there is no N, the plant cannot take up P from the growth medium
P is essential for growth and development of stems, roots, seeds,
flowers and seedlings.

33
In crops P improves crop quality, increases root growth and leads to
earlier crop maturity.
Where do we find P?
Phosphorous deficiency can be corrected by adding phosphorus to
irrigation water in the form of e.g. potassium phosphate, or a foliar
application of ammonium phosphate.
As with nitrogen scorching of leaves could occur.
A more long-term source of phosphorous is super-phosphate which is
applied to the soil
What does a plant that is deficient in P look like?
Plants are stunted
Leaves take on a purplish colour.
The undersides of the leaves become characteristically purple
especially on the veins.
Fruits mature late and seeds do not develop properly
The change in colour usually develops on older leaves first.
Potassium (K)
Why does a plant need K?
Potassium is not an important structural component of a plant.
K is important in a range of plant growth processes.
K is important for photosynthesis and aids in the plants overall vigor,
strength, water uptake and disease resistance.
K plays a role in maintaining plant water balance, controls
transpiration, and activates enzymes.
K improves the plants’ flower, fruit and seed quality.
Where do we find K?
Potassium deficiency can be overcome by foliar application of
potassium Sulphate or potassium nitrate. A more long-term source
of potassium is potash worked into the soil.
What does a plant that is deficient in K look like?
The first sign of potassium deficiency is that the leaves turn dark
green
In time leaves become a purple brown colour.
This discoloration is followed by yellowing of leaf edges leading to a
browning dying off (necrosis) of the tissue.

34
Weak stems, with yellowing or browning around the edges and tips
of older leaves are a tell-tail sign of K deficiency.
Calcium (Ca)
Why does a plant need Ca?
Calcium is a major constituent of cell walls.
Ca is involved in nitrogen metabolism and activates enzymes.
Ca helps to build strong stems.
Where do we find Ca?
The effects of can generally be reversed.
This is done by a foliar application of compounds such as calcium
nitrate. Calcium is also found in agricultural lime, super-phosphate
and gypsum.
What does a plant that is deficient in Ca look like?
Common symptoms of calcium deficits are stunting, wilting and dark
green discoloration.
Leaf margins become scorched
Roots are poorly developed and the root tips die off.
In fruit crops like tomatoes, cucumbers and peppers calcium
deficiency causes blossom end rot. This condition is irreversible.
Magnesium (Mg)
Why does a plant need Mg?
Magnesium is essential a part of the green pigment chlorophyll and is
thus an extremely important element.
Where do we find Mg?
Magnesium deficiency is common and can be corrected by foliar
application of Epson salts. Magnesium is found in a number of
commercial fertilizers.
What does a plant that is deficient in Mg look like?
A plant is deficient in magnesium develops yellow leaves
Usually the older leaves of the plant, rather than the new young leave
develop this symptom.
The margins of leaves turn yellow, spreading to the leaf blade as a
whole.
Sulphur (S)
Why does a plant need S?
35
Sulphur is important for the production of chlorophyll
S is also important as a protein constituent.
Where do we find S?
Mg is found in super phosphate and gypsum.
What does a plant that is deficient in S look like?
A sulphur deficiency affects the quality and flavour of fruit and
vegetables.
It is seen as a light purple discoloration of petioles, stems and veins,
with the leaves turning pale yellow.
Dead spots and patches may develop on leaves.
3.4 Plant Nutrient Trace Elements

Trace elements have to be present in the plant in order for other nutrients
to be available to the plant. They are required in very small amounts.
Intensively cropped soils such as vegetable gardens, heavy clay soils or
light sandy soils often are deficient in trace elements.
Iron (Fe)
Why does a plant need Fe?
Iron plays a vital role in the formation of chlorophyll during
photosynthesis.
Where do we find Fe?
Iron can be applied as iron chelates and iron salts.
Deficiency develops if the growth medium pH is too high or if
anaerobic conditions develop in soil or to much magnesium is found
in the in the rooting medium.
What does a plant that is deficient in Fe look like?
Iron deficiency symptoms are similar to those of magnesium.
The major symptoms are yellowing of young developing leaves.
The veins remain green but the rest of the tissue becomes yellow,
causing a mottled leaf.
Manganese (Mn)
Why does a plant need Mn?
Mn is Essential for the manufacturing of “sugars”
Mn is required for nitrogen metabolism.

36
Where do we find Mn?
Manganese can be applied as manganese sulphate.
Care must be taken however as this element is toxic at high
concentrations.
What does a plant that is deficient in Mn look like?
Develops first on young tissues and can easily be confused with iron
deficiency.
The distinguishing factor is that Mn deficits cause more overall leaf
discoloration and may also cause necrotic spots and lesions.
In severe cases leaves become distorted.
Zinc (Zn)
Why does a plant need Zn?
Plays a role in enzymes
Involved in synthesis of plant hormone indole-acetic-acid
Copper (Cu)
Why does a plant need Cu?
Plays a role in the activation of several enzymes, effects cell wall
formation.
Plants require very little Cu to be present.
Where do we find Mn?
Copper deficits can be remedied by the application of copper
sulphate.
What does a plant that is deficient in Mn look like?
Cu deficiency causes stunting of the plants leading to shortened inter-
nodes and small leaves.
Chlorite blotches develop on older leaves, gradually spreading to
younger leaves.
Affected leaves turn dull green to bronze with the edges curling
upwards.
Boron (B)
Why does a plant need B?
Required for healthy plant growth.
A plant that lacks boron cannot take up calcium from the soil.

37
Boron easily becomes toxic to the plant, and thus boron toxicity is
more common than boron deficiency.
Beetroot plants are highly susceptible to boron toxicity.
Where do we find B?
Boron deficiency can be readily corrected using sodium borate added
to the nutrient solution, or as a foliar spray.
What does a plant that is deficient in B look like?
Boron deficiency is first seen as yellowing of leaf tips on older leaves.
The growth tip or stem apex dies off and the veins supplying the
young leaflets become clogged.
The tops of plants assume a bushy appearance, the stems and
petioles become brittle causing them to break easily.
The leaves may develop orange to yellow discoloration.
Roots become blackened.
Molybdenum (Mo)
Why does a plant need Mo?
Molybdenum is involved in the activity of enzymes and is essential for
the conversion of nitrogen from the air into a soluble form that the
plant can use.
Mo becomes more available o the plant as the root medium pH is
increased.
Where do we find Mo?
Mo deficiency can be corrected by applying a foliar application of
sodium molybdate or ammonium molybdate.
What does a plant that is deficient in Mo look like?
Mo deficiency in scarce, but can be found on acid soils.
Older leaves become mottled spreading slowly to the younger leaves;
later leaves become scorched and curled.
Chlorine (Cl)
Chlorine is essential for plant growth, but chlorine toxicity is more
common than deficiency. An analysis of water for chlorine is especially
important for hydroponics growers.
Dead spots and patches may develop on leaves.

