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Purpose statement
This module Describes the skills, Knowledge and attitude required to Perform
basic Networking. This module intended to prepare students Pursuing TVET
in Level 4 Software Development. At the end of this module, the students will
be able to Establish network media connectivity, Perform Basic Network
Configuration, Maintain Network system

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Learning outcome 1: Establish network media connectivity

Indicative content 1.1: Identification of Network requirements.

 Description of network concepts and technologies
Basic definitions: a network consists of two or more computer that
are linked in order to share resources (such as printers and CDs),
exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computer on a
network may linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves,
satellites, or infrared light beams.

Network classifications/types:
 Classifying network by components roles
Networks can be classified into different categories based on various criteria,
including their size, scope, purpose, and architecture. Here are some
common network classifications:

Based on Size:
o Personal Area Network (PAN): A small network typically
within a range of a few meters, used for connecting personal
devices like smartphones, laptops, and tablets.
o Local Area Network (LAN): Covers a limited geographic area,
such as a home, office, or campus. LANs connect devices like
computers, printers, and servers.
o Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Larger than a LAN but
smaller than a WAN, covering a city or a large campus. MANs are
used by organizations with multiple locations in a city.
o Wide Area Network (WAN): Spans a large geographic area,
often connecting LANs or MANs across different cities, regions, or
countries. The internet is the most extensive WAN.
o Global Area Network (GAN): A network that covers a global or
international scale, often using satellite links and undersea
cables. The internet can be considered a GAN.
Based on Purpose:
o Public Network: Open to the public, such as the internet, where
anyone can access and use its resources.
o Private Network: Restricted to a specific organization, group,
or individuals. Examples include corporate intranets and private
cloud networks.
o Hybrid Network: Combines elements of both public and private
networks, often for security and cost considerations. Hybrid
clouds, which use a mix of public and private cloud services, are
an example.
o Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network: Devices in this type of network
communicate directly with each other without a central server.
Common in file sharing applications.
Based on Topology:
o Star Topology: Devices connect to a central hub or switch.
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 o Bus Topology: Devices share a single communication line.
o Ring Topology: Devices form a closed-loop or ring.
o Mesh Topology: Devices connect to multiple other devices,
creating redundancy.
o Hybrid Topology: A combination of two or more different
topologies.
Based on Ownership and Control:
o Public Network: Owned and operated by a public entity or
organization and accessible to anyone.
o Private Network: Owned and operated by a specific
organization, restricting access to authorized users.
o Community Network: Shared by a specific community or
group, often for a common purpose, such as a housing complex
or university campus network.
o Cooperative Network: Jointly owned and operated by multiple
organizations or entities for mutual benefit.
Based on Network Services and Applications:
o Data Network: Primarily used for data transmission and
communication, such as the internet and corporate data
networks.
o Voice Network: Designed for voice communication, such as
traditional telephone networks (PSTN) and Voice over IP (VoIP)
networks.
o Video Network: Focused on transmitting video content,
including cable TV networks and streaming platforms.
o IoT Network: Supports the connectivity of Internet of Things
(IoT) devices, sensors, and machines.
Based on Architecture:
o Client-Server Network: Devices are categorized as clients
(requesters) and servers (providers of services or resources).
Common in corporate networks and the internet.
o Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network: Devices communicate directly
with each other without a central server. Often used in file-
sharing applications and some blockchain networks.

Network benefits
Main benefits of networks include:
Networks offer numerous benefits across various domains and industries due
to their ability to connect devices, systems, and people. Here are some key
advantages of networks:

Communication: Networks enable efficient and effective

communication, allowing people to share information, collaborate, and
exchange messages in real time. This is crucial for business
operations, remote work, and social interactions.

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Data Sharing: Networks facilitate the sharing of data and resources.
Users can access shared files, databases, and applications, leading to
improved productivity and collaboration.
Resource Sharing: Devices and resources such as printers, scanners,
and storage devices can be shared across a network, reducing costs
and optimizing resource utilization.
Centralized Data Management: Networks allow for central storage
and management of data, making it easier to back up, secure, and
access data when needed.
Remote Access: With network connectivity, users can access data
and applications from remote locations, enabling flexible work
arrangements and remote troubleshooting and support.
Cost Efficiency: Sharing resources and centralized management can
lead to cost savings in terms of hardware, software, and maintenance.
Global Connectivity: The internet, a global network, offers access to
information, services, and markets worldwide, fostering globalization
and international trade.
Security: While networks can pose security challenges, they also
enable the implementation of security measures, such as firewalls,
intrusion detection systems, and encryption, to protect data and
resources.
Data Backup and Disaster Recovery: Networks make it easier to
back up data and implement disaster recovery plans, reducing the risk
of data loss and downtime.
Resource Optimization: Networks can optimize resource usage
through load balancing and efficient routing, ensuring that resources
are used effectively.
Monitoring and Management: Network management tools allow
administrators to monitor network performance, troubleshoot issues,
and make adjustments to optimize network operation.
Innovation and Development: Networks are the foundation for
many technological advancements, such as the Internet of Things
(IoT), cloud computing, and edge computing, driving innovation in
various industries.
Accessibility and Inclusivity: Networks can enhance accessibility by
providing online education, telehealth services, and access to
information for people with disabilities or those in remote areas.
Environmental Benefits: By enabling remote work and virtual
meetings, networks can reduce the need for commuting, leading to
lower carbon emissions and environmental benefits.
Entertainment and Content Delivery: Networks enable the
streaming of movies, music, and online gaming, providing
entertainment options and revenue streams for content creators.
Research and Collaboration: Networks facilitate collaborative
research, connecting scientists, researchers, and institutions globally,
leading to advancements in various fields.

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 E-commerce and Online Shopping: Networks have transformed the
retail industry, making it possible for consumers to shop online,
compare prices, and access a wide range of products and services.
Community and Social Interaction: Social networks and online
communities bring people together, fostering social interaction,
information sharing, and support networks.

Advantages and Disadvantages of network

Networks, whether they are computer networks, social networks, or any
other type of interconnected systems, come with various advantages and
disadvantages. Here are some of the key advantages and disadvantages of
networks:

Advantages of Networks:

1. Communication: Networks enable efficient communication between

individuals, devices, or systems, regardless of their physical locations. This
facilitates the exchange of information, collaboration, and coordination.
2. Resource Sharing: Networks allow for the sharing of resources such as
files, printers, and software applications. This can lead to cost savings and
improved efficiency in organizations.
3. Centralized Data Management: In computer networks, data can be stored
centrally, making it easier to manage and backup. This centralization can
enhance data security and accessibility.
4. Remote Access: Networks enable remote access to resources and data,
allowing individuals to work from different locations and enhancing flexibility.
5. Redundancy and Reliability: Some networks are designed with
redundancy, which means that if one component fails, there are backup
options to ensure system reliability.
6. Resource Optimization: Networks can optimize resource usage by load
balancing and efficient routing, ensuring that resources are used effectively.
7. Global Connectivity: The internet is a global network that provides access
to information and services worldwide, facilitating international
communication and commerce.

Disadvantages of Networks:

1. Security Risks: Networks can be vulnerable to security threats such as

hacking, viruses and malware. Protecting networked systems is an ongoing
challenge.
2. Complexity: As networks grow in size and complexity, they become more
challenging to manage and troubleshoot. Complex networks may require
specialized expertise.

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3. Maintenance Costs: Networks require ongoing maintenance, including
hardware upgrades, software updates, and security measures. These costs
can add up over time.
4. Privacy Concerns: Networks can potentially compromise individual privacy,
as personal data may be accessible or vulnerable to surveillance.
5. Downtime: Network failures or outages can disrupt communication and
business operations. Downtime can result in financial losses and customer
dissatisfaction.
6. Bandwidth Limitations: In data networks, bandwidth limitations can lead
to slow data transfer speeds and congestion, affecting performance.
7. Technical Issues: Networks can experience technical problems, including
connectivity issues, hardware failures, and software glitches, which may
require troubleshooting and downtime.

