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 Outcome
One APPLY ALGORITHM FUNDAMENTALS

1.1 Number systems are correctly converted according to the base conversion
methods

1. Number Base Systems

Number systems are determined by the base representing valid digits used to
represent a number. The four types of number systems used in computing are decimal
(base 10), binary (base 2), octal (base 8), and hexadecimal (base 16) number systems.

1.1. Decimal Number System

Decimal number system consists of ten digits 0-9 most of us are familiar with.
Because the decimal number system has ten digits, it is also known as a base 10 or
denary number system. In computing, counting of decimal numbers start from 0.

1.2. Binary Number System

Binary numbers consist of two digits – 0 and 1 referred to as binary digits, in short’
bits. In binary base system, the positional value of a number increases by powers of
two. When dealing with different number systems, always remember to indicate the
base of a binary number such as 10112.

Digital computers use a number system with a base of two, rather than base ten to
represent any data. This is because it is much easier to engineer circuits that
implement “binary number system.” In groups, discuss the four types of number
systems and classify them according symbols used to represent any number. If 1011
represents 11 in decimal form, represent decimal numbers 0 to 15 in binary form.

1.3. Octal Number System

The octal number system also known as octadecimal has eight digits ranging from 0 –
7 that are used to represent any number. This means that a number like 785 cannot
be a valid octal number because 8 in between 7 and 5 is not within 0 to 7 digits.

1.4. Hexadecimal Number System

Hexadecimal is a base 16 number system consisting of 16 digits that range from 0 to

9, and A to F. The letters A to F are used to represent numbers 10 to 15.

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 Below shows a summary of the four number systems classified according to
their base values:

Octal and hexadecimal number systems

In groups of three, discuss the benefits and reasons for using octal
and hexadecimal number systems.

2. Converting Decimal to other Base Systems

Mathematically, it is possible to convert a number from one base system to another. In

the following section, we demonstrate how to convert decimal numbers to other base
systems.

2.1. Decimal to Binary Number Conversion

To convert a decimal number to binary, there are two possible methods, the division-
remainder, and positional-value methods.

Division-by-Base Method

In division-by-base method, a decimal number is repeatedly divided by the base until

the dividend is indivisible by 2. In every division, write down the remainder on the
right of the dividend. Read the sequence of 0s and 1s bottom-ups that represents the
binary number. For example, to convert 4510 to binary form, proceed as follow:

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 NB: The remainder in the last division marked with asterisk is 1 because 1 is not
perfectly divisible by 2 in the previous step.

Activity

Using division-by base method, convert the decimal number 247 to binary form. Confirm
whether is the 111101112 is correct answer.

Place value Method

The second method of converting decimal numbers to binary form is the place value
method. For example, to convert 24710 to binary form, proceed as follows:

1. Start by writing down the place values in powers of 2 up to the value equal to or
slightly larger than the number to be converted. For example, to convert 24710
write down the place values up to 28.

2. Subtract the highest place value i.e 256 from the number. If the difference is 0
or positive, write 1, otherwise write 0 if the difference is negative.

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 NB: Note that under the place value 2 8 , we write 0 because 247-256 returns a
negative value.

3. If the difference returned a negative carry forward the number, the next lower
significant place value and calculate the difference. Since 247 – 128 returns
119 (positive), write 1.

4. Repeat the process until you encounter the least significant, until you subtract
the previous step difference from the least significant place value.

5. Read the binary digits from left to right. This gives us 011110111. Thus: 24710
= 0111101112.

2.2. Decimal to Octal Conversion

To convert a decimal number to octal form, we repeatedly divide the dividend by the
base value 8 until the quotient is indivisible by 8. The remainders consisting of digits
between 0 and 7 are read upwards. For example, to convert 586 10 to an octal number,
proceed as follows:

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 2.3. Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion

To convert a decimal number to hexadecimal form, repeatedly divide the quotient by

16 until the quotient is not divisible by the base value. The resulting remainders
consisting of digits from 0-9, and A-F are read bottom-up. For example, to convert a
decimal number 896 to hexadecimal form, proceed as follows:

Continue dividing until the quotient is no longer divisible by 16.

Read the remainders from bottom to top.

Explanation

Divide the number by 16 and write down the quotient and the remainder. Note the
remainder can be a digit between 0 and F.

Taking another example let us convert a decimal 4056 to hexadecimal form.

Since hexadecimal symbols between 10 and 15 are represented by letters A to F,

replace 15 with F and 13 with D in the remainders.

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 3. Binary to other Base System Conversion

Conversion of a binary number to other base systems is the reverse procedure to what
we have covered in the previous section. In this section, we demonstrate how to
convert binary numbers into decimal (base 10), octal (base 8) and hexadecimal (base
16) form.

3.1. Binary to Decimal Conversion

To convert a binary number to decimal form, proceed as follows:

1. Write place values under which you place the bits from the least significant to
the most significant.
2. Multiply each bit by corresponding place value e.g starting with most
significant e.g in case of 101101, multiply the left most bit by 32.
3. Sum the partial products to get the decimal number

3.2. Binary to Octal Conversion

To convert a binary to Octal system group the One’s (1’s) and zero’s(0’s) into sets of
three bits starting from right to left. The reason for grouping into 3 bits is because the
maximum octal digit (7) has a maximum of 3 digits.

For example, to convert 110100012 to octal format, proceed as follows

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 1. Group the bits to sets of 3 starting from right.

2. Write down the octal digit represented by each set of bits

Thus: 0110100012=3218

3.3. Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

Similar to the approach used with octal number system, a binary number can be
converted to hexadecimal format by grouping the bits to a set of 4 bits. This is because
the largest hexadecimal digit i.e. F(15) has 4 bits.