38
3.5 The relationship between Fruit Quality and

Tree Nutrient Status in orchard crops
The nutritional status of the trees at specific periods during the
development of the fruit has a definite influence on the quality of the fruit
produced, and its
exportability. The influence of specific nutrient elements on fruit quality
is discussed in detail in this section.
Nitrogen (N) • A too high nitrogen status of the citrus trees

during could influence fruit ripening and could
affect the quality of the fruit. Too low
concentration of nitrogen during bud-break and
flowering will reduce the number of fruit.
Phosphorus (P) • Too high concentrations seldom have an

influence on the fruit quality, but a too low
phosphorus status will affect fruit quality.
Potassium (K) • When the potassium status of a tree is too low,

the fruit tend to be stunted and the acid content
low.
Calcium (Ca) • The detrimental effect of excess calcium on fruit

quality, apart from lemons, is unknown.
Combined effects of the status of nutrient elements also occur.
3.6 Basic Recommendations for improving

Nutritional Status – Tree crops
Improving the nutritional status of the trees means that the status of all
fourteen essential nutrient elements must be brought within the normal
range for the specific crop and cultivar.
Methods to improve the status of a nutrient element are the application of
additional amounts of a specific nutrient element or combinations of
elements either as soil application or through foliar sprays. Both methods
have advantages and disadvantages relating to the soil type, condition of
the tree and the specific nutrient element.

The
39
most
common method to increase the nutritional status of the trees is to apply
more of the nutrient to the soil. This rates and timing of applications
should be based on soil analyses. Additional application of a fertilizer to
the soil must only be done if the concentration of the available form of the
nutrient content in the soil is low. A further consideration is whether the
applied nutrient will stay in the available form long enough to satisfy the
demand. Apart from applying more nutrients to the root-zone, other
methods used to improve the nutritional status should be considered. In
the table below, possible causes and the corresponding remedies are
listed.
Decreasing the nutritional status is not always possible. However,
sometimes the effect of too high concentrations of a nutrient element can
be counteracted.
Nutrient
Possible Cause Possible Remedy
Element
Split the mass / volume of fertilizers
Too much fertilizers applied at a time
applied at any one time
Reduce the application of water to
Excess leaching
wet the root-zone only
N
Test the roots for Phytophtora and act
Phytophtora infection of the roots
accordingly
Foliar sprays with low biuret urea or
Low efficiency of applied fertilizers
potassium nitrate
Apply single or double super
Too high soil pH
phosphate in a narrow strip on the soil
P Too low soil pH Apply lime to increase the pH to 6.50
Foliar sprays with phosphates are not
effective.
Too high concentration of magnesium Use potassium nitrate to apply some
in the soil or water of the nitrogen required
Test the roots for nematodes and act
Nematodes
accordingly
Salinity Locate the source and act accordingly
Low efficiency of applied fertilizers Foliar sprays with low potassium
K
nitrate
Poor root health Take remedial actions
Old trees Rejuvenate the root system
Corrective actions with mechanical
Compaction implements may be used, but are not
always successful

40
Ensure that enough available calcium

is present in the root zone during the
Climatic conditions
critical
period from budding to petal drop
Low pH Apply lime
Ca
Salinity Locate the source and act accordingly
Low calcium saturation Apply lime, gypsum or calcium nitrate
Foliar sprays with calcium have
limited success
Too high concentration of potassium in
Apply magnesium nitrate foliar sprays
the soil
Mg
Low pH Apply dolomitic lime
Foliar sprays with potassium nitrate Apply magnesium nitrate foliar sprays
S Too low concentration of S in the soil Apply sulphates to the soil. The
efficacy of
Nutrient
Possible Cause Possible Remedy
Element
foliar sprays is unknown.
Apply foliar sprays. The efficacy of

Cu Too low concentration of Cu in the soil soil application depends on many soil
factors.
Too high pH in the soil Apply Fe-EDDHA in August
Water logging Improve scheduling and drainage
Fe
Foliar sprays with iron are not
effective
Too high pH in the soil Apply foliar sprays
Mn
Recent liming Apply foliar sprays
Too high pH in the soil Apply foliar sprays
Zn High P status Apply foliar sprays
Soil applications to mature trees are
not effective
Too low pH in the soil Apply foliar sprays
B
The applications of boron to the soil is
quite effective under most soil
conditions
Mo Too low soil pH Apply lime. Apply foliar sprays.

41
The status of various nutrients in the tree has a marked effect on
fruit quality. Nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium and calcium play
the most important role.
To correct the nutrient status of the tree, the cause of the over- or
undersupply must be known. Applying more fertilizer may not be
an effective remedy.
Please complete Activity 6 - Questions :
Complete the following questions below on worksheets that will be handed to

you by your facilitator.
1. What will the result be of too high concentrations of the following

elements on the quality of citrus fruit?
• Nitrogen, Phosporus, Potassium.
2. Apart from increasing the application rate of fertilisers, how can a too
low status of the following nutrient elements be corrected?
• Nitrogen, Potassium, Iron
I
understand
this Questions that I still
Concept (SO 4) concept would like to ask
The relationship between plant

abnormalities and deficiencies of
specific macro- and micro-
nutrients is explained.
Basic recommendations for

improving soil fertility are made.

42
My Notes … Primary Agriculture NQF Level 3 Unit Standard No: 116267
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Session 4 Preparation
43
Plant
Nutrition and Soil

SO 3: Demonstrate an understanding of the properties
of soil and how these impact on plant nutrition and
soil preparation.
The impact of soil properties on plant nutrition.
The impact of physical soil properties on plant nutrition.
The impact of chemical soil properties on plant nutrition.
The impact of soil properties on soil preparation
Please complete Activity 7 – Group Brainstorm :
Brainstorm as a group and find answers to the questions below. You may refer
to your level 2 learner guide if necessary.
1. What are the physical soil properties?

2. What are the chemical soil properties?
3. What kinds of impact might these properties have on plants and plant
nutrition?
4. The impact that we have discussed above may be direct or indirect.
The impact of physical properties is mostly indirect, while the impact of
chemical properties is mostly direct. Give a practical example of a
direct impact that the chemical properties of soil might have on the
nutrition of a plant?
5. Give a practical example of an indirect impact that the physical
properties of soil might have on the nutrition of a plant?
4.1 The impact of Soil Properties on Plant

Nutrition
Both the physical and chemical properties of soil will impact on plant
nutrition. The impact of the physical properties is mostly indirect and that
of the chemical properties mostly direct.

44
4.2 The impact of Physical Soil Properties on

Plant Nutrition
Soil Texture
The higher the clay content of the soil, the more water is absorbed
and the less air is present at field water capacity (FWC). It is critical
to have enough air around the roots at FWC.
Citrus trees grown in soils containing more than 30% clay often
produce too many small fruit. This could be associated with less
air, not enough available potassium or too much competition for
the cations that are present.
Structure
When the structure of soil is destroyed or degraded, adverse affects
are found on root development and root health, weaker water
penetration, aeration and internal drainage.
These will all lead to reduce crop productivity.
Soil Depth
Shallow soils need better management and more inputs to optimise
irrigation and fertilization. A shallow soil depth also poses many
problems with internal drainage.
Various crops and crop types have different soil depth requirements.
In citrus a minimum of 30cm effective rooting depth is required, in
a profile with at least 75cm total depth is. When using micro-jet
irrigation, a rooting depth of 40cm to 50cm will be optimal, whereas
60cm to 70cm is optimal for drip irrigation. This example shows
clearly that it is essential that the soil depth be matched with the
crop requirements.
Layering or Stratification
Layering is caused by the differences in the clay content of
consecutive layers in the soil profile. This can be easily observed in
alluvial soils, which are soils deposited by water such as on river
banks, where many thin layers of different textures are present in
the profile. The layers can also be quite thick and are the result of
various soil forming factors.
A well-documented property of roots is that they do not cross easily
from one textural type of soil into another if the soil texture differs
too much between layers. The guideline for too great a difference
is more than 1.5 times the clay content. The factor of 1.5 is