It's important to note that the advantages and disadvantages of networks

can vary depending on the specific type of network (e.g., computer
networks, social networks, telecommunications networks) and their intended
use.
Application of network
Networks have a wide range of applications across various domains and
industries. Their primary function is to facilitate the exchange of information
and resources between different entities or nodes. Here are some common
applications of networks:

1. Computer Networks:
 Internet: The global network that connects millions of computers and
devices worldwide, enabling communication, information sharing, and
online services.
 Local Area Networks (LANs): Networks that connect devices within
a limited geographic area, such as a home, office, or campus, to share
resources like printers and files.
 Wide Area Networks (WANs): Networks that span larger
geographical areas, often connecting multiple LANs and providing long-
distance communication capabilities.
 Intranets and Extranets: Internal corporate networks (intranets) and
extended networks (extranets) for secure communication and
collaboration within and between organizations.
2. Telecommunications:
 Telephone Networks: Traditional voice communication networks,
including landlines and cellular networks.
 Voice over IP (VoIP): Networks that transmit voice and multimedia
content over the internet, offering cost-effective communication.
 Fiber Optic Networks: High-speed data transmission networks using
optical fibers, commonly used in long-distance and high-bandwidth
applications.
3. Data Centers:

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  Data Center Networks: Networks within data centers that connect
servers, storage, and networking equipment to support cloud
computing, web services, and big data applications.
4. Transportation:
 Traffic Control Systems: Networks used in traffic lights, sensors, and
cameras to manage traffic flow, improve safety, and reduce
congestion.
 Fleet Management: Networks for tracking and managing vehicles in
logistics and transportation companies.
5. Healthcare:
 Health Information Exchange (HIE): Networks that enable the
secure sharing of patient health records and medical data among
healthcare providers for improved patient care.
 Telemedicine: Networks that support remote medical consultations
and diagnosis, bringing healthcare services to remote or underserved
areas.
6. Financial Services:
 Electronic Banking: Networks that enable online banking, ATM
transactions, and electronic fund transfers.
 Stock Exchanges: Networks that facilitate trading and real-time
financial data transmission for stock markets worldwide.
7. Manufacturing and Industrial Automation:
 Industrial Control Systems (ICS): Networks used in factories and
industrial environments to control machinery and automation
processes.
 Internet of Things (IoT): Networks connecting various sensors and
devices to collect and transmit data for monitoring and control.
8. Entertainment and Media:
 Streaming Services: Networks that deliver multimedia content, such
as video and music streaming, to users over the internet.
 Online Gaming: Networks that enable multiplayer online gaming
experiences, including cloud gaming services.
9. Education:
 E-Learning: Networks that support online education platforms, virtual
classrooms, and remote learning opportunities.
10. Social Networks:
 Social Media: Online platforms connecting individuals and
organizations for social interaction, content sharing, and
communication.
11. Agriculture:
 Precision Agriculture: Networks and IoT devices used in farming to
monitor crops, manage resources, and improve crop yields.
12. Smart Cities:
 Public Wi-Fi: Networks that provide internet access in public spaces,
promoting connectivity and digital services in urban areas.

Network technologies
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 Network technologies encompass a wide range of tools, protocols, hardware,
and software used to create and manage computer networks. These
technologies enable the efficient transfer of data, communication between
devices, and the sharing of resources. Here are some key network
technologies:

1. Ethernet: Ethernet is a widely used wired networking technology that

defines how data packets should be placed on a network cable. It operates
over various media types, including copper and fiber-optic cables, and
supports different data speeds (e.g., 10/100/1000/10000 Mbps).
2. Wi-Fi (Wireless LAN): Wi-Fi technology enables wireless local area
networks (WLANs). It allows devices to connect to a network without physical
cables, making it especially useful for mobile devices like smartphones and
laptops. Various Wi-Fi standards (e.g., 802.11n, 802.11ac, 802.11ax) offer
different data rates and features.
3. Bluetooth: Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology primarily used for
connecting devices like smartphones, headphones, and IoT devices. It's
commonly used for file sharing, audio streaming, and peripheral device
connections.
4. Cellular Networks: Cellular technology provides wireless connectivity for
mobile phones and other devices. It includes generations like 2G, 3G, 4G,
and 5G, with each generation offering improved data speeds and
capabilities.
5. IP (Internet Protocol): IP is a fundamental network protocol that governs
how data packets should be addressed and routed across the internet. IPv4
(Internet Protocol version 4) and IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) are the
most commonly used versions.
6. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): TCP/IP is a
suite of protocols used for communication over the internet and local
networks. It includes protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS, which enable
various network services.
7. DNS (Domain Name System): DNS is a technology that translates human-
readable domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP addresses (e.g.,
192.168.1.1). It's essential for browsing the internet.
8. Firewalls: Firewalls are security devices or software that protect networks
by monitoring and controlling incoming and outgoing network traffic. They
can block malicious traffic and unauthorized access.
9. Routers: Routers are network devices that connect different networks and
determine the best path for data packets to travel between them. They play
a critical role in directing traffic on the internet.
10. Switches: Switches are devices that connect multiple devices within a
local network and efficiently forward data packets only to their intended
recipients. They operate at Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) of the OSI model.
11. Load Balancers: Load balancers distribute network traffic across
multiple servers to ensure even utilization and high availability. They are
often used in web applications and server farms.

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12. VPN (Virtual Private Network): VPN technology creates a secure
and encrypted connection over a public network, such as the internet. It's
commonly used for remote access, privacy, and secure communication.
13. VoIP (Voice over IP): VoIP technology allows voice calls to be
transmitted over IP networks. It's the basis for services like Skype, Zoom,
and business phone systems.
14. IoT (Internet of Things) Protocols: IoT networks use various
protocols such as MQTT, CoAP, and Zigbee to enable communication
between IoT devices and platforms.

These are just a few examples of network technologies, and the field is
constantly evolving as new innovations emerge. Network technologies are
crucial for modern communication, data sharing, and the functioning of the
internet.

Network topology types

Network topology refers to the physical or logical layout of devices and
connections in a computer network. Different network topologies are used
depending on the specific requirements of the network, such as scalability,
fault tolerance, and cost. Here are some common network topology types:

1. Star Topology:
 Description: In a star topology, all devices (computers, printers, etc.)
are connected to a central hub or switch.
 Advantages: Easy to install and manage, fault isolation (a problem in
one device does not affect others), centralized control.
 Disadvantages: If the central hub or switch fails, the entire network
can be affected.

‘
2. Bus Topology:
 Description: In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single
central cable (the "bus").
 Advantages: Simple and inexpensive to set up, suitable for small
networks.
 Disadvantages: Susceptible to cable failure, limited scalability,
performance degrades as more devices are added.

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3. Ring Topology:
 Description: In a ring topology, devices are connected in a circular or
ring-like fashion, where each device is connected to exactly two other
devices.
 Advantages: Even data distribution, no collisions, predictable
performance.
 Disadvantages: A failure in one device or cable segment can disrupt
the entire network, typically slower than star or bus topologies.

4. Mesh Topology:
 Description: In a mesh topology, every device is connected to every
other device. There are two variations: full mesh (all devices connect
to all others) and partial mesh (only some devices connect to all
others).
 Advantages: High redundancy, fault tolerance, can handle heavy
traffic loads.
 Disadvantages: Expensive to implement and manage, complex
cabling, scalability challenges in full mesh.

5. Hybrid Topology:
 Description: Hybrid topologies are a combination of two or more
different topology types. For example, a network might use a
combination of star and ring topologies.
 Advantages: Can leverage the strengths of multiple topologies,
adaptable to specific network requirements.
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  Disadvantages: Can be complex to design and manage.

6. Tree Topology (Hierarchical Topology):

 Description: Tree topology combines characteristics of star and bus
topologies. Multiple star-configured networks are connected to a linear
bus backbone.
 Advantages: Scalable, combines benefits of star and bus topologies.
 Disadvantages: Costly and complex to implement, failure of the
backbone can disrupt the entire network.

Each topology has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the right choice
can greatly impact a network's performance and reliability.

Network components

Computer networks consist of various components that work together to

facilitate communication, data sharing, and resource access among
connected devices. These components can be categorized into several broad
categories:

1. End Devices:
 Computers: Such as desktops, laptops, servers, and workstations.
 Mobile Devices: Such as smartphones, tablets, and wearable devices.
 Printers: For document and image printing.
 IP Phones: Voice-over-IP (VoIP) phones for voice communication over
the network.
 IoT Devices: Sensors, cameras, and other Internet of Things (IoT)
devices.
2. Networking Hardware:
 Router: A device that connects different networks and directs traffic
between them.