For example, to convert 110100012 to hexadecimal form, group the bits into sets of 4
starting from right to left as follows:

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 Thus: = 1101 00012 = D1

1. Split the number into sets of 4 bits starting from right to left. In our case, we get
three complete sets and one incomplete one:

11 0010 0001

2. Because the leftmost set has two bits, add two zeros to it on the left to get:

0011 0010 0001

3. Using the binary equivalents in Table 5.17, place each the equivalent hexadecimal
digit under each of the set of bits.

Thus: 00110100012 = 32116

3.4. Octal to Decimal Conversion

To convert octal numbers to decimal form, we use the division-by-base and place value
methods used on binary numbers. For example, to convert 5128 to decimal form,
proceed as follows:

1. Write each number under base 8 place value

2. From left to right, multiply each digit by its place value as shown below:

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 3.5. Octal to Hexadecimal conversion

Because octal to hexadecimal conversions cannot be done directly, we first convert

given octal numbers to its decimal or binary equivalent. In the second step we convert
the decimal or binary number to its hexadecimal equivalent.

1. To start with, we demonstrate how to use the two-stage approach to convert an

octal number 10028 to hexadecimal:

2. Convert the decimal number 514 to hexadecimal using division-by-base

method:

Alternatively, you can convert an octal number to hexadecimal by converting the

number to binary form as follows:

1. Convert each octal digit to a 3-bit binary number

2. Convert the resulting binary number i.e. 0010000000102 to hexadecimal by

grouping the bits into four groups starting from right:

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 3. Write down the hexadecimal equivalent of each of the 4-bit grouping as shown
below:

Therefore, 0010 0000 001002 = 20216

3.6. Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion

To convert a hexadecimal number to base ten equivalent, proceed as follows:

1. First, write the place values starting from the right hand side.

2. If a digit is a letter such as an ‘A’ write its decimal equivalent.

3. Multiply each hexadecimal digit with its corresponding place value, and then add
the partial products.

The following example illustrate how to convert 11116 to decimal form:

1. Write each digit under its place value

2. Multiply each hexadecimal digit with corresponding places value and write
down the partial products (256 × 1) + (16 × 1) + (1 × 1) downwards as follows:

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 4. Decimal Fraction to Binary Conversion

In mathematics, a number with integer and fractional parts such as 87.25 is known
as a real number. In computing, a real number is referred to as floating point
number.

The fractional part has a value that is less than 1 written as 1/x or 0.x. For example,
87.25 has a fractional part 0.25 that may also be written as 1/4. The weight of a
floating point number increases from right to left.

In computing, the same approach is used to represent fractional binary numbers. For
example, the fractional binary number 11.110112 may be represented.

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 For example, to convert a number like 87.25 to binary form, first convert
the integer part using one of the methods discussed earlier. Then, convert the
fractional part as follows:

1. Start by multiplying the fractional part by 2 and write the partial product. For
example, 0.25 × 2 = 0.5.

2. Take the fractional part of the previous partial product and multiply it by 2. In our
case: 0.50 × 2 = 1.000.

3. Repeat until the fractional part on the right of decimal point of the partial product
is 0 or starts recurring. For example, in step 2 above, the fractional part is 000 hence
we stop.

4. Read downwards the 0s and 1s on the left of the decimal point of partial products
as shown below:

To convert a floating point decimal number 7.375, proceed as follows:

1. Convert the integer part 7 using the division-by 2 or place value method. The
operation should return 111.

2. Convert the fractional part until the part on the right of decimal point is 0 or starts
recurring:

3. Read the digits on the left of decimal point downwards as shown by the arrow. In
this case, the digits are 0.011.

4. Combine the integer and fractional parts to get: 111+0.011= 111.011 2

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 Thus: 7.37510 = 111.0112

In this example, we demonstrate how to convert a decimal number 0.40 that returns a
recurring binary fraction. We proceed as follows:

5. Binary Fraction to Decimal Conversion

To convert a floating point binary number like 11.0112 to decimal form, proceed as
follows:

1. Convert the bits on the left of the decimal point into decimal form and sum-up
the partial products as follows:

2. Next, convert the bits on the right of the decimal point to decimal form using
corresponding place values from left to right as shown below:

3. Finally, add the two decimal parts: 3.00010 + 0.37510 = 3.37510

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 Thus: 11.0112= 3.37510.
Convert 11.110112 to decimal form and compare the value you get with 3.8437510

6. Negative Decimal to Binary Conversion

Conversion of negative decimal numbers to binary form is simplified by

use of one’s complement and two’s complement. One’s complement is a value
obtained by inverting each bit in a binary number while two’s complement is value
obtained by adding 1 bit to one’s complement. In this section, we show how to use
one’s complement and two’s complement to convert a negative decimal number to
binary form.

6.1. Ones complement

One’s complement is a temporary step to finding twos complement of a binary

number. To convert a binary number to ones complement, we invert 0 bits to 1s and
vice versa. For example, the one’s complement of 10011102 may be expressed as a
unary operation as follows:

~(1001110) = 0110001; where ~ stands for negation.

6.2. Two’s complement

Twos complement is another method used to represent negative numbers in binary

form. Two’s complement of a number is obtained by getting the one’s complement then
adding 1 bit.

For example, to find the two’s complement of the binary number 10011102,
proceed as follows:

1. Convert 1001110 to one’s complement using unary operator (~) :

~(1001110) = 0110001;

2. Add 1 bit to one’s complement to get the two’s complement:

0110001 + 1 = 0110010

Thus: Two’s complement of 1001110 = 0110010.

