Computer Architecture Crash Course

This outline covers a wide range of topics in computer architecture. Let's break it down into
sections:

1.1. Basic Building Blocks

● Basic Architecture: This refers to the fundamental structure of a computer system, including
the Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, input/output (I/O) devices, and their
interconnection.
● Registers: These are small, high-speed memory locations within the CPU that hold data and
instructions for immediate use.
● Memory Hierarchy: A layered system with varying speeds and capacities. It includes registers,
cache, main memory, and secondary storage (like hard disks).
○ Cache Memory: High-speed memory that stores frequently accessed data or instructions
from main memory for faster retrieval.
○ Main Memory (RAM): Holds the programs and data currently being used by the CPU.
○ External Memory (Secondary Storage): Slower, but holds larger amounts of data
permanently (e.g., hard disks, solid-state drives).
● Memory Management: Techniques for efficiently allocating and using memory resources.
○ Direct Addressing: Instructions specify the exact memory location of data.
○ Indirect Addressing: Instructions specify a memory location that holds the actual address of
the data.

1.2. Storage and I/O

● Hard Disk Organization: Magnetic or solid-state storage with a spinning platter or flash
memory chips. Data is organized into sectors, tracks, and cylinders.
● RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): A technology that combines multiple hard
drives for improved performance and fault tolerance.
● Interrupt: A signal from a device or program requesting the CPU's attention.
● Auxiliary Memory: Alternative storage devices like optical media (CDs, DVDs) or magnetic
tape. Slower than hard disks but can hold large amounts of data.
● Virtual Memory: Creates the illusion of more memory than physically available by using a
combination of RAM and secondary storage.
○ Address Space: The total range of memory addresses a program can reference.
○ Paging: Divides memory into fixed-size blocks (pages) for efficient virtual memory
management.

1.3. Processing Power

● CPU Architecture: The design and organization of the CPU, including its control unit,
arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and registers.
● Parallel Processing: Using multiple processors to perform tasks simultaneously for faster
computing.
● CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing): Processors with a large set of complex
instructions.
● RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing): Processors with a smaller set of simpler
instructions, often achieving higher performance through optimization.
● Control Unit: Part of the CPU that fetches, decodes, and executes instructions.

1.4. Input and Output

● I/O Management: Techniques for controlling the transfer of data between the CPU and I/O
devices.
● I/O Interface: The hardware and software that allows communication between the CPU and I/O
devices.
● I/O Requests Handling: The process of managing I/O requests from devices and ensuring
efficient data transfer.
● I/O Devices: Hardware peripherals that allow users to interact with the computer (e.g.,
keyboards, monitors, printers).

This is a high-level overview. Each of these topics can be further explored for deeper
understanding.

Important MCQs on Computer Architecture

Here are some important MCQs covering the topics you mentioned:

1.1 Basic Building Blocks

1. Which of the following is NOT a part of the basic computer architecture?

○ (a) CPU
○ (b) Monitor
○ (c) Memory
○ (d) I/O devices
2. Registers are faster than which type of memory?
○ (a) Cache
○ (b) Main Memory (RAM)
○ (c) External Memory (Hard Disk)
○ (d) All of the above
3. In direct addressing mode, the instruction specifies the:
○ (a) Register to be used
○ (b) Address of a register containing the data address
○ (c) Exact memory location of the data
○ (d) None of the above

1.2 Storage and I/O

4. RAID technology is used for:

○ (a) Increased storage capacity only
○ (b) Improved performance only
○ (c) Improved performance and fault tolerance
○ (d) Reduced cost
5. Virtual memory uses a combination of:
○ (a) RAM and CPU
○ (b) RAM and Cache
○ (c) RAM and Secondary Storage
○ (d) Cache and Secondary Storage
6. What is the role of the interrupt in computer architecture?
○ (a) To signal an error
○ (b) To request the CPU's attention from a device or program
○ (c) To transfer data between memory and I/O devices
○ (d) To control the flow of instructions