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  Switch: A device that connects devices within a local network and
efficiently forwards data packets based on MAC addresses.
 Hub: An older networking device that broadcasts data packets to all
connected devices.
 Access Point (AP): Facilitates wireless connectivity by allowing
devices to connect to a wired network wirelessly (Wi-Fi).
 Firewall: A security device or software that monitors and controls
network traffic, often used to protect against unauthorized access and
threats.
 Modem: Converts digital data from a network into a format suitable
for transmission over specific types of media (e.g., DSL, cable, fiber).
 Gateway: Acts as an entry and exit point between different networks,
translating data formats and protocols.
3. Network Infrastructure:
 Cabling: Includes Ethernet cables (e.g., CAT6), fiber-optic cables, and
coaxial cables for wired connections.
 Wireless Infrastructure: Access points, wireless controllers, and
antennas for Wi-Fi networks.
 Network Servers: Systems responsible for hosting applications, files,
and services on the network.
 Data Centers: Facilities housing network equipment, servers, and
storage devices for centralized data processing and storage.
 Racks and Cabinets: Housing units for organizing and securing
network equipment.
4. Networking Software and Protocols:
 Operating Systems: Such as Windows, Linux, and macOS, which
include networking features and protocols.
 Network Protocols: TCP/IP, UDP, HTTP, FTP, SNMP, DNS, DHCP, etc.,
enabling communication and data transfer.
 Network Management Software: Tools for monitoring, configuring,
and managing network devices.
 Virtualization Software: Such as VMware and Hyper-V, used for
creating virtual network environments and virtual servers.
5. Network Services and Applications:
 Email Services: Like Microsoft Exchange and SMTP/POP/IMAP servers.
 Web Services: Hosting websites and web applications.
 File Sharing Services: Such as Network Attached Storage (NAS) and
cloud-based file sharing platforms.
 VoIP Services: Voice over IP services for telephony and video
conferencing.
 DNS Servers: Resolving domain names to IP addresses.
 DHCP Servers: Assigning IP addresses automatically to devices on
the network.
6. Security Components:
 Firewalls: As mentioned earlier, protecting the network from threats.
 Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) and Intrusion Prevention
Systems (IPS): Monitoring and preventing unauthorized access and
attacks.
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  Antivirus and Antimalware Software: Protecting end devices from
malicious software.
 Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): Securing data transmitted over
public networks.
 Authentication and Access Control Systems: Managing user
access rights and permissions.

 Materials
1. Network Cables (twisted, coaxial, and Fiber optic)

Twisted pair cabling is a type of

communications cable in which two
conductors of a single circuit are twisted
Image 1.Twisted pair cable together for the purposes of improving
electromagnetic compatibility.

Coaxial cable is a type of transmission line,

used to carry high-frequency electrical
signals with low losses. It is used in such
applications as telephone trunk
lines, broadband internet networking cables,
high-speed computer data busses, cable
television signals, and connecting radio
transmitters and receivers to their antennas.

Image 2. Coaxial cables

A fiber-optic cable, also
14 known as an optical-fiber
cable, is an assembly similar
to an electrical cable but
containing one or more optical
fibers that are used to carry
 2. Trunk

A trunk is a communication line or

physical link, such as a wire or optical
line, designed to carry multiple signals
simultaneously A networking trunk
can consist of several wires, cables
or fiber optic strands bundled together
in a single physical cable to maximize
the available bandwidth.

3. Connectors

A connector is a device that terminates a segment of cabling or

provides an entry point for network devices such as computers, hubs
and routers. These can in turn be differentiated according to their
external appearance and connection characteristics.

Types of Connectors

That’s all for this tutorial. If you like this tutorial, please don’t forget to share
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Barrel connectors that are used to connect coaxial cables are known as BNC
barrel connectors. The following image shows BNC barrel connectors.

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Barrel connectors that are used to connect STP or UTP cables are known
as Ethernet LAN jointers or couplers. The following image shows Ethernet
LAN jointers or couplers.

Barrel connectors do not amplify the signals. It means, after joining, the total
cable length must not exceed the maximum supporting length of the cable.
For example, a standard UTP cable supports a maximum distance of 100
meters. You can join two UTP cables if their sum is not more than 100.

For example, you can join the following cables.

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Cable 1 (45 meters) + cable 2 (30 meters) = joint cable (75 meters = 45
meters + 30 meters)

The length of the joint cable is less than 100 meters.

But you can't join the following cables.

Cable 1 (65 meters) + cable 2 (45 meters) = joint cable (110 meters = 65
meters + 45 meters)

The length of the joint cable is more than 100 meters.

F connectors

An F connector is used to attach a coaxial cable to a device. F connectors

are mostly used to install home appliances such as dish TV, cable internet,
CCTV camera, etc. The following image shows F connectors.

Terminator connectors

When a device places signals on the coaxial cable, the signals travel along
the end of the cable. If another device is connected to the other end of the
cable, the device will receive the signal. But if the other end of the cable is
open, the signals will bounce and return in the same direction they came
from. To stop signals from bouncing back, all endpoints must be terminated.

A terminator connector is used to terminate the endpoint of a coaxial cable.

The following image shows terminator connectors.

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T type connectors

A T connector creates a connection point on the coaxial cable. The

connection point is used to connect a device to the cable.

The following image shows T-type connectors.

RJ-11 Connectors

RJ-11 connectors have the capacity for six small pins. However, in many
cases, only two or four pins are used. For example, a standard telephone
connection uses only two pins, and a DSL modem connection uses four pins.
They have a small plastic flange on top of the connector to ensure a secure
connection.

The following image shows RJ-11 connectors.

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RJ-45 connectors

RJ-45 connectors look likes RJ-11 connectors, but they are different. They
have 8 pins. They are also bigger in size than RJ-11. RJ-45 connectors are
mostly used in computer networks. They are used with STP and UTP cables.
Some old Ethernet implementations use only four of the eight pins. Modern
Ethernet implementation uses all 8 pins to achieve the fastest data transfer
speed.

The following image shows RJ-45 connectors.

DB-9 (RS-232) connectors

A DB-9 or RS-232 connector connects a device over a serial port. It has 9

pins. It is available in both male and female connectors. It is used for
asynchronous serial communication. The other side of the cable can be
connected to any popular connector type. For example, you can connect one
side of the cable with a DB-9 connector and the other side of the cable with
another DB-9 connector or with an RJ-45 connector or with a USB connector.

The following image shows DB-9 connectors.

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One of the most popular uses of a DB-9 connector is to connect the serial
port on a computer with an external modem.

Universal serial bus (USB) connectors

USB connectors are the most popular. They support 127 devices in the
series. All modern computers have USB ports. Most devices that you can
connect to the system have USB ports. Some examples of devices that
support or have USB ports are mice, printers, network cards, digital cameras,
keyboards, scanners, mobile phones, and flash drives.

If the device has a USB port, you can use a cable that has a USB connector
on both ends to connect the device to the computer. If the device does not
have a USB port, you can still connect the device to the USB port. For that,
you can use a cable that has a USB connector on one side and the
corresponding connector on the other.

Fiber cable connectors

A variety of connectors are used to connect fiber cables. Some popular

connectors are ST, SC, LC, and MTRJ. Let's discuss these connectors.

SC connectors

SC connectors are also known as subscriber connectors, standard

connectors, or square connectors. An SC connector connects to a
terminating device by pushing the connector into the terminating device,
and it can be removed by pulling the connector from the terminating device.
It uses a push-pull connector similar to audio and video plugs and sockets.

The following image shows SC connectors.

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Straight tip (ST) connectors

Straight tip (ST) connectors are also known as bayonet connectors. They
have a long tip extending from the connector. They are commonly used with
MMF cables. They use a half-twist bayonet type of lock. An ST connector
connects to a terminating device by pushing the connector into the
terminating equipment and then twisting the connector housing to lock it in
place.

The following image shows ST connectors.

LC connectors

LC connectors are known as Lucent Connectors. For a secure connection,

they have a flange on top, similar to an RJ-45 connector. An LC connector
connects to a terminating device by pushing the connector into the
terminating device, and it can be removed by pressing the tab on the
connector and pulling it out of the terminating device.

The following image shows LC connectors.

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MTRJ connectors

An MTRJ connector connects to a terminating device by pushing the

connector into the terminating device, and it can be removed by pulling the
connector from the terminating device. It includes two fiber strands: a
transmit strand and a receive strand in a single connector.

The following image shows MTRJ connectors.

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 4. Cable Ties :

5. Cable clips

6. Cable Sockets
The RJ45 socket is a standard
socket for the Internet and is
used to connect network
devices. It consists of a plug for
connecting a cable. The RJ45
socket usually contains one
plug, but there can be up to
four. Sockets are used to
connect the jack to a patch
7. Wall plugs panel or to connect a
computer.