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 1.2. Logic gates and expressions are well described based on Boolean algebra

Introduction

As you may be aware, most modern computers are digital and they use binary logic to
process data which is represented as a series of 0’s and 1’s. In this chapter, we start
by looking at simple logic circuits that form the fundamental building blocks of data
processing in computers. We then briefly look at Boolean algebra and its
connection to logic reasoning.

1. Logic gates

A logic gate is the basic building block of a digital circuit. A digital circuit is one that
can only be in one of two states at any one time, either ON or OFF. An ON means
there is high voltage in the circuit while an OFF means zero or no voltage in the
circuit.

The input(s) can receive either ON or OFF signals usually represented by 1 or 0 then
depending on the logic within the gate, the output can either be 1 (one) or 0 (zero).

1.1. Basic logic gates

1.2. Truth tables

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 A truth table is a mathematical table used in Boolean algebra or propositional logic to
compute the outcome of all possible combinations of input values i.e. it can be used to
tell whether an expression is valid for all legitimate input values. For example, if the
inputs A and B can take values 0 and 1; then possible combinations for inputs

(A,B) are {(0,0), ),(0,1), (1,0) and (1,1)}.

The truth tables are important because they help us to know the output of each
individual gate given certain inputs hence we can use them to construct more complex
logic circuits that can solve real problems.

Individual work:

Study the following logic circuit. Construct a truth table for the circuit.

2. Boolean algebra

Boolean algebra was invented by George Boole in 1654. It can be used to automate the
manipulation of objects that control real life processes. This is because computers are

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 made up of digital switches that are either ON or OFF. Since the inputs and outcomes
of Boolean algebra are either 1 or 0, it is a more natural way of representing digital
information or computing logic. The algebra is used to explain or solve problems
related to logic and digital circuits.

2.1. Laws of Boolean algebra

Boolean operations revolve around Boolean operators. A Boolean operator takes two
inputs of either 1 or 0 and output a single value also either 1 or 0.

There are several laws of boolean algebra. The most common operators that are used
to manipulate the various logic elements are the OR (+) and the AND(•)

e.g. A + B means A OR B.

A•B means A AND B or mostly just written as AB without the (•) symbol.

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 5. Redundance law

1.3 Data types are effectively used according to their intended use

1. Algorithm

Before developing a program, is it important that a programmer specifies the order in

which the set of instructions contained in the program are to be executed. This
process of defining the step-by-step procedure in which the instructions are to be
executed is known as algorithm design.

The term algorithm was derived from the name of the 9 th century Persian
mathematician and astronomer Mohammed al-Khwarizmi. The concept has been
adapted in computer science to refer to a step-by-step procedure that specifies how
to perform a task or solve a problem. Therefore, a computer program is an
algorithm implemented using a programming language.

To ensure that an algorithm produces desired solution, a programmer is tasked with

the following roles:

1. Identify a problem that may be solved using a computer program.

2. Outline the social and technological factors that need to be considered before
converting the problem into a computer program.

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 3. Provide possible solutions to a problem. This may be by means of using off-
the- shelf software or custom-made software.

1.1. Characteristics/Qualities of a good Algorithm

A good algorithm is crucial to development of good computer programs. Some of the

characteristics of good algorithms include:

a. Finiteness: the algorithm stops after a finite number of instructions are

executed.
b. Definiteness: Each step of an algorithm must be precisely defined; the
actions to be carried out must be rigorously and unambiguously
specified for each case.
c. Input: the algorithm receives input. An algorithm has zero or more
inputs, i.e, quantities which are given to it initially before the algorithm
begins.
d. Output: the algorithm produces output. An algorithm has one or more
outputs i.e, quantities which have a specified relation to the inputs.
e. Effectiveness: An algorithm is also generally expected to be effective.
This means that all of the operations to be performed in the algorithm
must be sufficiently basic that they can in principle be done exactly and
in a finite length of time.
f. Precision – the steps are precisely stated (defined).
g. Uniqueness – results of each step are uniquely defined and only depend
on the input and the result of the preceding steps.
h. Generality – the algorithm applies to a set of inputs.
1.2. Role and Structure of algorithms

The role of algorithms is to support programmers in designing and implementing

computer programs that solve a problem of importance.

To solve such a problem, algorithm design follows a structured approach outlined

below:

1. The programmer first analyses the problem to come up with problem

Specification. A problem specification defines input, processing and output
required to solve the problem
2. Map the problem specification into an algorithm that defines the
logic or procedure for solving the problem.
3. Once an algorithm has been designed and tested against problem
specifications, implement it as a program using suitable programming
languages.
4. Finally the program is installed on computers or portable devices to solve the
problem.

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 1.3. Pseudocode

Pseudocode is a standard method of describing an algorithm without use of any

specific programming language. The word pseudo means that although
pseudocode statements resemble real program code, it cannot be executed by a
computer. The purpose of pseudocode design is to help the programmers formulate
their thoughts on the organisation and sequence of a computer algorithm without the
need of following the actual coding syntax.

Although pseudocode is frequently used, there are no standard for its implementation.
In most cases, we borrow keywords such as PRINT, WRITE, INPUT, and READ from
programming languages like FORTRAN and Pascal to express an algorithm as a
pseudocode.

To avoid ambiguity experienced with the use of natural languages, the following are
basic rules to be followed when writing pseudocode:

1. Pseudocode statements should be short, clear and readable.

2. The statements must not have more than one meaning

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 3. The pseudocode lines should be clearly outlined and identified clearly.
4. A pseudocode should show clearly the start and stop of executable statements
5. Input, output and processing statements should be clearly stated, using
keywords such as PRINT, READ, INPUT etc.