1.3 Processing Power

7. CISC processors typically have:

○ (a) A smaller set of simpler instructions
○ (b) A larger set of complex instructions
○ (c) No distinction between data and instructions
 ○ (d) All of the above
8. Parallel processing involves using:
○ (a) A single processor with multiple cores
○ (b) Multiple processors to perform tasks concurrently
○ (c) A specialized processor for graphics
○ (d) Software to improve single-processor performance
9. The control unit is responsible for:
○ (a) Performing arithmetic and logical operations
○ (b) Fetching, decoding, and executing instructions
○ (c) Storing data and instructions
○ (d) Handling communication with I/O devices

1.4 Input and Output

10. I/O interfaces are needed for:

○ (a) Communication between the CPU and memory
○ (b) Communication between the CPU and I/O devices
○ (c) Data transfer between different I/O devices
○ (d) None of the above
Answers
1. (b) Monitor
2. (d) All of the above.
3. (c) Exact memory location of the data
4. (c) Improved performance and fault tolerance
5. (c) RAM and Secondary Storage
6. (b) To request the CPU's attention from a device or program
7. (b) A larger set of complex instructions
8. (b) Multiple processors to perform tasks concurrently
9. (b) Fetching, decoding, and executing instructions
10. (b) Communication between the CPU and I/O devices
Operating Systems: A Breakdown

Here's a breakdown of the topics you mentioned in Operating Systems:

2.1 Introduction

● What is an Operating System (OS): An OS acts as an interface between the user and the
computer hardware. It manages resources (memory, CPU, storage) and provides services
like running applications, handling input/output, and ensuring security.
● Types of Operating Systems: There are various types based on functionality:
○ Batch OS: Processes jobs sequentially without user interaction (e.g., old mainframe
systems).
○ Multitasking OS: Allows running multiple programs concurrently (e.g., Windows,
macOS, Linux).
○ Real-Time OS: Used in systems requiring strict timing (e.g., industrial control
systems).
○ Network OS: Manages networked computers and resources (e.g., Windows Server,
Linux distributions for servers).
○ Mobile OS: Designed for smartphones and tablets (e.g., Android, iOS).
● Functions of an OS: These include:
○ Process Management: Creating, scheduling, and terminating processes (running
programs).
○ Memory Management: Allocating and managing memory resources for applications.
○ Device Management: Controlling and coordinating I/O devices.
○ File Management: Organizing, storing, and retrieving data files.
○ Security: Protecting the system from unauthorized access and malicious software.

2.2 Input/Output and Files

● I/O Devices and Organization: Different devices (keyboards, monitors, printers) have
specific interfaces for data transfer. The OS manages communication between the CPU
and these devices.
● Principles of I/O Software and Hardware: Software drivers control specific I/O devices,
while hardware interfaces like USB or PCI enable communication.
● Disks, Files, and Directory Organization: Data is stored on disks (HDDs or SSDs) in
sectors, tracks, and cylinders. Files are organized using directories (folders) for hierarchical
storage.
● File System Implementation: The file system is a method for organizing, storing,
retrieving, and managing files and directories. Common examples include FAT32, NTFS
(Windows), ext4 (Linux).

2.3 Common Operating Systems

2.3.1 Installation, Backup, Recovery, and Optimization

This section covers various popular OS families and their management:

● MS-DOS: A single-user, single-tasking operating system, primarily a historical reference

point for modern OSes.
● Windows Family: A family of desktop and server OSes from Microsoft (Windows XP,
Vista, 7, 8, 10, 11).
● Unix Family: A multi-user, multitasking OS family with various distributions (e.g., Solaris,
FreeBSD, macOS).
● Linux Family: A free and open-source OS based on the Linux kernel, with many
distributions (e.g., Ubuntu, Mint, Fedora).
2.3.2 Additional Topics

● Windows/Linux Networking: Setting up and managing network connections.