A network wall socket, also called a

UTP wall socket, is a socket for a
computer network. These boxes are
used to neatly terminate fixed network
cabling.

 Tools
1. Cutting Tools and Stripping tools

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2. Drilling Tools

Drilling tools are end-cutting tools designed

for producing holes in a workplace.

3. Fixing Tool

Types of fixing tools

 1 Nails.
 2 Screws.
 3 Nuts and bolts.
 5 Rivets.
 6 Adhesives.
 8 Welding.

4. Patching Panel

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How to Wire a Patch Panel

1. Buy a patch panel. ...

2. Design a cable map. ...
3. Remove cable jackets from incoming Ethernet cables. ...
4. Remove internal plastic jackets (if any) ...
5. Untwist and spread the cable wires. ...
6. Set your wires to the panel connector. ...
7. Complete your connections.

Internet connections are required in areas with large populations such as

business settings and work environments. In such areas where employees
are spread across various offices and floors, the computers are oftentimes
connected to central servers. It is so simple to wire the internet to the server,
but obviously creates a large build-up of cables around the server area,
which must be routed and terminated with absolute care. Because it is
barely possible to hardwire each Ethernet cable, the solution is to terminate
the incoming cables at a patch panel. This makes it easy to connect the
server to the patch panel with the help of short cables, which can as well be
moved easily when there is a need to. To achieve this kind of wiring,
consider the following guide on how to wire a patch panel:

Buy a patch panel

When buying the patch panel, ensure it has 110 style insulation
displacement connectors. Similarly, make sure that there are enough patch
connectors that can fit the Ethernet cables. Be sure to conduct a little
research so that you can buy the right patch panel.
left arrow
right arrow

Design a cable map

This will be the only guide indicating to which panel connector a particular
incoming cable is connected. Remember, there could be a need for system
25
upgrades changes in future, so prepare the right map and label the patch
panels accurately for this as well as problem diagnosis.

Remove cable jackets from incoming Ethernet cables

Cable jackets must be removed from the incoming Ethernet cables, and this
is best done with the help of wire strippers. Cut the jacket approximately 1.5
inches from the cable, remove and discard it. Wire strippers are also
available in hardware and electrical stores.

Remove internal plastic jackets (if any)

Sometimes you will be handling Cat6 type incoming Ethernet cables. These
often come with an internal plastic jacket, which too should be removed. Use
wire cutters in this operation and exercise absolute care. If you are using
Cat5e incoming cables, however, you will not be required to undertake this
step.

Untwist and spread the cable wires

Inside the Ethernet cables, you will find four pairs of twisted wires. Unwind
these wires, but be careful not to mix them up. Four of the wires have solid
colors while the rest have a strip of white alongside the solid color.

Set your wires to the panel connector

Each of the wires should then be set to the patch panel. The connector pins
are fitted with labels containing color codes, which should guide you in
selecting the type of wire that goes to a particular connector.

Complete your connections

Using a patch panel punch down tool, press each of the wires down firmly.
This ensures that the wire is held in place by the insulation connector teeth.
If this tool has a cutting edge, place it over the cut end of your Ethernet
cables to cut off any extra wire while pressing. If it lacks the cutting edge, on
the other hand, use your wire cutter to remove the excess wires that are
spread over the edges of your connector.

How to make RJ45 cable

RJ45 cable is used for connect the ALL HMI and engineer station through a
switch to communicated each other. It is used to download the any
modification and which is made in graphics in engineering station.RJ45 cable
also used for communicate the printer with computer

Required tool and materials:

26
 1. Ethernet Cable – Category 5e or CAT5e or CAT6
2. RJ-45 Crimping tool
3. RJ45 Crimp able Connectors

Introduction: There are four pairs of wires in an Ethernet cable, and an

Ethernet connector (8P8C) has eight pin slots. Each pin is identified by a
number, starting from left to right, with the clip facing away from you.

27
There is two kinds of Ethernet cable is used for communication.

1. Straight Through
2. Cross over cable

Straight Through cable:

STRAIGHT THROUGH Ethernet cables are the standard cable used for almost
all purposes, and are often called “patch cables”. It is highly recommend you
duplicate the color order as shown on the left. Note how the green pair is not
side-by-side as are all the other pairs. This configuration allows for longer
wire runs.

Important Instruction: Always remember that both end connector clip facing
away from you when check the color.

CROSSOVER CABLES –

The purpose of a Crossover Ethernet cable is to directly connect one

computer to another computer (or device) without going through a router,
switch or hub.

28
Procedure to make RJ45 cable :

Step 1: Cut into the plastic sheath about 1 inch (2.5 cm) from the end of the
cut cable. Do not cut deep which may cause damage the insulation of core.

Step 2: Unwind and pair the similar colors. Pinch the wires between your
fingers and straighten them out in a sequence of color as u want to make
cable (Straight cable or cross over cable). The color order is important to get
correct

29
Step 3: A straight cut across the 8 wires to shorten them to 1/2 Inch (1.3
cm) from the cut sleeve to the end of the wires by crimping tool. Carefully
push all 8 unstrapped colored wires into the connector. Plastic sleeve should
be inserted proper in connector.

Wrong way: The plastic sleeve is not inside the connector where it can be
locked into place. The wires are too long. The wires should extend only 1/2
inch from the blue cut sleeve. The wires do not go all the way to the end of
the connector. The wires are too short.

Crimping the cable: Carefully place the connector into the Ethernet Crimper
and cinch down on the handles tightly. The copper splicing tabs on the
connector will pierce into each of the eight wires. There is also a locking tab
that holds the plastic sleeve in place for a tight compression fit. When you
remove the cable from the crimper, that end is ready to use.

Test the cable: Check the continuity of both connectors each other .Check
the cable threw a cable tester or ping from a computer. To check the cable
30
 through computer connects both connector in two computers for cross cable
and straight cable connect through a switch then ping the computer.

N.B: When you connect two devices of different types together, you
use a straight through cable. When you connect two devices of the
same type together, you use a crossover cable. All cables are straight
through if you insert a network device between two devices of the same
kind.
5. Crimping tools

Crimping tools are used for the following purposes.

 To cut the network cable of the required length from the bundle.
 To remove the outer and inner jackets of the network cable.
 To attach the connectors on both ends of the cable.

6. Testing tool

a
Network cable testing and troubleshooting tools

31
 A network cable testing and troubleshooting tool is used for the following
purposes.

 To measure the length of a segment or network cable.

 To detect loose connectors.
 To identify an un-labeled network cable from all network cables.
 To find a break in the network cable.
 To certify the cable installation.

 Equipment
1. Computer: A computer is a machine that can be programmed to carry
out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations (computation)
automatically.

2. UPS: An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) or uninterruptible

power source is a type of continual power system that provides
automated backup electric power to a load when the input power
source or mains power fails. A UPS differs from a traditional
auxiliary/emergency power system or standby generator in that it will
provide near-instantaneous protection from input power interruptions
by switching to energy stored in battery packs, super capacitors.

32
3. Inverter: An inverter converts the DC voltage to an AC voltage. In
most cases, the input DC voltage is usually lower while the output AC
is equal to the grid supply voltage of either 120 volts, or 240 Volts
depending on the country.

4. Switch: A network switch is networking hardware that connects devices

on a computer network by using packet switching to receive and
forward data to the destination device. A network switch is a multiport
network bridge that uses MAC addresses to forward data at the data
link layer of the OSI model.

5. Glue gun: Hot-melt adhesive, also known as hot glue, is a form of

thermoplastic adhesive that is commonly sold as solid cylindrical sticks
of various diameters designed to be applied using a hot glue gun.

33
 6. Rack:

What is a Network Rack?

Known by many names, a network rack is a metal frame chassis that holds,
stacks, organizes, secures and protects various computer network and server
hardware devices. The term “network” refers to the rack actually housing
this type of hardware.

Network Rack Equipment

These racks can house a lot of different types of equipment. Network

equipment is really just an umbrella term that encapsulates various kinds of
technology. Some of these devices include the following:

 Switches – Multi-port, high-speed devices that receive data and

redirect them to the correct destination on a local area network (LAN).
Information can only go across a single network using a switch.
 Routers – Similar to switches, routers receive and forward
information, but they can carry data over multiple networks. This is
why, for example, different devices or networks can access the
Internet using one single router.
 Modems – This device actually connects the source of your internet to
your router. This is typically done using an ethernet cord.