1.3.1. Advantages of using pseudocode

The following are some the advantages of using pseudocode to express an algorithm:

1. Pseudocode is easy to use and create because it uses English-like statements.

2. Pseudocode requires very little syntax to write.

3. Statements of a Pseudocode can easily be translated to any high

level language.

4. Pseudocode reduces time spent in coding, testing, and modifying a system.

5. Pseudocode implements structured concepts in a better way

1.4. Flowcharts

A flowchart is a diagrammatic or symbolic representation of step-by-step solution to

a given problem. Flowcharts use standard symbols that help programmers
visualize input, processing and output operations to be performed by a computer
program.

e.g. Program to calculate area of circle

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 Explanation

1. The first symbol indicates start of the flowchart.

2. The parallelogram (second symbol) indicates the algorithm takes radius as
input.
3. The rectangle indicates that:

(i) Pi is assigned constant 3.142

(ii) The area is calculated as Pi × radius 2

4. The fourth box display Area as output

5. The last symbol is the exit.

The following are general rules that may be followed when expressing an algorithm
using flowchart:

1. Be sure to use the right symbol for the right purpose. For examples it is wrong
to use a terminal symbol for input.
2. All the symbols of a flowchart should be connected using arrows (flow lines) and
not plain lines.
3. The direction of flow should be from top to bottom, or sides depending on the
page layout.
4. The start and end of a flowchart must be indicated with (start/stop) terminal
symbol.
5. Flowchart should have only one entry point at the top and one exit point at the
bottom or side.
6. The decision symbol should have only two exit points for either true or false on
the sides, or bottom and one side.

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 7. If a flowchart does not fit one page or column, use connectors to indicate breaks
in the flowchart.

Advantages of using flowcharts

The following are some the advantages of using flowcharts to express an algorithm:

1. Flowcharts are better way of communicating the system logic.

2. With a flowchart, problem can be analysed in a more effective way.
3. Graphical representation of design serves as good program documentation.
4. Flowchart makes it easier to debug and maintain a program.

1. Distinguish between pseudocode and flowchart. In each case, give

advantages and disadvantages.

2. Jane wanted to design an examination system to be used in her school.

Advise her on three algorithm design tools she may use.

3. Using illustrations, explain at least four standard symbols used in flowchart

design.

4. In reference to decision flowcharts, differentiate between decision symbol

and connector.

5. Explain three circumstances that may prompt a programmer to use a

pseudocode instead of a flowchart.

6. State three advantages of using flowcharts over pseudocode in formulating

an algorithm.

2. Variables

A variable can be defined as a name also known as identifier that represents data
values which can change.

2.1. Rules of Naming Variables and Keywords

The name given to variable is matter of choice by a programmer subject to the

following rules:

1. Choose meaningful variable names that tell the reader of the program what the
variable represents. For example, use sum instead of just s.

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 2. Each variable in the same algorithm should be identified using a unique name.
For example you cannot use balls represent input, and balls to represent
output
3. By convention, variable names should begin with a letter of the alphabet but
may be followed by numbers. For example, use balls3 instead of 3balls.
4. Avoid using variable names that may conflict with reserved or keywords used in
most programming languages.
5. Variable names made up of two or more words should not have space in
between the words, instead combine the two words or use an underscore. For
example, instead of using Basic Salary as variable name, use BasicSalary or
Basic_salary.

2.2. Declaration of Variables

Declaration of variable refers to identify and explicitly state input and output variables
required to solve a problem. For example, suppose you are required to solve a problem
of finding sum and average of three numbers. To identify and state input and output
variable from the problem, proceed as follows:

1. Express the problem using natural language in order to identify input,

processing and output requirements as shown below:

2. Identify a statement or statements that indicate input is required. In the above

algorithm, input is implied in the statement “Accept user input for 3 numbers.”
The statement implies that the user is expected to input numbers on the
keyboard.
3. Represent the input values as variables using symbolic names such as Num1,
Num2, and Num3.
4. Represent the output values as variables using symbolic names such as Sum,
Average
5. Rewrite the algorithm to indicate the input and output variables as shown
below:

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 NB: Variable names should not have spaces between words. Instead use an
underscore to combine two words or start the next work with uppercase.

3. Data types

In programming, data type determines the type of values that can be stored in a
variable. Most programming languages supports the following primary data types:

 Integers: Integers are whole numbers, which can either positive or negative
including zero. For example, 0, 5, -20, and 68 are integers.
 Real Numbers: These are numbers with a fractional part. Normally, the
fractional part follows a decimal point. Forexample, 68.67 is a real number.
 Character: Character data, sometimes referred to as “string” data, may consist
of any digits, letters of the alphabet or symbols which
 Boolean: Boolean data type is a type that can only take two values true or
false.

Programming uses a number of different data types. A data type determines what type
of value an object can have and what operations can be performed.

4. Initialisation of Variables

Once a variable is declared it does not have a defined value, hence it cannot be
used until it is initialised by assigning it a value. Initialising a variable goes beyond
declaration to assign an initial value to a variable. For example, in our previous
algorithm, we can initialise variables Num1, Num2, Num3 with initial values as shown
below:

Input: Num1= 3, Num2 =5, Num3 =7

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 Write a program in JavaScript that receive two numbers from
user and swap them using a third variable

Using a JavaScript Rewrite above program

5. Constants

Unlike a variable which is an identifier for values that can change, a constant is
a fixed value which cannot be changed.