45
influenced by other soil properties, such as the type of clay and the
silt content.
The factor of 1.5 can be explained as follows:
If the top layer of soil contains 15% clay and the next layer 25%,
the increase in clay content from the top to the next layer is
25/15 = 1.67. The factor in this case is more than 1.5 and the
difference between layers is therefore too large too allow for
successful cultivation.
Water movement in the soil profile is also restricted by layering. This
is the result of the difference in hydraulic forces in a clayey versus
a sandy soil. When a sandy soil is overlaying a clay layer, the water
will move quickly through the sandy soil until it reaches the clay
layer. Water moves slower through clay than sandy soil and, in this
example, will accumulate on top of the clayey layer. This
accumulated water is called free water and causes anaerobic
(containing no oxygen) conditions in the rooting zone.
Aeration
Roots perform respiration during their normal activity.
Respiration
Respiration is an energy-producing oxidation process in cells, the
complete chemical and physical process in which oxygen is
delivered to plant cells and carbon dioxide and water are given off.
The decomposition of organic material also produces carbon dioxide.
The concentration of carbon dioxide in the air in the soil increases
because of these two factors. Soil must be aerated to supplement
the oxygen and remove the carbon dioxide.
The macro pores in soil form a chain of canals to exchange the air in
the soil with that in the atmosphere. If these pores are filled with
water or reduced in size by compaction, the exchange rate is
reduced and the rooting zone becomes more anaerobic and less
suitable for root activity.
At FWC the soil contains the lowest volume of air. For optimal root
development and activity, the spaces filled with air at FWC should
be about 10% of the total soil volume.

46
4.3 The impact of Chemical Soil Properties on

Plant Nutrition
pH
The pH of the soil defines the environment in which the roots must
absorb water and nutrients, with the availability of the nutrients
being affected by the pH. Optimum soil water pH, where all the
nutrients are available, is said
to be between 5.5 and 6.5. The solubility of aluminium, which is
phytotoxic, however increases rapidly below a soil water pH of 5.3.
Soil with a pH value higher than 7.5 are alkaline and the metal ions
Fe, Cu,
Mn and Zn are less soluble and hence less available. At a pH of
less than 5.3, aluminium becomes more soluble and reaches toxic
levels. Manganese also reaches toxic levels in acid soils.
Resistance
Resistance to conductance of electrical current measures the
concentration of total soluble salts in a soil. The lower the salt
concentration is in soil, the higher the resistance, and conversely,
the higher the concentration of soluble salts, the lower the
resistance.
The soluble salt content includes the plant nutrients. At the same
concentration, different salts or fertilisers will contribute differently
to the resistance. Sulphates contribute less to the resistance than
chlorides. The contribution of fertilisers to the resistance is called
the salt index of fertilisers.
In the table below, the salt index of potassium chloride is 114, but
that of potassium Sulphate is only 46 at the same concentration.
The higher the salt index of the solution, the lower the resistance,
and the higher the electrical conductivity of the solution. When the
resistance is too low, meaning when the salt index is too high, the
plants need energy to overcome the osmotic pressure in order to
absorb water and nutrients. When the resistance is too low, the
mass of nutrients available for absorption might be too low if not
supplemented in time.
The Relative Salt Index of Most Common
Fertilisers
Fertilizer Salt
Index

47
Potassium chloride 114

Ammonium nitrate 105
Sodium nitrate 100
Limestone ammonium nitrate 98
Urea (after hydrolyses) 75
Ammonium Sulphate 69
Potassium Sulphate 46
Double super phosphate (20,5%P) 10
Single super phosphate (10,5%P) 8
Fertility
Fertility is the collective name to describe the level of all the nutrients
in the soil. The higher the fertility, up to a certain point, the better
the yields, provided all other production factors such as irrigation
are optimal.
Organic Material
Organic matter in soil consists of various components including plant
and animal debris, partly decomposed material of various origin,
and humus. Humus is the stable form of organic material in the soil
and consists of very large molecules.
Organic material adds another dimension to the soil and plant growth.
Organic material influences almost all the physical and chemical
factors mentioned above. Furthermore, it influences the biological
activity of the soil.

Complete the following question below on worksheets that will be handed to
you by your facilitator.
1. Give reasons why the following physical and chemical properties of soils will
impact on plant nutrition.
• Physical Properties: Texture, Structure, Soil Layering, Soil Depth,
Aeration
• Chemical Properties: PH, Resistance, Salinity, Organic Material,
Fertility

48
4.4 The impact of Soil Properties on Soil

Preparation
The purpose of soil preparation is to create a homogeneous rooting zone
with no physical and chemical barriers that will restrict root development,
root health and root activity. An active and healthy root system has a
better chance of maintaining profitable production. Both physical and
chemical properties have an impact on soil preparation.
Homogenous
Homogenous means having a uniform composition and structure.
In terms of soil, it means creating a consistent rooting zone with
no layering or chemical barriers, such as radical changes in soil
pH.
Soil preparation must always be preceded by a soil survey and soil

analyses, and the manner in which the preparation is done should be
guided by the results of these tests.
Soil Survey
The purpose of a soil survey is the evaluation of the profile(s) of the
soil. The soil profile is the visible face on the side of a hole dug into
the soil, referred to as a profile pit. This profile pit is evaluated in
terms of depth, the condition, type and sequence of the layers,
called horizons, soil structure and indicators of aeration and
internal drainage.
Positioning Profile Pits

The number of profile pits per hectare depends on the variation in soil
type. Typically, profile pits are dug on a grid of 50m or 100m, but
the frequency depends on soil conditions and topography.
The pit must always be positioned in such a way to ensure that one of
the long sides will receive sunlight to make the survey easy.
The position of the profile pit must be recorded geographically. This
can be done by using beacons inside or outside the orchard or site.
Nowadays Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates are used.
The position of the pit is important when planning the layout, soil
preparation and irrigation system for the orchard.

49
Digging Profile Pits
A profile pit is usually 60cm to 75cm wide and 100cm to 150cm long.
It is dug to a depth of at least 100cm, or to where the parent
material or rock is encountered.
Surveying Profile Pits

Before surveying the profile, use a garden fork or geological hammer
and loosen a strip of about 20cm wide from the surface down to the
bottom on one of the sides. This will help to observe the profile in a
natural state.
Look for signs that indicate the different horizons, such as changes in
colour, structure and / or texture.
Mark the different layers, or horizons, and measure their position in
the profile. The position is marked by the depth from the surface to
the top and the bottom of the layer, for instance the first layer 0cm
to 25cm, the second layer 25cm to 45cm, and the third layer 45cm
to 90cm, and so on.
Note the transition between layers. It can be gradually over more
than 20cm, or abruptly in less than 5cm.
Figure: Elements of a Typical Profile

50
Sampling Profile Pits
Mark the position of each layer on all four sides of the profile pit.
Take a slice of the layer from its top to its bottom on all four sides of
the pit. Mix the soil from the four sides and collect about 500g for
analyses. Mark the samples stating the farm, the location or
orchard, and the profile number.
Comparing Profiles
The next step in soil survey is to group areas with the same profile
properties together. This is the first step to demarcating soil types.
Comparison between soil profiles is done on a horizon bases. The
same horizons must be present on soils that are grouped together.
The horizons that are grouped together must also have the same
position, thickness and other properties. Soil samples from the
same horizon from different profile pits in the same group can be
mixed to give one composite sample.
As an alternative, a modal profile pit which represents all similar
profiles can be chosen, recorded and sampled to represent the
group or area.
Demarcation of Soil Types