34
 7. Brackets

8. Patch panel: A patch panel in a local area network (LAN) is a

mounted hardware assembly that contains ports that are used to
connect and manage incoming and outgoing LAN cables. A patch panel
provides a way to keep large numbers of cables organized, enabling
flexible connectivity into network hardware located in a data center or

an access or wiring closet.

9. Repeater

In telecommunications, a repeater is an electronic device that receives a

signal and retransmits it. Repeaters are used to extend transmissions so
that the signal can cover longer distances or be received on the other side
of an obstruction.

10.Regenerator: : In the context of networking, a "regenerator" typically

refers to a network device or component that is used to boost or regenerate
35
the strength of optical signals. Optical signals can degrade as they travel
long distances in optical fiber cables, and regenerators are employed to
restore the signal quality.

Termination of Network cables

1. Network cables installation types.

 Open-Wire
 Aerial
 Above-Grounds Conduits
 Underground
 Underwater
 Built in
 Semi built in
Open-Wire: Open-wire lines were historically used for
telecommunication purposes, including telephone and telegraph
systems. Multiple wires were often strung together, and different wires
were dedicated to different communication circuits.
Aerial: In networking and telecommunications, the term "aerial"
typically refers to an antenna. An antenna is a device used to transmit
and receive wireless signals, such as radio waves, microwaves, or
other electromagnetic waves. Aerials play a crucial role in wireless
communication, including wireless networking, cellular
communications, and broadcasting. Here are some key points about
aerials in networking:

Wireless Networking: Aerials are an integral part of wireless

networking, including Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) and other wireless
communication protocols. Wi-Fi routers and access points are equipped
with antennas to send and receive data wirelessly to and from connected
devices like laptops, smartphones, and IoT devices.

Cellular Networks: In cellular networks, the antennas on cell towers and

base stations are often referred to as aerials. They are responsible for
transmitting and receiving signals to and from mobile devices, allowing
users to make calls, send text messages, and access mobile data
services.

Broadcasting: In television and radio broadcasting, large aerials

(antennas) are used to transmit broadcast signals. These signals are
received by the aerials of consumer TVs and radios, allowing people to
access broadcasted content.

36
 Satellite Communication: In satellite communication, both ground-
based and satellite-based antennas are used to establish connections with
satellites in orbit. Ground stations use directional aerials to communicate
with satellites, and the satellites themselves have aerials to transmit
signals back to Earth.
MIMO (Multiple Input, Multiple Output): In advanced wireless
technologies like 4G and 5G, multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO)
systems use multiple aerials at both the transmitter and receiver to
improve signal quality and increase data throughput.

Antenna Placement: The placement and orientation of aerials are

critical factors in network design. Proper positioning can optimize signal
coverage, reduce interference, and improve network performance.

Aerials are fundamental components of wireless communication systems,

enabling the transmission of data and signals over the air. The type of
aerial used depends on the specific application, the frequency of the
signals, and the desired coverage area. Proper selection and placement of
aerials are essential for the successful operation of wireless networks.

Above-Grounds Conduits:
Above-ground conduits, also known as overhead conduits or overhead cable
trays, are physical structures used in networking and telecommunications to
support and protect cables, wires, and other infrastructure components.
They are typically installed above the ground or overhead, often attached to
walls, ceilings, or support structures. Above-ground conduits have several
applications in networking:

Cable Management: Above-ground conduits are commonly used to

organize and manage network cables, such as Ethernet cables, fiber optic
cables, and power cables. Making it easier to trace and replace cables when
necessary.

Data Centers: In data centers, where large quantities of cables are used to
connect servers, switches, and other networking equipment, above-ground
conduits are used to route and protect cables. They help maintain cable
organization and facilitate maintenance and changes.

37
Suspended Ceilings: In office buildings and commercial environments,
above-ground conduits can be used to route cables through
suspended(hang) ceilings, providing a clean and organized appearance.
Maintenance Access: They allow easy access to cables for maintenance,
inspection, and future upgrades. This is particularly important in data centers
and other networking environments.

Underground
"Underground" in the context of networking and telecommunications
typically refers to the deployment of cables, conduits, or infrastructure
beneath(under) the ground. Underground installations are common for
various purposes in networking and utilities. Here are some key aspects of
underground installations in networking:

Cable Installation: Underground installations are often used to lay cables,

such as fiber optic cables and power cables, below the surface to connect
buildings, data centers, or network endpoints. This method is preferred in
urban areas to reduce visual clutter and protect cables from physical
damage and environmental factors.

Conduits: Conduits, which are protective pipes or tubes, are commonly

used for routing and protecting cables underground. Conduits shield cables
from moisture, soil, and other external elements, helping to maintain the
integrity of the network.
Outdoor Fiber Networks: Telecommunications providers often deploy
underground fiber optic networks to connect neighborhoods and provide
high-speed internet services. This approach offers reliability and minimizes
the risk of damage from accidents.

Data Centers: Data centers may have underground cable routes to connect
different parts of the facility.
Residential and Commercial Utilities: Utilities like electricity, water, and gas
may use underground installations to supply homes and businesses. These
utilities may share underground infrastructure with telecommunications
networks, as they can use common conduits to reduce installation costs and
environmental impact.
38
 Underwater:
In networking and telecommunications, "underwater" typically refers to the
deployment of network infrastructure, cables, and communication systems
beneath the surface of bodies of water, such as oceans, seas, rivers, and
lakes. Underwater networking is essential for a variety of applications,
including:

Submarine Communication Cables: Submarine communication cables are

undersea cables that span the ocean floors and connect continents and
countries. These cables carry the majority of international internet traffic,
enabling global communication and data exchange.
The deployment and maintenance of underwater networking infrastructure
are complex endeavors that involve specialized technology, vessels, and
international cooperation. Submarine communication cables, in particular,
are critical for global internet connectivity, and they are often installed and
operated by undersea cable consortia or telecommunications companies.
Built in
Semi built in
2. Network cables Trunking materials
 Plastic
 Wood
 Stainless
Plastic: Cable trunking is installed as a protective routing and
covering system for electrical cables and wires which prevents
accidental damage.

Wood

Stainless
39
 3. Cable termination
twisted pair cabling
Fiber-optic cabling
Coaxial cabling
shielded twisted pair
3. Connection of Network Media
Labelling
Properly labeling your network cables can be critical for a successful
installation, as well as for your network in the long run. Using labeled cables
helps prevent people from unplugging the wrong cable at the wrong time,

Patching and Tagging

"Patching and tagging" typically refers to the practice of labeling and
organizing network cables, particularly in data centers, server rooms, and
structured cabling systems. Proper labeling and organization of network
cables are essential for efficient network management, troubleshooting, and
maintenance. Here's what "patching and tagging" involves:

1. Patching:

40
Patching refers to the physical connection of cables. This process involves
connecting network cables from active devices (e.g., computers, servers,
switches) to passive devices (e.g., patch panels or wall outlets) or to other
active devices.
Patch panels are commonly used in data centers and server rooms to
terminate and manage network connections. Each port on a patch panel
corresponds to a specific location or device.
Cables are connected to the patch panel on one end and to the active
devices or wall outlets on the other end, forming the physical links in the
network.
2. Tagging:

Tagging involves labeling or tagging each cable with relevant information.

This is typically done using cable labels or markers that are affixed to the
cables.
Each cable is labeled with information such as its source and destination,
cable type (e.g., Cat 6, fiber optic), and unique identifier (e.g., port number,
device name).
Cable labels are typically color-coded or otherwise organized to make
identification easier.
Patching and tagging offer several benefits in network
management:

Easy Identification: Proper labeling allows network administrators to

quickly identify the purpose and location of each cable, simplifying
troubleshooting and maintenance.

Minimized Downtime: When network issues occur, administrators can

pinpoint problems and make repairs more efficiently, reducing network
downtime.

Documentation: Accurate labeling provides documentation of network

connections, which is valuable for future reference and expansion planning.

Improved Scalability: Well-organized cabling systems make it easier to

add, move, or change connections as network requirements evolve.

41
Compliance and Standards: In some industries and data centers,
compliance with labeling and documentation standards is required for
regulatory reasons.

Provide us build design

Designing a network architecture: can be a complex process that
depends on various factors, including the organization's requirements,
budget, and existing infrastructure. Below is a high-level outline for
designing a network, focusing on common components and considerations.
Please note that the specific design will vary based on your needs.

1. Requirements Gathering:

Begin by understanding the business requirements and objectives.