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 5.1. Declaration of Constants

Declaring a constant refers to specifying a symbolic name for a value that cannot be
changed during program execution.

In algorithm design constants may be declared as string or numeric constants.

A string constant is a sequence of characters such as “FRW 7200” that

cannot be manipulated mathematically while numeric constants such as 7200
can be manipulated in a mathematical expressions. For example, to calculate area of a
circle, we can declare π (pi) as a numeric (constant) as follows:

• const double PI= 3.142

Rewrite this program using

JavaScript

1.4 Operators are appropriately used based on data type

To write correct mathematical expressions, you need to understand operators used in

programming languages namely: assignment, arithmetic, relational, and logical
operators.

1.4.1. Assignment operators

The assignment operators such as (=) or (:=) causes the operand on the left side of the
operator to be replaced by the value on the right side. For example, in the following
expression, the value of x is replaced by the sum of a and b.

• x=a+b

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 1.4.2. Arithmetic operators

Arithmetic operators are used to evaluate the four basic arithmetic operations:
addition (+), subtraction (-), division (/) and multiplication (*). In an expression such
as 3+2, addition operator adds the two operands to return a value, hence it is referred
to as a binary operator.

1.4.3. Relational operators

Relational operators are used in boolean expressions that compares numeric or string
constants and returns a true or false. Such operators include: greater than (>), less
than (<), equal to ( =), less than or equal to (<=), greater than or equal to (>=), and not
equal to (< >). Relational operators are binary operators because they act on two
operands e.g. 5>3 that returns true.

1.4.4. Logical operators

Logical operators derived from Boolean algebra are used on compound expressions or
conditions to return true or false. The three logical operators used in most
programming languages are AND, OR and NOT. Unlike AND and OR which are binary
operators, NOT is a unary like tild (~) in mathematics. This means that it negates the
operand on its right side; e.g. NOT true returns false.

1.4.5. Bitwise operators

Bitwise operators are similar to logical operators only that they are specifically used
to manipulate binary digits. The main Bitwise operators are AND, inclusive OR,
exclusive OR (XOR), NOT (~), binary left shift (<<), and binary right shift (>>).

1.4.6. Precedence of operators

Precedence of operators refers to established rule that assigns priority of each

operator used in an expression. For example, when writing complex expressions in
mathematics, we use precedence rule known as BODMAS that stands for Brackets,
Off, Division, Multiplication, Addition, and Subtraction. BODMAS rule means
that the highest priority is assigned to Bracket, with the lowest priority being assigned
to Subtraction. For example, in the expression below, unless we apply
BODMAS rule, the answer could be 6.5!

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 Like BODMAS in mathematics, we use precedence rule in algorithms to assign
priority to each of the arithmetic, relational and logical operators.

Table shows the order of precedence in each of the four categories from the highest to
the lowest.

1.5 Algorithm is properly written based on problem to be solved

1.5.1. Read and Write functions

Functions are “self-contained” group of statements that accomplish a specific task. In

algorithms, the read function gets data from input devices like keyboard while write
functions prints output on devices such as screen.

1. Read functions

To represent read functions in an algorithm, we use keywords like READ, INPUT, and
GET. For example, the following statements demonstrate how to use read functions to
get radius as input from keyword:

Good practice in algorithm design requires the READ functions to be in uppercase

while values to be read also known as parameters to be in lowercase. For clarity, if a
function is to read several paramenters, parenthesis may be used to enclose the
parameters as shown below:

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 2. Write Functions

Like in read operations, we use keywords like WRITE, DISPLAY, and SHOW to
represent functions that display information on the screen. For example, the following
statements demonstrate how to display area on the screen:

For clarity, if a write function is to display several values, parenthesis may be used to
enclose the parameters as shown below:

1. Design an algorithm for a program that would be used to solve a

quadratic equation:
a. y = ax2+bx+c.
2. Design an algorithm for a program that would be used to compare three
numbers x, y and z, and then display the least among the
three.
3. Differentiate between read function and write functions as used in
algorithms.
4. Jere deposited FRW 200,000 in his savings account. The amount
deposited earns a 3% annual interest. Design an algorithm that would
be used to calculate interest after n years.

1.5.2. Types of Algorithm

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 The algorithm and flowchart are classified into three types of control structures.

1. Sequence

2. Branching(Selection)

3. Loop(Repetition)

According to the condition and requirement, these three control structures can be
used.

In the sequence structure, statements are placed one after the other and the execution
takes place starting from up to down.

Whereas in branch control, there is a condition and according to a condition, a

decision of either TRUE or FALSE is achieved. In the case of TRUE, one of the two
branches is explored; but in the case of FALSE condition, the other alternative is
taken. Generally, the ‘IF-THEN’ is used to represent branch control.

Example:

Write an algorithm to find the smallest number between two

numbers Step1: Start

Step2: Input two numbers, say A and B

Step3: If A<B then small = A

Step4: If B<A then Small = B

Step5: Print Small

Step 6: End

Write an algorithm to check odd or even number

Step1: Start

Step2: Read/Input a number

and store in A Step3: Is A<0?

If YES then C=”ODD”

If NO then c=”even”

Step4: Display C

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 Step5: Stop

1.5.3. Develop an algorithm using pseudocode

1. Selection/conditional structures

Conditional statements help you to make a decision based on certain conditions. Very
often when you write code, you want to perform different actions for different
decisions. You can use conditional statements in your code to do this.

In all programming languages we have the following conditional statements:

a. If statement or simple IF statement

b. If/else statement

c. Nested if statement

d. If/Else If statement

e. Switch statement (will be seen later)

1.1 Simple IF statement

Use IF to specify a block of code (statements) to be executed or a decision made, if a

specified condition is true and the block does not execute otherwise.