● Windows/Linux Architecture: Understanding the core components and structure of the
OS.
● Troubleshooting: Techniques for diagnosing and resolving OS problems.
● Managing Network Printing: Sharing printers on a network.
● Managing Hard Disks and Partitions: Creating, formatting, and managing storage
partitions.
● Monitoring and Troubleshooting: Tools and techniques for monitoring system
performance and troubleshooting issues.
● Users, Groups, and Permissions: Managing user accounts, groups, and access control
on both Windows and Linux.
● Sharing Resources: Sharing files, folders, printers, and applications across a network.

2.3.3 Security Threats

● Identifying and Managing Security Threats: This includes recognizing malware, viruses,
phishing attacks, and other threats, along with implementing security measures like
firewalls and antivirus software.

This is a general overview. Specific details and functionalities may vary depending on the OS
version and distribution.

Operating Systems MCQs

Here are some MCQs to test your understanding of the topics mentioned:

2.1 Introduction

1. Which of the following is NOT a function of an operating system?

○ (a) Process Management

○ (b) Web Browsing
○ (c) Memory Management
○ (d) Device Management
2. A real-time operating system is typically used in:

○ (a) Personal computers

○ (b) Industrial control systems (e.g., robots)
○ (c) Mobile phones
○ (d) Web servers

2.2 Input/Output and Files

3. I/O devices communicate with the CPU through:

○ (a) The operating system

○ (b) Specific software drivers
○ (c) Both (a) and (b)
○ (d) The network connection
4. Which file system is commonly used in Windows 10?

○ (a) FAT32
○ (b) NTFS
○ (c) ext4 (primarily used in Linux)
 ○ (d) HFS+ (primarily used in macOS)

2.3 Common Operating Systems

5. Which of the following is a free and open-source operating system based on the Linux
kernel?
○ (a) Windows 10
○ (b) macOS
○ (c) Ubuntu
○ (d) Solaris

2.3.2 Additional Topics

6. What is the purpose of user accounts and permissions in an operating system?

○ (a) To manage network connections

○ (b) To control access to resources and data
○ (c) To optimize system performance
○ (d) To troubleshoot hardware issues
7. What is the role of a firewall in an operating system?

○ (a) To manage printing tasks

○ (b) To control network traffic and protect against security threats
○ (c) To organize files and folders
○ (d) To schedule and manage processes

2.3.3 Security Threats

8. Phishing attacks are a type of:

○ (a) Hardware failure
○ (b) Software malfunction
○ (c) Social engineering attack attempting to steal personal information
○ (d) Network connectivity issue

Remember, understanding the concepts behind these questions is crucial. Use these MCQs for
practice and refer back to the explanations provided earlier to solidify your knowledge.

.1 Introduction

1. (b) Web browsing is an application, not a core OS function.

2. (b) Real-time OSes need precise timing for critical tasks.

2.2 Input/Output and Files

3. (c) The OS manages communication, with drivers providing device-specific control.

4. (b) NTFS is the primary file system for modern Windows versions.

2.3 Common Operating Systems

5. (c) Ubuntu is a popular Linux distribution.

2.3.2 Additional Topics

6. (b) User accounts and permissions control who can access what data or resources.
7. (b) Firewalls filter incoming and outgoing network traffic for security.

2.3.3 Security Threats

 8. (c) Phishing attacks use deception to trick users into revealing information.