Identify the number of users, devices, and the types of applications that will
run on the network.
2. Network Topology:

Choose a network topology that suits your needs. Common topologies

include star, bus, ring, and mesh.
3. IP Addressing:

Decide on IP addressing schemes, both IPv4 and IPv6, and subnetting.

Plan for address allocation, including static and dynamic addresses.
4. Routing and Switching:

Select appropriate routers and switches. Cisco, Juniper, and other vendors
offer various options.
Configure routing protocols (e.g., OSPF, BGP) based on the network's size
and complexity.
5. Security:

42
Implement security measures, including firewalls, intrusion
detection/prevention systems, and access control lists (ACLs).
Encrypt sensitive data with technologies like VPNs or SSL/TLS.
6. VLANs (Virtual LANs):
Divide the network into VLANs to segregate traffic and improve security.
Plan VLAN assignments based on department, function, or security
requirements.
7. Wireless Networks (Wi-Fi):

If applicable, design the wireless network with considerations for coverage,

capacity, and security.
Implement WPA3 security and consider guest networks.
8. Network Management:
Choose network monitoring and management tools (e.g., SNMP, Net Flow).
Set up alerting and reporting to proactively identify and resolve issues.
9. Documentation:
Maintain comprehensive network documentation, including network
diagrams, IP address assignments, device configurations, and change logs.
10. Training and Support:
Provide training for network administrators and support staff.

Learning outcome 2: Perform Basic Network Configuration

Classification of IP Addresses

What Is an IP Address?

IP address stands for internet protocol address; it is an identifying number

that is associated with a specific computer or computer network. When
connected to the internet, the IP address allows the computers to send and
receive information.

How do IP Addresses Work?

An IP address allows computers to send and receive data over the internet.
Most IP addresses are purely numerical, but as internet usage grows, letters
have been added to some addresses.

Types of IP Addresses
43
There are four different types of IP addresses: public, private, static, and
dynamic. While the public and private are indicative of the location of the
network—private being used inside a network while the public is used
outside of a network—static and dynamic indicate permanency.

A static IP address is one that was manually created, as opposed to having

been assigned. A static address also does not change, whereas a dynamic IP
address has been assigned by a (DHCP) server and is subject to change.
Dynamic IP addresses are the most common type of internet protocol
addresses. Dynamic IP addresses are only active for a certain amount of
time, after which they expire. The computer will either automatically request
a new lease, or the computer may receive a new IP address.

An IP address can be compared to a Social Security Number (SSN) since

each one is completely unique to the computer or user it is assigned to. The
creation of these numbers allows routers to identify where they are sending
information on the internet. They also make sure that the correct devices
are receiving what is being sent. Much like the post office needs a mailing
address to deliver a package, a router needs an IP address to deliver to the
web address requested.

What Are the Different Types of IP Addresses?

Consumer IP Addresses: These are the IP addresses of individuals and

businesses who use the internet. Consumer IP addresses could be either
public or private addresses. Typically, devices use private IP addresses
within a network and a public IP addresses outside a network. For example,
each device within the same network is assigned a unique private IP
address, whereas a public IP can be accessed directly over the internet and
is assigned to your network router by your ISP.

Public IP addresses come in two types: dynamic IP addresses and static IP

addresses.

Dynamic IP Addresses: A dynamic IP address refers to an address

assigned to a device temporarily by an ISP. Dynamic IP addresses are
typically assigned to devices such as computers, smartphones, or routers.
They provide a level of anonymity and security as the IP address changes
periodically, making it more difficult to track a specific device or user. When
a device connects to the ISP's network, it is assigned an available IP address
from a pool. This address is then borrowed for a specific duration before
being returned to the pool and assigned to another device.

Static IP Addresses: A static IP address is a fixed address assigned to a

device that remains constant. They are typically used for hosting websites
or running servers. By having a fixed IP address, users can easily connect
domain names to their servers, ensuring that their websites or services are
always accessible. Static addresses are manually configured either on the
device itself or by the network administrator. Static IP addresses are
44
typically provided by the user’s ISP or network administrator, and typically
come at an additional cost.

IP address versions

What Is IP?

The Internet Protocol (IP) is a set of networking rules that enable computers
to communicate over the Internet. IP has two primary purposes:

 Enable different computers to exchange data over the Internet while

ensuring sent files arrive at the correct destination.
 Identify every device and domain that connects to the Internet by
assigning a unique IP address (a series of digits that identify a specific
computer or device).

When you send something online, the IP breaks data into smaller chunks
called packets. Each packet has attached IP info that ensures whatever you
send reaches the right recipient. This process occurs automatically and looks
like this:

 The sender's computer connects to the Internet via a local router,

either at home or within an office server room.
 The router (which has a static IP address that never changes) assigns a
temporary (a.k.a. dynamic) IP address to the device to enable
communication.
 IP converts files into datagrams with a header (info consisting of IP
source/destination and metadata) and the payload (the data itself).
 The protocol nests data into packets.
 IP breaks down data packets (fragmentation) and sends them over the
Internet to the specified IP address.
 Once data reaches its destination, IP rebuilds the file (reassembly) to
allow access.

The Internet Protocol does not assign IP addresses at random. A non-profit

organization called Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
(ICANN) allocates IP addresses to Internet Service Providers (ISPs) who
assign addresses to end-user devices.

Most networks combine IP with TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) or UDP

(User Datagram Protocol) to form a connection between devices. All three
are a part of the broader Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) that governs
rules for routing and receiving data over a network.

What Is IPv4?

IPv4 is the first major version of the Internet Protocol that's been the go-to
communication model for the Internet since the 1980s.

45
IPv4 assigns 32-bit IP addresses to devices. Each address has four groups of
numbers (8-bit sections called octets) separated by a period, such as:

192.158.1.38

The value of each octet ranges from 0 to 255, so the IPv4 model includes
every address between 0.0.0.0 and 255.255.255.255. All IPv4 addresses
have two parts:

 The network ID (the first three octets) that indicates which network
the device is on.
 The host ID (the fourth octet) that identifies the specific device on
that network.

For example, if your home network has a 192.168.1.1 address, 192.168.1 is

the network ID, while the final octet (1) is the host ID. In most networks, the
router gets the .1 value by default.

IPv4 enables the creation and use of 4,294,967,296 unique

addresses (more commonly expressed as 2^32). In the 1980s and 1990s,
over 4 billion available addresses seemed sufficient to meet the demand of
the online world.

The most common technique for reusing IPv4 addresses is Network

Address Translation (NAT). NAT enables you to represent a group of
devices with a single IP address, which conserves bandwidth and slows down
the depletion(reduction) of IP addresses.

We view IP addresses in human-readable notations, such as 66.94.29.13.

However, computers only understand binary format, so the address we see
as 66.94.29.13 stands for 01000010.01011110.00011101.00001101 in the
"computer language."

46
IPv4 Features

Here are the main features of IPv4:

 Creates 32-bit IP addresses.

 Addresses use four 1-byte decimal numbers separated by a dot, a
format that a human can easily read and even remember.
 Connectionless protocol.
 Requires small amounts of memory to store address info in the
network.
 Supported by nearly all devices and websites on the Internet.
 Offers video libraries and conferences.
 Enables the creation of a simple virtual communication layer over
diversified(different) devices.

What Is IPv6?

IPv6 is the latest Internet Protocol version and the successor to IPv4. IPv6
aims to fulfill the need for more IP addresses, the main issue of the previous
IP. Another common name for IPv6 is IPng (Internet Protocol next
generation).

IPv6 uses 128-bit hexadecimal IP addresses. This model enables 2^128

unique addresses (over 340 undecillion, which is 340 with 36 zeros).

IPv6 addresses are significantly longer than IPv4 variants (eight 16-bit blocks
with groups of four symbols, often called hextets or quartets) and are
alphanumeric. Also, whereas IPv4 relies on periods for formatting, IPv6 uses
colons, such as in this example:

2001:0db8:0000:0001:0000:ff00:0032:7879

The model omits leading zeros (like in IPv4), and you'll sometimes find IP
addresses that have a double colon (::) that designate any number of
0 bits (such as 1201:2db7::fa00:0040:6669, in which the third, fourth, and
fifth hextets are 0000).

While IPv6 is more sustainable than IPv4, the majority of the Internet
still uses IPv4. Upgrading all the routers, servers, and switches that have
used IPv4 for decades takes a lot of time and money.

IPv6 Features

Here are the main features of IPv6:

 A 128-bit hexadecimal address scheme.