Syntax

Start

If (condition) then

Instructions

End if

End

1.2 IF/ELSE statement

Use if/else to specify a block of code to be executed, if the same condition is false

Syntax

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 Start

If (condition) then

Instructions

Else

Instructions

End if

End

1.3 ELSE/ IF statement

Use else/if to specify a new condition to test, if the first condition is false.

Syntax

Start

If (condition) then

Instructions

Else if (condition) then

Instructions

Else if (condition) then

Instructions

Else [optional]

Instructions

End if

End

1.4 NESTED IF statement

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 A NESTED IF is an IF statement that is the target of another if statement. Nested if
statements means an IF statement inside another IF statement.

Syntax

Start

If (condition)

If (condition) then

Instructions

Else

Instructions

End if

Else [optional]

Instructions

End if

End

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 1) Write algorithm pseudocodes the following programs:

a. A program that checks the age and display a decision if someone is eligible to be
hired.
b. A program that checks the age and displays a decision if someone is eligible to be
hired or not.
c. A program that takes or read three numbers from the user and print the greatest
number.
d. A program that helps a trainer to grade students according to their percentage
marks results.

Follow the table below:

Results % Grade
0-10 F
11-30 E
31-50 D
51-70 C
71-90 B
91-100 A

2) Illustrate each of the programs above with a flowchart

3) Identify the type of a conditional statement used in each of the programs above(in
question 1)

2. Sequence structures

A sequential statement or switch case statement or simply switch statement tests the
value of a variable and compares it with multiple cases. Once the case match is found,
a block of statements associated with that particular case is executed.

Each case in a block of a switch has a different name which is referred to as an

identifier. The value provided by the user or initialized is compared with all the cases
inside the switch block until the match is found.

Syntax

A general syntax of how switch-case is implemented is as follows:

switch( expression )
{
case value-1:

Block-1;

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 Break;
case value-2:
Block-2;
Break;
case value-n:

Block-n;

Break;
default:
Block-1;

Break;

Statement-x;

Write algorithm pseudocodes and flowchart of the following programs:

1) Write algorithm pseudocodes of a program that accepts a grade and displays the
equivalent description:
Grade Description
E Excellent
V Very Good
G Good
A Average
F Fail

2) Illustrate the programs above with a flowchart

3) List the cases along with their statements (in question 1)

4) Write a program that will ask the user to enter two integer numbers and a
simple 4-cases calculator program that might prompt the user by providing the following
menu:

Please enter:

+ to add two numbers.

- to subtract two numbers.

* to multiple two numbers.

/ to divide two numbers.

E to exit the program.

This menu will display the result according to the choice of the user.

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 3. Looping/iterating structures

A loop is a sequence that gets executed several times. A complete execution of a

sequence is called an iteration of the loop.

In all programming languages we have 3 main types of loops statements as follows:

a) FOR loop statement

b) WHILE loop statement
c) DO WHILE statement

1.1. FOR loop statement

A for-loop has two parts: a header specifying the iteration, and a body which is
executed once per iteration. The header often declares an explicit loop counter or loop
variable, which allows the body to know which iteration is being executed. For-loops
are typically used when the number of iterations is known before entering the loop.

1.2. WHILE loop statement

The while construct consists of a block of code and a condition/expression. The

condition/expression is evaluated, and if the condition/expression is true, the code
within the block is executed. This repeats until the condition/expression becomes
false.

Because the while loop checks the condition/expression before the block is executed,
the control structure is often also known as a pre-test loop.

Syntax in JavaScript

Initial value;

while (testExpression)

// statements inside the body of the loop

1.3. DO WHILE loop statement

In most computer programming languages, a do while loop is a control flow statement

that executes a block of code at least once, and then repeatedly executes the block, or
not, depending on a given Boolean condition at the end of the block.

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 First, the code within the block is executed, and then the condition is evaluated. If the
condition is true the code within the block is executed again. This repeats until the
condition becomes false. Because do while loops check the condition after the block is
executed, the control structure is often also known as a post-test loop.

Syntax in JavaScript

Starting value; do

// statements inside the body of the loop

while (testExpression);

1.4. NESTED LOOP

1.4.1. Types of nested loops

- Nested while loop

- Nested do-while loop

- Nested for loop

1.4.2. Syntax of Nested for loop:

for (initialization; condition; increment/decrement)

statement(s); for (initialization; condition; increment/decrement)

statement(s);

... ... ...

... ... ...

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 1.4.3. Syntax of Nested while loop:

initialization;
while (condition1)
{
statement(s);
while (condition2)
{
statement(s);
... ... ...
}
... ... ...
}

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 1.4.4. Syntax of Nested do-while loop:
initialization;
do
{
statement(s);
do
{
statement(s);
... ... ...
}while (condition2);
... ... ...
}while (condition1);

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 1. Use a WHILE loop:

a) To write an algorithm pseudocode that displays positive numbers in a range of

20 to 100.
b) Identify the loop parts used – starting value, condition and loop counter

2. Use a FOR loop to write an algorithm pseudocodes program to display integer

numbers from 1 to 500, five per line.

3. Use a do while loop to:

a) Display the following triangle made of numbers

12

123

1234

12345

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 Outcome
Two L.O.2. APPLY DATA STRUCTURE

2.1 Data structure concepts are clearly identified based on intended use.

Identification of data structure concepts

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 Data Structure is a way of collecting and organizing data in such a way that we
can perform operations on these data in an effective way. Data Structures is about
rendering data elements in terms of some relationship, for better organization and
storage.