Computer Networks: A Breakdown

Here's a breakdown of the topics you mentioned in Computer Networks:

3.1 Introduction

● Computer Networks: A collection of interconnected computing devices that can

communicate and share resources.
● Network Architectures: Different network sizes and structures:
○ LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small geographic area (e.g., home, office).
○ MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Spans a larger area like a city or campus.
○ WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers a broad geographic distance (e.g., the internet).
● Network Models:
○ Client-Server Model: Dedicated server(s) provide resources to client computers.
○ Peer-to-Peer Model: Computers share resources directly without a central server.
● LAN Architectures/Standards:
○ Bus: All devices connect to a single cable. (Simple but less fault-tolerant)
○ Ring: Devices form a closed loop, data travels in one direction. (More reliable than
bus)
○ Star: Devices connect to a central hub or switch. (Most common, scalable, and fault-
tolerant)

3.2 Connectivity and Media

● Network Cables and Connectors: Different cable types (coaxial, twisted pair, fiber optic)
and connectors (RJ-45) are used for network connections.

3.3 Reference Models

● OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection): A conceptual framework for network

communication with seven layers (Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, Application).
● TCP/IP Model: A four-layer model (Network Access, Internet, Transport, Application) used
in the internet protocol suite.

3.4 Network Hardware

● NIC (Network Interface Card): Enables a computer to connect to a network.

● Repeater: Regenerates weak network signals to extend the reach.
● Hub: A basic device that broadcasts data to all connected devices.
● Bridge: Connects multiple network segments and filters data traffic.
● Access Point (AP): Provides wireless network connectivity for devices.
● Switch: Intelligently forwards data packets to specific devices on the network.
● Router: Connects different networks and directs data packets based on their addresses.
● Gateway: Acts as an entry point to a larger network (e.g., internet gateway).

3.5 Protocols and Ports

● TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Reliable, connection-oriented protocol for data

transfer.
● UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Connectionless protocol for faster but less reliable data
transfer.
● Common Ports: Specific ports are assigned to different network services (e.g., port 80 for
HTTP, port 22 for SSH).
3.6 Network Utilities

● IPCONFIG: Displays network configuration information (IP address, subnet mask, etc.).
● PING: Tests connectivity to another device by sending and receiving data packets.
● TRACERT: Shows the route taken by data packets to reach a destination.
● NSLOOKUP: Queries Domain Name System (DNS) servers to translate domain names to
IP addresses.

3.7 Network Cabling and Testing

● Different cabling standards and tools are used for network installation and troubleshooting
cable faults.

3.8 IP Addressing

● IP Address: A unique identifier assigned to each device on a network.

● Subnet Mask: Defines the network and host parts of an IP address.
● Gateway: The router that directs traffic between networks.
● DNS: A distributed system that translates domain names into IP addresses.
● WINS (Windows Internet Name Services): (Less common now) Helps locate computers
on a Windows network using NetBIOS names.
● Static vs. Automatic IP Assignment: IP addresses can be manually configured (static) or
obtained dynamically (DHCP).

3.9 Switching and Routing

● Switching: Learning MAC addresses and forwarding data packets to specific devices on a
network segment.
● Routing: Directing data packets across different networks based on their IP addresses.

3.10 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

● Multiplexing: Combining multiple data streams into a single channel for transmission.
● Demultiplexing: Separating the multiplexed data streams at the receiving end.
● Flow Control: Mechanisms to regulate data flow and prevent overwhelming the receiver.
● TCP Congestion Control: Techniques used by TCP to avoid overloading the network
during data transfer.

3.11 Network Applications

● Web and Web Caching: Accessing information and resources on the World Wide Web.
Web caching stores frequently

Computer Networks MCQs

Here are some MCQs to test your understanding of the topics mentioned:

3.1 Introduction

1. Which network architecture covers a small geographic area like a home or office?

○ (a) WAN
○ (b) MAN
○ (c) LAN
○ (d) SAN
2. In a client-server model, which device provides resources to other devices?
 ○ (a) Client
○ (b) Server
○ (c) Router
○ (d) Switch
3. Which LAN topology is most common and offers scalability and fault tolerance?