 Both stateful and stateless configurations.
 Auto-configuration capabilities.
 Support for Quality of Service (QoS).
47
  Better multicast routing and simpler header format than IPv4.
 End-to-end connectivity at the IP layer, so there's no need for NAT.
 Integrated Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) with built-
in authentication, encryption, and privacy support.

IPv4 vs IPv6: What’s the difference?

Both IPv4 and IPv6 identify connected devices on the network. However,
there are slight differences in the way they operate. IPv6 is the newer IP
version and was introduced to address the limitations IPv4 posed on the
availability of IP addresses.

The following is a list of differences between IPv4 and IPv6:

 IPv4 is 32-bit, whereas IPv6 is 128-bit.

 In IPv4, binary bits are separated by a dot (.); IPv6 separates binary bits
by a colon (:).

 IPv4 follows the numeric addressing method and IPv6 is alphanumeric.

 IPv4 offers 12 header fields and IPv6 offers eight header fields.

 IPv4 has checksum fields but IPv6 doesn't.

 IPv4 supports broadcast address, which is a type of special address that

transmits data packets to every node on the network. IPv6 doesn't
support broadcast, but instead uses a multicast address, which is a logical
identifier for a collection of hosts on a network.

 IPv4 supports Variable Length Subnet Mask, but IPv6 doesn't.

Looking up an IP address

There are many ways to look up the IP address of a device. However, the
simplest way is to type what is my IP address? into an internet browser, such
as Google Chrome. The returning address will be the public IP address of the
requesting device.

Windows 10 and Windows 11

48
1. Select Start>Settings>Network & internet>Wi-Fi and the Wi-Fi
network you're connected to.

2. Under Properties, look for your IP address listed next to IPv4 address.

Identification of IP address classes

IP Address Classification Based on Operational Characteristics

There are three different types of IP addresses within this classification.

1. Unicast IP Addresses

This is an address of a single interface which are used for one-to-one

communication. Unicast IP addresses are used to direct packets to a specific

host.

2. Multicast IP Addresses

Multicast IP addresses are used for one-to-many communication. Multicast

messages are sent to IP multicast group addresses. The packets reach

multiple destinations, however, not every single one of them.

49
3. Broadcast IP Addresses

This type of IP is used to send data to all the possible destinations within the

broadcast domain.

IP Address Terminology

Static means the IP address never changes as long as you stay with the
same provider or same server.

Dynamic means the IP address can change from time-to-time.

Public means the IP address can be visited from any computer in the world.

Private means the IP address can only be used by those on the same
network.

Shared means other people use your IP address for their connection or
websites.

Dedicated means no one else uses your IP address for their connection or
websites.

Class identifies the range of your IP address and the default subnet mask.

 A class - 0 to 127 with default mask of 255.0.0.0

 B class - 128 to 191 with default mask of 255.255.0.0
 C class - 192 to 223 with default mask of 255.255.255.0
 D class - 224 to 247 (not currently used)
 E class - 248 to 255 (not currently used)

Identification of IP address classes

There are two versions of IP addresses, IPv4 and IPv6. In this tutorial, we will
discuss how IPv4 organizes IP addresses. In IPv4, there are 4,294,967,296 IP
addresses. These addresses are organized into five IP classes. These classes
are A, B, C, D, and F.

Before we understand how IP addresses are organized in these classes, let's

briefly discuss how IP addresses are written and structured.
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IP addresses notation

Computers understand only the binary system. The binary system uses bits
to store and process data. A bit can store only two values: zero (0) and
one (1). If the value 'zero' is stored, the bit is known as the OFF bit. If the
value 'one' is stored, the bit is known as ON bit. The binary system uses a
unique combination of ON and OFF bits for each letter and number.

Using IP addresses in the binary format is not easy. But the good news is that
unless you are a software developer or a network administrator, you never
need to write and use IP addresses in binary notation. You can write and use
them in decimal format. The software program that you use to assign the IP
address on the interface automatically converts the assigned IP address into
binary format.

If you are a software developer or a network administrator, you can also use
IP addresses in decimal format. But you should also understand how IP
addresses work in the binary system. Since interfaces use the binary system
to process IP addresses, learning IP addresses in binary format can make
your IP related tasks easy.

In short, you can write and use IP addresses in two notations: binary notation
and decimal-dotted notation. In binary notation, all the individual bits of each
byte are expressed as a binary number. In decimal notation, all four binary
bytes are converted and expressed to their decimal equivalent numbers.

In this session,we will understand IP classes in both notations.

IP addresses structure

An IP address consists of 32 bits. These bits are divided into four sections.
Sections are separated by a dot (.). Each section contains 8 bits. 8 bits are
equal to 1 byte or 1 octet. The following image shows how bits are organized
in an IP address.

By using 32 bits with two possible values for each position, the binary system
can create 4,294,967,296 (232) unique combinations or IP addresses. These

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 addresses can be used without any addressing scheme or with an addressing
scheme that arranges them in such a way that it becomes easier to access
them.

If addresses are used without any addressing scheme, all routers on the
network will need to store the address of each and every interface on the
network. Depending on the size of the network, this may affect routing. If the
network size is small, it can make routing slow. If the network size is
moderate, it can make routing very slow. If the network size is large, it can
make routing completely impossible.

For efficient routing, addresses are organized into the hierarchical

addressing scheme. In this scheme, all addresses are divided into five
classes and each address is divided into two addresses: the network address
and the host address.

IP address classes

Based on the following rules, IP addresses are categorized into five classes;
A, B, C, D, and E.

 In class A, the first bit of the first byte always remains OFF (0).
 In class B, the first bit of the first byte always remains ON and the second bit
of the first byte always remains OFF.
 In class C, the first two bits of the first byte always remain ON and the third
bit of the first byte always remains OFF.
 In class D, the first three bits of the first byte always remain ON and the
fourth bit of the first byte always remains OFF.
 In class E, the first four bits of the first byte always remain ON.

By turning all remaining bits of the first byte ON and OFF, we can make the
first and last address of that class.

The following table lists the value of the first byte or octet in both notations.

Class Fix bits First address (binary Last address (binary First address (de
notation) notation) notation)

A 0 00000000 01111111 0

B 10 10000000 10111111 128

C 110 11000000 11011111 192

D 1110 11100000 11101111 224

E 1111 11110000 11111111 240

Network and host addressing

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In the second level of the hierarchical addressing scheme, each address is
further divided into two addresses: the network address and host address.

Network addresses are used to combine multiple IP addresses in a group

while host addresses are used to provide a unique identity to each IP address
in the group. A network address is the group address. All group members use
the same network address. A host address is a unique address in the group.

To learn more about how the network addresses and host addresses work,
you can check the following tutorial.

IP address, Network address, and Host address Explained

The length of network addresses and host addresses in IP addresses are

different in all IP classes. In class A, the first bits are reserved for the
network address. The remaining 24 bits are available for the host address. In
class B, the first 16 bits are reserved for the network address while the
last 16 bits are available for the host address. In class C, the first 24 bits are
reserved for the network address while the last 8 bits available for the host
address.

The following image shows how bits are defined for network addresses and
host addresses in each IP class.

In IP addresses, host bits are flexible. Administrators can adjust the length of
host bits to meet the requirements of their networks. They can use host bits
as network bits to utilize maximum addresses from all available addresses. If
hosts bits are used as the network bits, this is known as the subnetting.

Class D and E are not used for the host addressing. Class D addresses are
used for multicast addresses. Class E addresses are reserved for research
and development purposes. Multicast addresses are explained in the
following tutorial.

The subnet mask

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 IP addresses use an additional component to distinguish between network
addresses and host addresses. This component is known as the subnet
mask. In simple words, the subnet mask tells, how many bits in the IP
address are used as the network address and how many bits are left for the
host address.

IP addresses are always written with the subnet mask. The following table
lists the default subnet mask for all IP classes.

Class Decimal Binary notation

notation

A 255.0.0.0 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

B 255.255.0.0 11111111. 11111111.00000000.00000000

C 255.255.255.0 11111111. 11111111. 11111111.00000000

Identifying the class of an IP address (decimal notation)

If an IP address is written in the decimal notation, check the value of the first
section or octet and use the following rules to identify the class of the IP
address.

 If the value is in the range 1 to 127, the address belongs to class A.

 If the value is in the range 128 to 191, the address belongs to class B.
 If the value is in the range 192 to 223, the address belongs to class C.
 If the value is in the range 224 to 239, the address belongs to class D.
 If the value is in the range 240 to 255, the address belongs to class E.