Based on the grouped profiles, the area can be demarcated into soil
types. The preliminary soil map of the area can, after refinement,
be used to design the irrigation and plan the soil preparation
action. The refinement of the soil map can be done as soon as the
results from the laboratory are available.
Preliminary Recommendations on Soil Preparation

The recommendations should include directions as to the cultivation
depth, what type of loosening action is required and whether ridges
are needed. All these decisions are based on the profile survey and
laboratory analyses.
4.5 Chemical and Physical Analysis of Profile Pit

Soil Samples
The purpose of the analyses is to confirm certain observations of the
profile survey and to determine the necessity for ameliorants, which are
chemicals or fertilizers that will improve the physical and chemical
condition of the soil, that are applied during soil preparation, as well as a

51
fertilization program for the newly planted trees during their non-bearing
stage.
The minimum analytical requirements on the profile samples are as
follows:
• Top soil layer pH, resistance, P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, texture
• Second layer pH, resistance, texture
• Third layer pH, resistance, texture

Physical and chemical soil properties play a role in plant nutrition.
The impact of the physical properties is mostly indirect and that of
the chemical properties mostly direct.
In as far as soil texture is concerned; the higher the clay content of
the soil, the less air is available for the roots.
If the soil structure is destroyed, it has an adverse effect on root
development and root health, and leads to weaker water
penetration, aeration and internal drainage.
A minimum soil depth of 30cm for rooting is required for citrus
production, with a rooting depth of 40cm to 50cm for micro-jets and
60cm to 70cm for drip irrigation considered as optimal.
For the development of a healthy root zone, a soil strength of less
than 1,800 to 2,000 mega Pascal per cm2 (MPacm-2) is required.
In terms of soil stratification, the guideline for too great a difference

is more than 1.5 times the clay content from one layer to the next.
In terms of soil aeration, for optimal root development and activity,
the spaces filled with air at FWC should be about 10% of the total
soil volume.
Optimum soil water pH, where all the nutrients are available, is said
to be between 5.5 and 6.5.
When the soil resistance is too low, meaning when the salt index is
too high, the plants need energy to overcome the osmotic pressure
in order to absorb water and nutrients. When the resistance is too
low, the mass of nutrients available for absorption might be too low
if not supplemented in time.
The higher the soil fertility, up to a certain point, the better the
yields, provided all other production factors such as irrigation are
optimal.
Organic material influences almost all the physical and chemical
factors.

52
The purpose of soil preparation is to create a homogeneous rooting
zone with no physical and chemical barriers that will restrict root
development, root health and root activity.
The purpose of a soil survey is the evaluation of the profile(s) of the
soil, and it is done by evaluating the inside of a profile pit.
Profile pits are surveyed by marking the positions of the various layers
and by taking samples from the layers.
Profile pits with the same horizons are grouped together. The area is
demarcated into soil types based on the grouped profiles and a soil
map is developed.
Please complete Activity 9 - Questions:

Complete the following questions below.
1. Describe the positioning of a profile pit.
2. Describe the major components of a soil profile.
3. Describe the use of profile pits to initiate a soil map.
♦
Physical and chemical soil properties play a role in plant nutrition. The
impact of the physical properties is mostly indirect and that of the
chemical properties mostly direct.
♦ In as far as soil texture is concerned, the higher the clay content of the
soil, the less air is available for the roots.
♦ If the soil structure is destroyed, it has an adverse effect on root
development and root health, and leads to weaker water penetration,
aeration and internal drainage.
♦ A minimum soil depth of 30cm for rooting is required for citrus
production, with a rooting depth of 40cm to 50cm for micro-jets and 60cm
to 70cm for drip irrigation considered as optimal.
♦ For the development of a healthy root zone, a soil strength of less than
1,800 to 2,000 mega Pascal per cm2 (MPacm-2) is required.
♦ In terms of soil stratification, the guideline for too great a difference is
more than 1.5 times the clay content from one layer to the next.
♦ In terms of soil aeration, for optimal root development and activity, the
spaces filled with air at FWC should be about 10% of the total soil volume.
♦ Optimum soil pH(water), where all the nutrients are available, is said to be
between 5.5 and 6.5.
♦ When the soil resistance is too low, meaning when the salt index is too
high, the plants need energy to overcome the osmotic pressure in order to
absorb water and nutrients. When the resistance is too low, the mass of
nutrients available for absorption might be too low if not supplemented in
53
time.
♦ The higher the soil fertility, up to a certain point, the better the yields,
provided all other production factors such as irrigation are optimal.
♦ Organic material influences almost all the physical and chemical factors.
♦ The purpose of soil preparation is to create a homogeneous rooting zone with

no physical and chemical barriers that will restrict root development, root
health and root activity.
♦ The purpose of a soil survey is the evaluation of the profile(s) of the soil, and
it is done by evaluating the inside of a profile pit.
♦ Profile pits are surveyed by marking the positions of the various layers and
by taking samples from the layers.
♦ Profile pits with the same horizons are grouped together. The area is
demarcated into soil types based on the grouped profiles and a soil map is
developed.
I understand Questions that I still would

Concept (SO 3)
this concept like to ask
The impact of soil properties on
plant nutrition is explained.
The impact of soil properties on

soil preparation is explained.
Supervise and implement

54
Session 5 Soil Preparation and
Remediation
SO 5: Supervise and implement soil preparation and
remediation.

Soil remediation.
The purpose of soil preparation.
Cultivation needs of various soils.
Soil preparation methods and implements.
In your group, revise what you have already learnt about soil preparation by
drawing a mind map. Refer to your level 2 learner guide is necessary.
Discuss the questions below in your group and complete.
1. What are the different methods of soil preparation?

2. What do you know about mechanical soil preparation?
3. What do you know about non-mechanical soil preparation?
5.1 Soil Remediation

Soil aggregation
Soil that drains well does not crust, takes in water rapidly, does not
clod and have good tilth. Tilth refers to the physical condition of
the soil and has to do with ease of tillage, seedbed quality, ease of
seedling emergence, and root penetration. Good tilth is dependent
on soil aggregation.

55
Aggregated soils allow water to penetrate the soil with ease and eases
airflow through the soil. At the same time the water-holding
capacity of the soil is increased. This allows the plant roots to
occupy a larger volume of the soil as compared to crusted or
compacted soils. Aggregated soils allow for easier movement of
earthworms and soil arthropods. Well-aggregated soils are less
likely to erode because the aggregates are heavier than the single
particle components. Addition of organic matter improves soil
aggregation.
Non-aggregated soils are dispersed soils. In such a soil the individual
soil particles are free to blow away in the wind or wash away with
overland water flow. Thus the erosion potential of such a soil is
high.
Dispersed soils with high clay content tend to be sticky when wet, and
clod when dried. To solve these soils should be treated so that the
clay particles can be aggregated together resulting in better
aeration and water infiltration. Sandy soils benefit from aggregation
by having a small amount of dispersed clay that tends to stick
between the sand particles and slow the excess downward
movement of water.
Poorly aggregated soils tend to crust. Crusting occurs because of the
impact of falling raindrops. The rain causes the clay particles on
the soil surface to disperse, clogging clog the pores immediately
beneath the surface. Once dried the surface is sealed and most of
the pore space are reduced due to clogging from dispersed clay
particles. A consequence of this is that subsequent rainwater is
more likely to run off than to flow into the soil.
Aggregates are formed because of physical forces that bind the
particles together. However they can also be held together by