○ (a) Bus
○ (b) Ring
○ (c) Star
○ (d) Mesh

3.2 Connectivity and Media

4. Which type of cable is commonly used for connecting network devices?

○ (a) Coaxial cable
○ (b) Twisted pair cable
○ (c) Fiber optic cable
○ (d) All of the above

3.3 Reference Models

5. How many layers does the TCP/IP reference model have?

○ (a) 3
○ (b) 4
○ (c) 5
○ (d) 7

3.4 Network Hardware

6. Which network device connects different networks and directs data packets based on their
addresses?

○ (a) Switch
○ (b) Bridge
○ (c) Router
○ (d) Hub
7. What is the primary function of a network interface card (NIC)?

○ (a) To connect a computer to a network

○ (b) To amplify network signals
○ (c) To provide security for network traffic
○ (d) To store network data

3.5 Protocols and Ports

8. Which protocol is connectionless and offers faster but less reliable data transfer?

○ (a) TCP
○ (b) UDP
○ (c) HTTP
○ (d) HTTPS
9. Port 80 is commonly used for which network service?

○ (a) File transfer

○ (b) Email
○ (c) Secure web browsing (HTTPS)
○ (d) Web browsing (HTTP)
3.6 Network Utilities

10. Which of the following network utilities tests connectivity to another device?
○ (a) IPCONFIG
○ (b) PING
○ (c) TRACERT
○ (d) NSLOOKUP

3.1 Introduction

1. (c) LAN (Local Area Network) typically covers a small area like a home or office.
2. (b) The server provides resources to client devices.
3. (c) Star topology is scalable and fault-tolerant, with devices connected to a central switch.

3.2 Connectivity and Media

4. (d) All of the above (coaxial, twisted pair, fiber optic) are commonly used network cables.

3.3 Reference Models

5. (b) The TCP/IP reference model has four layers.

3.4 Network Hardware

6. (c) Routers connect different networks and direct data packets based on their IP addresses.
7. (a) The NIC enables a computer to connect to a network.

3.5 Protocols and Ports

8. (b) UDP is a connectionless protocol offering faster but less reliable data transfer.
9. (d) Port 80 is the standard port for HTTP (web browsing).

3.6 Network Utilities

10. (b) PING sends data packets to test connectivity with another device.
Multimedia Technology: Diving into 4.1

Here's a breakdown of the topics in Multimedia Technology 4.1:

1. Sound/Audio System

● Components: Microphones, speakers, sound cards, Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC),

Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC).
● Digital Audio: Representing sound as digital data (WAV, MP3, etc.).
● Audio Processing: Techniques like filtering, equalization, and compression.
● MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface): A protocol for transmitting musical
information.

2. Image and Graphics

● Image Types: Raster (pixels) vs. Vector (lines and shapes).

● Common Image Formats: JPEG, PNG, GIF, BMP, TIFF.
● Image Editing and Manipulation: Software for modifying images (e.g., Adobe Photoshop).
● Graphics Design Principles: Color theory, composition, layout, typography.

3. Video and Animation

● Video Fundamentals: Frames, frame rate, resolution, video codecs (e.g., MP4, AVI).
● Animation Techniques: Traditional, 2D animation, 3D animation, stop-motion.
● Video Editing: Software for cutting, compositing, and adding effects to video clips.
● Storyboarding: Planning the visual flow of a video.

4. Data Compression

● Lossless vs. Lossy Compression: Techniques for reducing data size without or with
some loss of quality.
● Common Compression Algorithms: Huffman coding, LZW, JPEG, MP3.
● Compression Applications: Reducing storage requirements and transmission times.

5. Teleconferencing

● Real-time communication: Audio, video, or both over a network.

● Technologies: Video conferencing tools, web conferencing platforms.
● Applications: Business meetings, remote education, healthcare consultations.

6. Data Synchronization

● Keeping data consistent across devices: Phones, laptops, tablets, etc.

● Synchronization Techniques: Cloud storage, file syncing software.
● Benefits: Seamless access to data from any device.

This is a general overview. Specific details and applications may vary depending on the
technology and its use case.