A data structure is a technique of storing and organizing the data in such a way that
the data can be utilized in an efficient manner.

Example: Library is composed of elements (books) to access a particular book

requires knowledge of the arrangement of the books.

2.1.1. Importance of data structures

The data structures have the following importance for programming:
• Data structures study how data are stored in a computer so that
operations can be implemented efficiently
• Data structures are especially important when there is a large
amount of information to deal with.
• Data structures are conceptual and concrete ways to organize data for
efficient storage and manipulation

2.1.2. Data Structure Operations

Beside the simple operations performed on data (unary operators, binary operators
and precedence operators), the data appearing in our data structures are processed
by means of other operations.
The following are some of the most frequently used operations.

Traversing: Accessing each record exactly once so that certain items in the record
may be processed.
Searching: Finding the location of the record with a given key value or finding
the locations of all records which satisfy one or more conditions
Inserting: Adding a new record to the structure.
Deleting: Removing a record from the structure.
Sorting: Arranging the records in some logical order (e.g., in numerical order
according to some NUMBER key, such as social security number or account
number).
Merging: Combining the records of two different sorted lists into a single
sorted list.

2.1.3. Classifications of data structures

Data structure is classified into two main categories:

1. Linear Data Structure
2. Non-Linear Data Structure

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 1. Linear Data Structure

A linear data structure is a structure in which the elements are stored sequentially,
and the elements are connected to the previous and the next element. As the elements
are stored sequentially, so they can be traversed or accessed in a single run.

The implementation of linear data structures is easier as the elements are sequentially
organized in memory. The data elements in an array are traversed one after another
and can access only one element at a time.

The types of linear data structures are Array, Queue, Stack, Linked List.

Array: An array consists of data elements of the same data type. For example, if we
want to store the roll numbers of 10 students, so instead of creating 10 integer type
variables, we will create an array having size 10.
Therefore, we can say that an array saves a lot of memory and reduces the length of
the code.

Stack: It is linear data structure that uses the LIFO (Last in First Out) rule in which
the data added last will be removed first. The addition of data element in a stack is
known as a push operation, and the deletion of data element from the list is known
as pop operation.

Queue: It is a data structure that uses the FIFO (First In First Out). In this rule, the
element which is added first will be removed first.
There are two terms used in the queue front and rear. The insertion operation
performed at the back end is known enqueue, and the deletion operation performed at
the front end is known as dequeue.

Linked List: It is a collection of nodes that are made up of two parts, data element
and reference to the next node in the sequence.

2. Non-linear data structure

A non-linear data structure is also another type of data structure in which the data
elements are not arranged in a contiguous manner. As the arrangement is
nonsequential, so the data elements cannot be traversed or accessed in a single run.
In the case of linear data structure, element is connected to two elements (previous
and the next element), whereas, in the non-linear data structure, an element can be
connected to more than two elements.

Trees and Graphs are the types of non-linear data structure.

o Tree

It is a non-linear data structure that consists of various linked nodes. It has a

hierarchical tree structure that forms a parent-child relationship. The diagrammatic
representation of a tree data structure is shown below:

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 For example, the e posts of employees are arranged in a tree data structure like
managers, officers, clerk. In the above figure, A represents a
manager, B and C represent the officers, and other nodes represent the clerks.

o Graph

A graph is a non-linear
linear data structure that has a finite number of vertices and edges,
and these edges are used to connect the vertices. The vertices are used to store the
data elements, while the edges represent the relationship between the vertices. A
graph is used in various realreal-world problems like telephone networks, circuit
networks, social networks like LinkedIn, Facebook. In the case of facebook, a single
user can be considered as a node, and the connection of a user with others is known
as edges.

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 Linear Data structure Non-Linear Data structure

Basic In this structure, the In this structure, the elements are

elements are arranged arranged hierarchically or non-linear
non
sequentially or linearly and manner.
attached to one another.

Types Arrays, linked list, stack, Trees and graphs are the types of a non-
non
queue are the types of a linear data structure.
linear data structure.

implementation Due to the linear Due to the non-linear

linear organization, they
organization, they are easy are difficult to implement.
to implement.

Traversal As linear data structure is a The data items in a non-linear

non data
single level, so it requires a structure cannot be accessed in a single
single run to traverse each run. It requires multiple runs to be
data item. traversed.

Arrangement Each data item is attached Each item is attached to many other
to the previous and next items.
items.

Levels This data structure does In this, the data elements are arranged
not contain any hierarchy, in multiple levels.
and all the data elements
are organized in a single
level.

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 Memory In this, the memory In this, memory is utilized in a very
utilization utilization is not efficient. efficient manner.

Time The time complexity of The time complexity of non-linear data

complexity linear data structure structure often remains same with the
increases with the increase increase in the input size.
in the input size.

Applications Linear data structures are Non-linear data structures are used
mainly used for developing in image processing and Artificial
the software. Intelligence.

2.2 Linear Data Structures are properly applied based on their operational
Complexity

2.2.1. Array of elements in data structure

Arrays hold a series of data elements, usually of the same size and data type.
Individual elements are accessed by their position in the array. The position is given
by an index, which is also called a subscript.

Some arrays are multi-dimensional, meaning they are indexed by a fixed number of
integers, for example by a tuple of four integers. Generally, one- and two-dimensional
arrays are the most common. Most programming languages have a built-in array data
type.

In computer programming, a group of homogeneous elements of a specific data type is

known as an array, one of the simplest data structures.