56
plant roots, earthworm activity, and by products produced by soil
micro-organisms. An aggregate formed by physical forces can be
bound together by fine root hairs or threads produced by fungi.
Aggregates can also stabilize, remaining intact when wet, when
fungi and bacteria decompose organic matter, forming gums,
waxes,
and other glue-like substances that bind soil particles. The by-
products cement the soil particles together, forming water-stable
aggregates.
Soil aggregates are destroyed if:
• bare soil surface is exposed to the impact of raindrops
• the organic matter is removed when crops are produced and

harvested without returning organic matter to the soil
• the soil is excessively exposed to tillage
• the soil is worked when it is too wet or too dry
• when anhydrous ammonia is applied because it speeds up

decomposition of organic matter
• excess nitrogen fertilizer is applied
• sodium build up in soil from irrigation or sodium-containing

fertilizers
Key Principles of Sustainable Soil Management

Soil organisms cycle nutrients and add many other benefits to the soil
Organic matter is the food for the soil organisms
Soil should be covered to protect it from erosion and temperature
extremes
Tillage can speed up the decomposition of organic matter
Excess nitrogen speeds up the decomposition of organic matter and
insufficient nitrogen slows down organic matter decomposition but
starves plants
Mouldboard ploughing speeds up the decomposition of organic
matter, destroys earthworm habitat, and increases erosion
To build soil organic matter, the production or addition of organic
matter must exceed the decomposition of organic matter
Soil fertility levels need to be within acceptable ranges before a soil-
building program is initiated

57
Cultivation and tillage
Tillage and cultivation are used in a farming system to control weeds,
manage crop residues, aerate soil, conserve manure and fertilizers,
reduce hardpan, and as a sanitation measure to destroy insect and
disease habitat.
Conventional farming tends to rely on chemicals to accomplish many
of these objectives, whereas organic growers have focused more on
improving tillage and gaining the maximum benefits. Primary
tillage should be intent on conserving crop residues and added
manures in the upper zones of the soil, rather than burying them
deeply where decomposition is anaerobic and thus slow.
Mouldboard ploughing tends to turn the soil placing the biologically
active soil into the deeper soil layer, mostly killing the
predominantly aerobic organisms.
In an organic system of row crops tillage is often limited to blind
tillage, where the soils undergoes shallow tillage, but the crops
rows are mainly ignored. Equipment such as a rotary hoe is ideally
suited for this purpose.
Excessive tillage could increase costs of production aerates the soil
and speeds the decomposition of the organic fraction. This
generally provides a boost to the current crop but it can be
overdone and in so doing destroy the soil humus reserves.
Excessive tillage also destroys earthworms and their tunnels,
reducing their benefits to the land. There is also the danger of
compaction, even when field operations are well timed.
However soils should not be left completely bare as they become

vulnerable to erosion.
Intercropping & Companion Planting
Intercropping is a strategy used when Inter-planting two or more
mutually beneficial crops in close proximity helps to increase the
biodiversity within the agricultural system. The process involves
alternating rows of compatible field crops such as soybeans and
maize on a single field. Intercropping on a smaller scale is often
referred to as companion planting. An example of companion
planting is the planting of maize with beans and creeping pumpkins
such as squash. In this system, the beans provide nitrogen; the
maize provides support for the beans and a screen against squash
borer. Creeping squash on the other hand acts as a weed
suppressive.

58
Soil ameliorants
There are a number of different soil composition improvement agents
available. All these agents have a slightly different effect on the
soil.
Manure is generally widely available. Manure usually causes a
decrease in soil pH it decomposes. Manure should be well rotted
before it is used. Manure contains a small amount of a large
number of plant nutrients. Manure can however also contain weed
seeds. Although rate carry over of herbicide residues into manure
has been recorded.
Peat usually makes the soil acid. It is usually expensive costly and is
becoming a scarce natural commodity. Pest mining also has a
negative environmental impact. Peat is usually rich in nitrogen and
other plant nutrients, but not usually in phosphate. It does not
contain many weed seeds, and the coarse grades are best for soil
composition improvement.
Compost if well made is a very useful material, but is generally
weaker at soil improvement than peat or manure. It does not
supply much plant food and usually contain weeds and some
diseases if not properly made. Regular use is needed for and effect.
Spent Mushroom Compost is one of the few types of organic
matter to have a slightly alkaline effect on the soil. It is therefore
good for soils that need both composition improvement and
increased in pH, or soils at the right pH level that would become too
acid if peat or manure were used. It is a waste product of the
mushroom growing industry but expensive. It is generally widely
used and in great demand in the gardening sector.
Straw is very good for improving soil composition, but reduces the
available nitrogen for a period when first added. This is because
the addition of straw stimulates microbial activity, which uses high
levels of nitrogen. It is better if straw is used once it has been
rotted somewhat.
Gypsum is an excellent soil improver for heavy soils. It should be
ploughed in well and mixed intimately with soil particles. The tiny
soil particles are chemically attracted to each gypsum particle and
then stick together around it so that the whole clay “lump” behaves
just as though it were a sand sized multi-particle. Gypsum is not
usually expensive. Gypsum works in the same way as lime, but
without raising the soil pH.
Lime is available in different forms. Lime works in the same way as
gypsum but lime causes the soil pH to increase.

59
Bacterial products are usually freeze dried bacterial cultures which
are useful on soils which do not have any bacteria present such as
in desert sands, or subsoil. These products are also used for
specific purposes such as metabolism of pollutants.
Aquifiers and Aqeupulses were developed recently. These are
compounds that act like a wetting agent breaking down the surface
tension of water, thereby improving drainage. These compounds
can be leached out of the soil with rain. The other types turn to a
gel when wetted, and release the water more slowly as the soil
dries out. The use of these type of compounds have not yet been
widely demonstrated in agriculture but some success has been
shown in gardens and glass-houses
5.2 The purpose of Soil Preparation

The main aim of soil preparation for citrus orchards is to create the
homogenous layer of soil with no major changes in the physical and
chemical properties laterally, but most importantly no major changes with
depth. This homogenous layer is the future rooting zone.
The optimum depth of the rooting zone is 50cm to 60cm, but the depth
depends on what is available, the soil type and method of irrigation.
Thinner rooting zones of 20cm to 30cm require better management of the
irrigation, drainage and fertilization. For drip irrigation the optimum
rooting zone has a depth of 60cm to 70cm and with micro-jets the
optimum depth is 40 to 50cm.
5.3 Cultivation needs of various soils

The cultivation needs of a soil are prescribed by the soil profile and the
requirement of the roots of citrus trees. Tree roots require a
homogeneous volume of soil with no drastic changes in physical and
chemical properties.
When evaluating the profile, it is important to record the properties of the
different horizons and to sample each horizon separately. Analyzing
samples of different horizons will identify variation with depth, which is
important in deciding on an appropriate cultivation method.
Profile Properties and Soil Preparation

The aim of soil preparation is to create a homogenous, well aerated, well
drained rooting zone, with a depth of at least 40cm. The profile
properties that are very important in meeting this requirement are
texture, layering, strength (compaction), aeration, drainage and depth.