Multimedia Technology MCQs

Here are some MCQs to test your knowledge of Multimedia Technology 4.1 concepts:

1. Sound/Audio System
 1. Which device converts digital audio data into an analog signal for speakers?
o (a) Microphone
o (b) Speaker
o (c) Sound card
o (d) Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

2. What is the difference between WAV and MP3 audio formats?

o (a) WAV is lossless, MP3 is lossy compression.
o (b) WAV is for video, MP3 is for audio.
o (c) WAV has lower quality, MP3 has higher quality.
o (d) WAV is for images, MP3 is for documents.

2. Image and Graphics

3. Which image format is best suited for storing photos with high detail and color accuracy?
o (a) JPEG
o (b) PNG
o (c) GIF
o (d) BMP

4. What is the primary difference between raster and vector graphics?

o (a) Raster is for photos, vector is for drawings.
o (b) Raster uses pixels, vector uses lines and shapes.
o (c) Raster is for animation, vector is for static images.
o (d) Raster is for lossless compression, vector is for lossy compression.

3. Video and Animation

5. What does the term "frame rate" refer to in video?

o (a) The number of colors used in the video
o (b) The size and resolution of the video
o (c) The number of images displayed per second
o (d) The length of the video clip

6. What is the benefit of using storyboarding in video production?

o (a) To enhance the video's visual effects
o (b) To plan the sequence of shots and scenes
o (c) To choose the right music for the video
o (d) To edit the video footage together

4. Data Compression

7. Which type of compression allows for perfect reconstruction of the original data after
decompression?
o (a) Lossless compression
o (b) Lossy compression
o (c) Huffman coding
o (d) LZW compression

8. Why is data compression important in multimedia applications?

o (a) To improve the quality of audio and video
o (b) To reduce storage requirements and transmission times
o (c) To make editing multimedia files easier
o (d) To enhance the security of multimedia content

5. Teleconferencing
 9. Which technology allows for real-time video communication over the internet?
o (a) Email
o (b) Video conferencing
o (c) File sharing
o (d) Instant messaging

10. What is a benefit of using teleconferencing for business meetings?

o (a) Lower travel costs
o (b) Increased travel time for participants
o (c) Difficulty collaborating on documents
o (d) Limited ability to share presentations

6. Data Synchronization

11. What is the main purpose of data synchronization software?

o (a) To compress multimedia files
o (b) To keep data consistent across multiple devices
o (c) To edit audio and video clips
o (d) To secure data from unauthorized access

12. What is an advantage of having synchronized data across your devices?

o (a) Faster internet browsing experience
o (b) Accessing the same files from any device
o (c) Increased storage space on each device
o (d) Reduced battery life on all devices

1. Sound/Audio System

1. (d) Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) converts digital audio data into an analog signal.
2. (a) WAV is a lossless format preserving all data, while MP3 uses lossy compression for smaller file
sizes with some quality reduction.

2. Image and Graphics

3. (b) PNG is a lossless format ideal for photos with high detail and color accuracy.
4. (b) Raster images are made of pixels, while vector graphics use mathematical formulas to represent
lines and shapes, allowing for scaling without quality loss.

3. Video and Animation

5. (c) Frame rate refers to the number of images displayed per second, affecting video smoothness.
6. (b) Storyboarding helps plan the sequence of shots and scenes in a video production.

4. Data Compression

7. (a) Lossless compression allows perfect data reconstruction, while lossy compression sacrifices some
quality for smaller file sizes.
8. (b) Data compression reduces storage requirements and transmission times for multimedia files.

5. Teleconferencing

9. (b) Video conferencing enables real-time video communication over the internet.
10. (a) Teleconferencing reduces travel costs for business meetings.

6. Data Synchronization
11. (b) Data synchronization software keeps the same data consistent across multiple devices (phones,
laptops, etc.).
12. (b) Synchronized data allows accessing the same files from any device you're signed in to.