Identifying the class of an IP address (binary notation)

If an IP address is written in the binary notation, you can use the following
rules to identify the class of the IP address.

 If the first bit is OFF, the address belongs to class A.

 If the first bit is ON and the second bit is OFF, the address belongs to
class B.
 If the first two bits are ON and the third bit is OFF, the address belongs to
class C.
 If the first three bits are ON and the fourth bit is OFF, the address belongs to
class D.
 If the first four bits are ON, the address belongs to class E.

Examples of IP addresses

Decimal notation Binary notation

1.2.3.4 00000001.00000010.00000011.00000100
255.0.0.0 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

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10.10.10.10 00001010.00001010.00001010.00001010
255.0.0.0 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

25.147.191.14 00011001.10010011.10111111.00001110
255.0.0.0 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

95.86.75.4 01011111.01010110.01001011.00000100
255.0.0.0 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

127.0.0.1 01111111.00000000.00000000.00000001
255.0.0.0 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

Examples of class A IP addresses are the following.

Examples of class B IP addresses are the following.

Decimal Binary notation

notation

129.12.36.42 10000001.00001100.00100100.00101010
255.255.0.0 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000

168.172.1.1 10101000.10101100.00000001.00000001
255.255.0.0 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000

175.66.43.12 10101111.01000010.00101011.00001100
255.255.0.0 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000

145.186.175.23 10010001.10111010.10101111.11101010
4 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
255.255.0.0

190.60.152.25 10111110.00111100.10011000.00011001
255.255.0.0 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000

Examples of class C IP addresses are the following.

Decimal Binary notation

notation

192.168.1.1 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001
255.255.255.0 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

210.20.30.40 11010010.00010100.00011110.00101000
255.255.255.0 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

216.123.145.1 11011000.01111011.10010001.00010000
6 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

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255.255.255.0

220.86.76.43 11011100.01010110.01001100.00101011
255.255.255.0 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

220.60.80.100 11011100.00111100.01010000.01100100
255.255.255.0 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

 Calculation of IP addresses subnet masks

 Introduction to subnet masks
A subnet mask is a 32-bit number created by setting host bits to all 0s
and setting network bits to all 1s. In this way, the subnet mask separates
the IP address into the network and host addresses. The “255” address is
always assigned to a broadcast address, and the “0” address is always
assigned to a network address.
 Definition:Subnetting is the process of dividing a large network into
smaller, more manageable subnetworks or subnets. It offers several benefits
in terms of network management, security, and efficiency. Here are some of
the key benefits of subnetting:

 Benefits of subnetting

Efficient IP address utilization: Subnetting allows you to break down a large IP

address space into smaller segments, which helps optimize the allocation of IP
addresses. This is especially important in a world where IPv4 addresses are
becoming increasingly scarce.

Network segmentation: Subnets can be used to logically segment a network,

which enhances network organization and management. Different subnets can be
assigned to different departments, teams, or functions within an organization,
making it easier to manage and troubleshoot network issues.

Improved network performance: Smaller subnets can reduce broadcast traffic,

as broadcast packets are limited to the devices within the same subnet. This helps
improve overall network performance by reducing unnecessary network traffic.

Enhanced security: Subnetting can be used to isolate sensitive or critical parts of

a network from the rest of the network. This provides an additional layer of security
by limiting the scope of potential security breaches or attacks.

Simplified troubleshooting: When a network is divided into smaller subnets, it

becomes easier to identify and isolate issues. Troubleshooting and diagnosing
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problems are more efficient because you can narrow down the affected portion of
the network.

Improved network management: Subnetting simplifies the management of IP

addresses, routing tables, and network devices. It enables network administrators
to apply access control policies, quality of service (QoS), and other network services
more effectively.

Questions

Q. Why use subnets?

A. Subnets will enhance network security, efficiency, and performance, and

create a speedier set of route maps for data.

Q. How can my company use subnets?

A. Locate a highly qualified engineer by utilizing the search function at Field

Engineer.

Q. How many hosts can a subnet have?

A. If you subtract the number of network bits from the number of total bits,
you can calculate the total number of hosts a subnet can have.

Q. What sort of networks would be best for subnetting?

A. Small networks don’t require subnets. However, large LANs are prime
candidates as IP address allocation will be impactful with group devices to
maximize organization.

Q. What is an IP class?

A. IP classification is complex. However, in layman’s terms, IP classes range

from A - E. Class A, B, and C are used for host addresses without exception.
Class D is for multicasting. And Class E is rarely used within networks of
companies.

 Binary system

The binary system is a numeral system that uses a base of 2. In contrast to

the decimal system, which uses base 10 and has ten digits (0 through 9), the
binary system uses only two digits: 0 and 1. This system is fundamental in
computer science and digital electronics because it aligns with the binary
logic of on and off, high and low voltage, and true and false states.

Here are some key points about the binary system:

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Digits: In the binary system, each digit is called a "bit," which is short for
"binary digit." A bit can have one of two values, either 0 or 1.

Place Value: Just like in the decimal system, the binary system uses place
value. Each position from right to left represents a power of 2. For example,
in the binary number 1101, the rightmost digit is 2^0, the next is 2^1, the
next is 2^2, and the leftmost digit is 2^3.

Counting: Counting in binary follows a simple pattern. It goes from 0

(represented as 0 in binary) to 1 (also represented as 1 in binary). Then,
when you add 1 to 1, it "carries over" just like in the decimal system,
becoming 10 in binary (which is equivalent to 2 in decimal). The pattern
continues: 11 (3 in decimal), 100 (4 in decimal), 101 (5 in decimal), and so
on.

Conversions: Binary numbers can be converted to decimal and vice versa. To

convert a binary number to decimal, you multiply each bit by the
corresponding power of 2 and sum the results. For example, 1101 in binary is
12^3 + 12^2 + 02^1 + 12^0, which equals 13 in decimal. To convert from
decimal to binary, you repeatedly divide the decimal number by 2 and record
the remainders until the quotient becomes zero.

Representation in Computers: Computers use binary internally to represent

all data and instructions. Each piece of data, such as numbers, characters,
and even the program itself, is represented in binary. This is because digital
electronic devices work with electrical voltage that can be either high (1) or
low (0).

Boolean Logic: The binary system aligns with Boolean logic, where 0 typically
represents "false" or "off," and 1 represents "true" or "on." This is
fundamental in computer programming and digital circuit design.

Binary is the basis for all digital communication and computation. It's used
for encoding, storage, processing, and transmission of data in computers and
other digital systems, making it a fundamental concept in the field of
information technology.
 Types of Subnetting
There are two types of Subnetting FLSM and VLSM. In FLSM, all subnets have
equal number of host addresses and use same Subnet mask. In VLSM, subnets have
flexible number of host addresses and use different subnet mask.

FLSM Subnetting and VLSM Subnetting

There are two types of Subnetting: FLSM and VLSM. In FLSM, all subnets
have an equal number of host addresses and use the same subnet mask. In
VLSM, subnets have a flexible number of host addresses. They use a subnet
mask based on the number of hosts.

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Default IP subnets have a large number of IP addresses. Most networks do
not need too many IP addresses. If they use the default subnet, all unused IP
addresses become useless. To utilize free IP addresses, we use subnetting.

Subnetting allows us to break default IP subnets. There are two types of

subnetting: FLSM and VLSM.

FLSM stands for Fixed Length Subnet Mask. In it, we break the default IP
subnet into the same-sized subnets. For example, if the default subnet has
12 IP addresses, we can break it into three equal-sized subnets having 4 IP
addresses in each.

VLSM stands for Variable Length Subnet Mask. In it, we break the default IP
subnet into subnets having various sizes. For example, if the default subnet
has 12 IP addresses, we can break it into two subnets where the first subnet
has 8 IP addresses and the second subnet has 4 IP addresses.

Differences between FLSM Subnetting and VLSM Subnetting

The following table lists the differences between FLSM and VLSM.

FLSM (Fixed Length Subnet Masks) VLSM (Variable Length Subnet

Subnetting Masks) Subnetting
All subnets are equal in size. Subnets are variable in length.
All subnets have an equal number of Subnets have a variable number of
hosts. hosts.
All subnets use the same subnet mask. Subnets use different subnet masks.
It is complex in configuration and
It is easy to configure and manage.
administration.
It wastes a lot of IP addresses. It wastes minimum IP addresses.
It is also known as classless
It is also known as classful subnetting.
subnetting.
It supports both classful and classless It supports only classless routing
routing protocols. protocols.

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