60
Soil Probe
One easy way to test these factors is to press a probe into the soil.
Use any type of steel rod with a diameter of 8mm to 10mm. This
probe will go into wet soil fairly easily, and without effort into soil
where no compaction is present. Compaction, cultivation depth,
and even wetting depth and spreading can be detected with such a
probe.
To construct a soil probe, take a 1.5m length of mild steel with a
diameter of 8mm to 10mm. Sharpen the tip and weld a handle to
the other end, as indicated in the sketch below.
A soil probe can be used to test the actual depth to which the implement
loosened the soil after soil preparation as well. The homogeneity of the
loosened profile can also be detected by probing in a fixed pattern.
Chemical Properties and Soil Preparation

The two most important chemical properties of soil that have an
influence on the methods used in soil preparation are pH and salt
content. The salt content is measured by the resistance or
electrical conductivity. Remember that profile sampling will be
done during the evaluation of the profile and that samples need to
be taken of the various horizons or at increasing depths.
pH
In neutral to acid soils the pH of the subsoil tends to be lower than
that of the topsoil. However, this must be determined in the
laboratory. Liming of soils with a pH (water) of less than 6.5 must
be done during soil preparation. The depth to where the lime has
to be mixed will dictate the method of to be used in preparing the
soil.
The opposite can also be true, namely that the pH of the subsoil is
higher than that of the topsoil. In this case, the high pH is usually
associated with saline or salty conditions and this saline soil must
not be brought to the surface.
Salt Content
Under most conditions, the salt content of the soil increases with
depth. If the subsoil contains more salts than the topsoil, the

61
subsoil must not be mixed with the topsoil or brought to the surface
and put on top of the topsoil. The right implements must be
chosen to loosen the profile without turning the subsoil to the top.
5.4 Soil Preparation Methods and Implements

Based on the discussions above, two major methods of soil preparation
are identified. The first method is used where the horizons in the soil
profile need to be mixed due to inherent differences exceeding the set
limits. This mixing action can also be used to incorporate required
chemicals, such as lime or phosphates. The second method is where the
profile needs to be loosened only and no mixing is required.
Mixing
When the soil survey indicates that a mixing action is required to
render a homogeneous rooting zone, the selection of the right
implement will depend on what needs to be mixed with what. If the
second layer has to be mixed with the top layer, the right
implement will have the mould board that fit this action. Soil
preparation professionals adjust the implement to suit the profile.
The plough with the correct mould board to create the correct
mixing must be selected very carefully.
The other reason to mix the profile is to incorporate the required
chemicals and fertilisers to optimise the chemical composition of
the soil. This can be done by any implement with a mixing action,
because specific layers in the soil are in this case not being mixed,
but the whole profile.
Loosening
When the properties of the profile indicate that the soil needs only to
be loosened, almost any ripper-type plough will be adequate.
However, a standard ripper tine will loosen the top half of the
penetration depth but compact the lower half. The ripper tine is
therefore fitted with wings at its tip to avoid compaction through
the lifting action of the wings. The wings must run at an angle of
30° with the horizontal. These wings can extend up to 15cm on
each side, depending on the capacity of the tractor.
Loosening is sometimes also referred to as ripping because of the use
of a ripping tine.
Soil preparation must be done correctly before planting, because
corrective cultivation is very seldom successful.

62
Proper soil preparation involves a soil survey, the selection of
appropriate implements, and the proper execution of the decided
actions.
The objective of soil preparation is to provide tree roots with a
homogeneous volume of soil with no drastic changes in physical
and chemical properties.
The profile properties that are important in meeting the objective of
soil preparation are texture, layering, strength (compaction),
aeration, drainage and depth.
The two most important chemical properties of soil that have an
influence on the methods used in soil preparation are pH and salt
content.
The two methods used during soil preparation are mixing and
loosening.
Mixing is used when soil layers must be mixed to create a
homogenous region and where chemicals must be incorporated
into the soil during preparation.
Loosening is used where mixing is not required.
Complete the following questions below.

1. What is the basic requirement of the soil in the root zone?
2. How will layering restrict root development?
I Questions that I
Concept (SO 5) understand still would like to
this concept ask
An understanding of the special cultivation

needs of various soils is demonstrated.
Appropriate implements and/or methods for soil

preparation is selected.

63
My Notes …
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..
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.
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..
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. 64
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Primary Agriculture NQF Level 3 Unit Standard No: 116267
. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
..............................................
Glossary
Term Description
A nutrient deficiency is when there is not a sufficient quantity of

Nutrient
a specific nutrient element and the plant cannot complete a
Deficiency
certain physiological process as a result.
A soil penetrometer is an instrument that measures soil
Soil strength. Soil strength is the resistance of soil against
Penetrometer penetration of roots, or against the probe when using the
instrument. Soil strength is expressed in mega-Pascal per
square centimetre, written as MPa/cm2 or MPa cm-2.
Field Water Field Water Capacity (FWC) is reached when a soil is allowed to
Capacity (FWC) drain freely after it was saturated with water. This is the point
where no free water is present in the soil. All the water present
is bound to the soil particles.
pH indicates the acidity or alkalinity of any substance, in this

case soil, on a scale of 1 to 14. pH can range from 1 (extremely
pH acidic) to 14
(extremely alkaline). A pH value of 7 is neutral. Plant sap has a
pH of 5.8 and the pH of human blood is almost 7. Soil with a
low pH is referred to as acidic. Soil with a high pH is referred
to as alkaline.
Electrical Electrical conductivity refers to the ability of soil paste to

Conductivity conduct an electrical current and can be expressed in various
units. The international standard unit is Siemen.
Resistance Resistance is the opposite of electrical conductivity, and refers

to the resistance of a soil paste to conducting an electrical
current. Resistance is expressed in ohms.
Lime is added to soil that is too acid. Lime applications can be

Lime done as part of soil preparation before the trees are planted or
as part of the fertilization program after the trees have been
planted.
Am I ready for my test?

Check your plan carefully to make sure that you prepare in good time.

65
You have to be found competent by a qualified assessor to be
declared competent.
Inform the assessor if you have any special needs or requirements
before the agreed date for the test to be completed. You might,
for example, require an interpreter to translate the questions to
your mother tongue, or you might need to take this test orally.
Use this worksheet to help you prepare for the test. These are
examples of possible questions that might appear in the test. All
the information you need was taught in the classroom and can be
found in the learner guide that you received.
1. I am sure of this and understand it well
2. I am unsure of this and need to ask the Facilitator or Assessor to explain what it
means
1. I am 2. I am
Questions
sure unsure
1. Explain how you would mix fertilizer to apply

through: A dripper system (fertigation), Foliar
application
2. Explain in you own words what calibration

means
3. Make a list of equipment that would need to be

calibrated during the fertilization process.
4. What does the zeroing of a scale have to do

with calibration?
5. Do you think that a general farm worker is

involved in the calibration of fertilisation
equipment? Explain your answer.
6. Write a job card in order to explain the

following to another member of your team:
“Collect 100 kilograms of Manganese
Sulphate for application as a foliar spray in a
dose of 200 grams per 100 litres of water.”
7. In your own words, describe why you think it

would be important to take samples of each
of the following: Leaves, Soil.
8. Explain whose duty the taking of the following
samples would be on a citrus farm: Leaves,
Soil.
9. Describe briefly in your own words how to take
a leaf sample.

66
10. Describe briefly in your own words how to

take a soil sample.
11. Give an example of one service provider who
can help you with the analysis of leaf and soil
samples.
12. Explain the physical properties of soil in your
own words.
13. Explain the chemical properties of soil in your

own words.
14. What would happen if: You applied a foliar
spray with a mist blower on a windy day? ;
You applied a too strong fertilizer mix to your
orchard? ; You forgot to fertilize as per
recommendations?
15. What would be your recommendation for soil
preparation if: There is a very hard rock layer
approximately 30cm under the topsoil.; There
is a distinct colour difference between soil
horizons at a depth of 60cm.
16. What would be the visible defect in a citrus
tree if there was too little of the following
macro nutrient
element available: Nitrogen, Phosphorous,
Potassium, Calcium
17. What would be the visible defect in a citrus
tree if there were too little of the following
micro nutrient element available: Boron, Zinc,
Iron, Manganese,
18. What is the purpose of mulching?
19. Why would we add compost to soil in a citrus

orchard?
20. Do you think that adding fertilizer to soil can
improve the soil? Explain your answer in
detail.
21. Explain in your own words what does it mean
to rip soil?
22. Do you think that all soil should be ripped?

Explain your answer.
23. Do you think that you should till all soil?

Explain your answer.
24. Explain in your own words what you

understand by the term soil ecology?

67
25. Give a practical example on a citrus farm of
how soil health and soil conservation can be
promoted.
26. Explain in your own words what you
understand by the term run-off control.
27. Explain what role contours can play in soil

conservation practices on a citrus farm.
28. Do you think that soil preparation that stops

as soon as you have completed the primary
preparation of the soil, in other words, when
you are ready to plant you Citrus trees for the
first time? Motivate your answer.
My Notes …
.................................................................................
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...
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......
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...
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...
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
......

68
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...
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...
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...
Checklist for practical assessment …

Use the checklist below to help you prepare for the part of the practical
assessment when you are observed on the attitudes and attributes
that you need to have to be found competent for this learning module.
Answer Motivate your Answer

Observations Yes or No (Give examples, reasons,
etc.)
Can you identify problems and

deficiencies correctly?
Are you able to work well in a team?
Do you work in an organised and

systematic way while performing all
tasks and tests?
Are you able to collect the correct and

appropriate information and / or
samples as per the instructions and
procedures that you were taught?
Are you able to communicate your

knowledge orally and in writing, in
such a way that you show what
knowledge you have gained?
Can you base your tasks and answers

on scientific knowledge that you have
learnt?
Are you able to show and perform the

tasks required correctly?
Are you able to link the knowledge,

skills and attitudes that you have
learnt in this module of learning to
specific duties in your job or in the
community where you live?
The assessor will complete a checklist that gives details of the points
that are checked and assessed by the assessor.
69
The assessor will write commentary and feedback on that checklist.
They will discuss all commentary and feedback with you.
You will be asked to give your own feedback and to sign this
document.
It will be placed together with this completed guide in a file as
part of you portfolio of evidence.
The assessor will give you feedback on the test and guide you if there
are areas in which you still need further development.
Paperwork to be done …
Please assist the assessor by filling in this form and then sign as instructed.
Learner Information Form
Unit Standard 116267
Program Date(s)
Assessment
Date(s)
Surname
First Name
Learner ID / SETA
Registration
Number
Job / Role Title
Home Language
Gender: Male: Female:
Race: African: Coloured: Indian/Asian: White:
Employment: Permanent: Non-permanent:
Disabled Yes: No:
Date of Birth

70
ID Number
Contact
Telephone
Numbers
Email Address
Signature:
Postal Address
Bibliography
Books:
Coetzee, J. G. K. 1986: Citrus Fertilization: Second Edition. Outspan
Laboratories.
ITSG: Die Verbouing van Sitrus: A Pamphlet Series of the Institute
for Tropical and Subtropical Crops.
Russell, E. W. 1963: Chapter XXIII Soil Structure and Soil Tilth: In
Soil
Conditions and Plant Growth. Longmans
William F. Bennet. (1994). NUTRIENT deficiencies and Toxicities in
crop plants.
World Wide Web:

Department of Agriculture Web Site: www.nda.agric.za
Terms & Conditions

This material was developed with public funding and for that reason
this material is available at no charge from the AgriSETA website
(www.agriseta.co.za).
Users are free to produce and adapt this material to the

maximum benefit of the learner.
No user is allowed to sell this material whatsoever.
Acknowledgements
Project Management:
M H Chalken Consulting

IMPETUS
71
Consulting and
Skills Development
Donors:
Citrus Academy
Authenticator:
Prof P J Robbertse
Technical Editing:
Mr R H Meinhardt
Language Editing:
Mr D Erasmus
OBE Formatting:
Ms P Prinsloo
Design:
Didacsa Design SA (Pty) Ltd
Layout:
Ms A du Plessis

All qualifications and unit standards registered on the National Qualifications
Framework are public property. Thus the only payment that can be made for
them is for service and reproduction. It is illegal to sell this material for profit.
If the material is reproduced or quoted, the South African Qualifications
Authority (SAQA) should be acknowledged as the source.
SOUTH AFRICAN QUALIFICATIONS AUTHORITY

REGISTERED UNIT STANDARD:
Manage soil fertility and plant nutrition

SAQA US ID UNIT STANDARD TITLE
116267 Manage soil fertility and plant nutrition
SGB NAME NSB PROVIDER NAME
SGB Primary NSB 01-Agriculture and

Agriculture Nature Conservation
FIELD SUBFIELD
Agriculture and Nature Conservation Primary Agriculture
ABET BAND UNIT STANDARD TYPE NQF LEVEL CREDITS

Undefined Regular Level 3 5
REGISTRATION REGISTRATION START REGISTRATION SAQA DECISION
STATUS DATE END DATE NUMBER
Registered 2004-10-13 2007-10-13 SAQA 0156/04
PURPOSE OF THE UNIT STANDARD

A learner achieving this unit standard will be able to supervise application of soil nutrient
preparations in a safe, effective and responsible manner for the benefit of plant/crop growth with
consideration to the environment.
Learners will gain specific knowledge and skills in soil and plant nutrition and will be able to
operate in a plant production environment implementing sustainable and economically viable
production principles.
They will be capacitated to gain access to the mainstream agricultural sector, in plant
production, impacting directly on the sustainability of the sub-sector. The improvement in
production technology will also have a direct impact on the improvement of agricultural
productivity of the sector.
LEARNING ASSUMED TO BE IN PLACE AND RECOGNITION OF PRIOR LEARNING

It is assumed that a learner attempting this unit standard will demonstrate competence against
unit standard
• NQF 2: Understand Basic Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition.

• NQF 3: Supervise the collection of agricultural data.
• NQF 3: Understand the planning and scheduling of tasks in a production environment.
• NQF 3: Interpret and maintain factors influencing agricultural enterprises and plan accordingly.
UNIT STANDARD RANGE

Whilst range statements have been defined generically to include as wide a set of alternatives
as possible, all range statements should be interpreted within the specific context of
application.
Range statements are neither comprehensive nor necessarily appropriate to all contexts.
Alternatives must however be comparable in scope and complexity. These are only as a general
guide to scope and complexity of what is required.
UNIT STANDARD OUTCOME HEADER

N/A
Specific Outcomes and Assessment Criteria:

SPECIFIC OUTCOME 1
Prepare for soil nutrient applications using specialized equipment.
OUTCOME RANGE
Nutrient application refers to but is not limited to fertiliser or compost spreaders and planters.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
ASSESSMENT CRITERION 1
The ability to use specialized equipment is demonstrated.
The ability to calibrate specialized equipment is demonstrated.
The ability to select the appropriate nutrients for application from storage facilities is
demonstrated.
SPECIFIC OUTCOME 2
Supervise the collection of samples, storage and dispatch of samples to appropriate service
provider.
OUTCOME RANGE
Samples for leaf, soil and fruit analysis.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
The ability to take and handle leaf, soil and fruit samples according to prescribed procedures are
demonstrated.
The process of recording and dispatching the samples to the appropriate service provider is
explained.
SPECIFIC OUTCOME 3
Demonstrate an understanding of the properties of soil and how these impact on plant nutrition
and soil preparation.
OUTCOME RANGE
Soil properties may include chemical, physical and biological properties.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
The impact of soil properties on plant nutrition is explained.
The impact of soil properties on soil preparation is explained.
SPECIFIC OUTCOME 4
Identify and interpret symptoms of nutritional deficiencies in different crops and make basic
recommendations.
OUTCOME RANGE
Macronutrients may include (among others) Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Potassium and Calcium.
Micronutrients may include (among others) Boron, Zinc, Iron and Manganese.
Simple recommendations on steps to correct nutrient deficiencies.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
The relationship between plant abnormalities and deficiencies of specific macro- and micro-
nutrients is explained.
Basic recommendations for improving soil fertility are made.
SPECIFIC OUTCOME 5
Supervise and implement soil preparation and remediation.
OUTCOME RANGE
Soil preparation methods refer to mechanical and non-mechanical approaches, minimum tillage,
no tillage, and both primary and secondary soil preparation. Remediation includes methods of
dealing with acidity and Aluminium or Iron toxicity, water logging, compost making, etc.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
An understanding of the special cultivation needs of various soils is demonstrated.
Appropriate implements and/or methods for soil preparation is selected.
UNIT STANDARD ACCREDITATION AND MODERATION OPTIONS

The assessment of qualifying learners against this standard should meet the requirements of
established assessment principles.
It will be necessary to develop assessment activities and tools, which are appropriate to the
contexts in which the qualifying learners are working. These activities and tools may include an
appropriate combination of self-assessment and peer assessment, formative and summative
assessment, portfolios and observations etc.
The assessment should ensure that all the specific outcomes; critical cross-field outcomes and
essential embedded knowledge are assessed.
The specific outcomes must be assessed through observation of performance. Supporting

evidence should be used to prove competence of specific outcomes only when they are not
clearly seen in the actual performance.
Essential embedded knowledge must be assessed in its own right, through oral or written
evidence and cannot be assessed only by being observed.
The specific outcomes and essential embedded knowledge must be assessed in relation to
each other. If a qualifying learner is able to explain the essential embedded knowledge but is
unable to perform the specific outcomes, they should not be assessed as competent. Similarly,
if a qualifying learner is able to perform the specific outcomes but is unable to explain or
justify their performance in terms of the essential embedded knowledge, then they should not
be assessed as competent.
Evidence of the specified critical cross-field outcomes should be found both in performance and
in the essential embedded knowledge.
Performance of specific outcomes must actively affirm target groups of qualifying learners, not
unfairly discriminate against them. Qualifying learners should be able to justify their performance
in terms of these values.
• Anyone assessing a learner against this unit standard must be registered as an assessor with the
relevant ETQA.
• Any institution offering learning that will enable achievement of this unit standard or assessing
this unit standard must be accredited as a provider with the relevant ETQA.
• Moderation of assessment will be overseen by the relevant ETQA according to the moderation
guidelines in the relevant qualification and the agreed ETQA procedures.
UNIT STANDARD ESSENTIAL EMBEDDED KNOWLEDGE

The person is able to demonstrate a basic knowledge of:
• Sampling procedures.
• Chemical, properties of soil - pH, Nutrient status.
• Physical properties of soil - Texture, structure, soil profiles.
• Biological properties of soil.
• Soil ecology e.g. soil organisms, food webs, role of water and oxygen in soil.
• Soil health and conservation.
• Role of living organisms.
• Conservation practices - Runoff control, contours.
• Tillage operations - mechanical, non mechanical, organic, Minimum and zero Tillage and
application of nutrients (liquid and solid).
• Primary and secondary soil preparation methods.
• Soil preparation and Fertilser application equipment.
• Nutrients - Mixtures, limes, calcite and dolomite lime, single nutritients and compost, liquids, etc.
• Calibration of equipment.
UNIT STANDARD DEVELOPMENTAL OUTCOME

N/A
UNIT STANDARD LINKAGES

N/A
Critical Cross-field Outcomes (CCFO):

UNIT STANDARD CCFO IDENTIFYING
Problem Solving: Relates to all specific outcomes.
UNIT STANDARD CCFO WORKING

Teamwork: Relates to all specific outcomes.
UNIT STANDARD CCFO ORGANIZING

Self-management: Relates to all specific outcomes.
UNIT STANDARD CCFO COLLECTING

Interpreting Information: Relates to all specific outcomes.
UNIT STANDARD CCFO COMMUNICATING

Communication: Relates to all specific outcomes.
UNIT STANDARD CCFO SCIENCE

Use Science and Technology: Relates to all specific outcomes.
UNIT STANDARD CCFO DEMONSTRATING

The world as a set of related systems: Relates to all specific outcomes.
UNIT STANDARD CCFO CONTRIBUTING

Self-development: Relates to all specific outcomes.
UNIT STANDARD ASSESSOR CRITERIA

N/A
UNIT STANDARD NOTES

N/A
All qualifications and unit standards registered on the National Qualifications Framework are public
property. Thus the only payment that can be made for them is for service and reproduction. It is illegal to
sell this material for profit. If the material is
reproduced or quoted, the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) should be acknowledged as the
source.

Manage Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition

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NQF Level:3 US No: 116267

US No: 116267 NQF Level: 3 Credits: 5

National Certificate in Animal Production 49048 3 120

Are you enrolled in Y N

What is assessment all about?

Enjoy this learning experience!

How to use this guide …

What does it Each learning field is characterized by unique

You will be requested toactivitie , which could

Example of The following box summar of

What are we going to learn?

What will I be able to do?

What do I need to know?

Sampling for Nutrient Analysis

Properties and Composition of Soil

Basic Symptoms of Nutritional Deficiencies

Prepare for soil and foliar Session

1 nutrient applications using

Please complete Activity 1 – Group Activity:

FERTILISATION PROGRAM – CITRUS

Orchard: Orchard 10 Size: 3.0ha

LAN 250g September

Low Biuret Urea 1000g July

1.2 Manual soil applications

Calculation of the Total Fertilizer Requirement

Collection from Storage

Number 50kg of bags required = total rounded up amount ÷ 50

1.3 Mechanical Applications

Calculation of the Total Requirement and Collection from Storage

Measurement and Calibration

Guidelines and Principles of Fertigation

1.5 Foliar Applications

Please complete Activity 2 – Case Study:

Now answer the questions below:

Please complete Activity 3 – Questions:

Complete the following questions on worksheets that will be handed to you by

1. Name three important considerations when calibrating for manual soil

Concept (SO 1) I Questions that I

The ability to use specialized equipment is

The ability to calibrate specialized

The ability to select the appropriate

Collection, storage and

dispatch of samples for

Version: 01 Version Date: September 2024

Please complete Activity 4 – Group Activity:

• Next to each step, write down who would normally do it on a

2.2 Sampling Orchards

Version: 01 Version Date: September 2024

2.3 Sampling Pitfalls

Soil Sampling – Orchards

Soil Sampling – Field crops

Version: 01 Version Date: September 2024

2.4 Handling Samples

2.5 Dispatching Samples

Version: 01 Version Date: September 2024

2.6 Recording Sample Information

AA Farming Telephone: (019) 222-9988

Version: 01 Version Date: September 2024

Total of 3 leaf samples Total of 3 soil samples