1. Arrays dimensions

A dimension of array is a direction in which you can vary the specification of an

array’s elements. An array can be of one or many dimensions.

a. One-dimensional array

Example: a [3]

It is an array called a with 3 elements. The elements of the array are logically
represented by the name of the array with in brackets its index or positions. For the
one dimensional array a with 3 elements, elements are written like a[0], a[1] and
a[2]. The indexes start always by 0. Graphically, it is:

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 JavaScript Array

JavaScript array is an object that represents a collection of similar type of elements.

There are 3 ways to construct array in JavaScript

1. By array literal
2. By creating instance of array directly (using new keyword)
3. By using an array constructor (using NEW keyword)

1. JavaScript Array Literal

Syntax:
Var arrayname=[value1, value2,….valueN];

Example:

<script>
Var emp=[“Alice”,”Aline”,”Alain”];

For(i=0;i<emp.length;i++)
{
Document.write(emp[i]+”<br>”);
}
</script>

2. JavaScript Array directly

Syntax:

Var arrayname=new Array();

New keyword is used to create instance of array

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 Example:

<script>
Var i;

Var emp= new Array();

emp[0]=”Aline”;
emp[1]=”Alice”;
emp[2]=”Alain”;

For(i=0;i<emp.length;i++)
{
Document.write(emp[i]+”<br>”);
}
</script>

3. JavaScript array constructor(new keyword)

Example:
Var emp=new Array(“Jai”, “Valens”, “John”);
For(i=0;i<emp.length;i++)
{
Document.write(emp[i]+”<br>”);
}
</script>

JavaScript Array Methods

Let's see the list of JavaScript array methods with their description.

Methods Description

concat() It returns a new array object that contains two or more merged
arrays.

copywithin() It copies the part of the given array with its own elements and
returns the modified array.

entries() It creates an iterator object and a loop that iterates over each
key/value pair.

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 every() It determines whether all the elements of an array are satisfying the
provided function conditions.

flat() It creates a new array carrying sub-array elements concatenated

recursively till the specified depth.

flatMap() It maps all array elements via mapping function, then flattens the
result into a new array.

fill() It fills elements into an array with static values.

from() It creates a new array carrying the exact copy of another array
element.

filter() It returns the new array containing the elements that pass the
provided function conditions.

find() It returns the value of the first element in the given array that
satisfies the specified condition.

findIndex() It returns the index value of the first element in the given array that
satisfies the specified condition.

forEach() It invokes the provided function once for each element of an array.

includes() It checks whether the given array contains the specified element.

indexOf() It searches the specified element in the given array and returns the
index of the first match.

isArray() It tests if the passed value ia an array.

join() It joins the elements of an array as a string.

keys() It creates an iterator object that contains only the keys of the array,
then loops through these keys.

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 lastIndexOf() It searches the specified element in the given array and returns the
index of the last match.

map() It calls the specified function for every array element and returns
the new array

of() It creates a new array from a variable number of arguments, holding

any type of argument.

pop() It removes and returns the last element of an array.

push() It adds one or more elements to the end of an array.

reverse() It reverses the elements of given array.

reduce(function, It executes a provided function for each value from left to right and
initial) reduces the array to a single value.

reduceRight() It executes a provided function for each value from right to left and
reduces the array to a single value.

some() It determines if any element of the array passes the test of the
implemented function.

shift() It removes and returns the first element of an array.

slice() It returns a new array containing the copy of the part of the given
array.

sort() It returns the element of the given array in a sorted order.

splice() It add/remove elements to/from the given array.

toLocaleString() It returns a string containing all the elements of a specified array.

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 toString() It converts the elements of a specified array into string form,
without affecting the original array.

unshift() It adds one or more elements in the beginning of the given array.

values() It creates a new iterator object carrying values for each index in the
array.

b. Multi-dimensional arrays

Example:
Two dimensional array ex: a[2][7]as Integer
Three dimensional array ex: a[3][2][5]as Integer

Two dimensional array

A Two dimensional Array is a collection of a fixed number of elements (components) of

the same type arranged in two dimensions.

The two dimensional array is also called a matrix or a table. The intersection of a
column and a row is called a cell. The numbering of rows and columns starts by 0

Example:
The array a[3][4] is an array of 3 rows and 4 columns. In matrix representation, it
looks like the following:

a[i][j] means that it is an element located at the intersection of row i and column j.
Each element is identified by its row and column.

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 1.1. Two dimensional array declarations

Syntax:
SET Array name=Array [row size][column size] of Data type

Examples:
1. SET a=Array[2][7] of Integer
2. SET b=Array[4][3] of Integer

Notice that the number of elements =row size*column size

1.2. Two dimensional array initialization

When a two-dimension array has been declared, it needs to be assigned values for its
elements. This action of assigning values to array elements is called initialization.
Two-Dimensional array is initialized by specifying bracketed values for each row. For
the case of array of integers, the default values of each element is 0 while for others
the default values for other types is not known.

For the case of an array of 3 rows and 4 columns, if the name is A and the type of
elements is integer, the initialization is:

A[3][4]={{A[0][0], A[0][1], A[0][2], A[0][3]}, /* initializers for row indexed by 0 */

{A[1][0], A[1][1], A[1][2], A[1][3]}, /* initializers for row indexed by 1*/
{A[2][0], A[2][1], A[2][2], A[2][3]} /* initializers for row indexed by 2 */
};

If the table is called marks, marks [1][3]=15; where the row position is 1 and the
column position is 3.
The expression marks [0] [0] will access the first element of the matrix marks and
marks [2] [3] will access the last row and last column.

Syntax to initializing two-dimensional arrays

The two dimensional array marks which will hold 12 elements can be initialized like:

BEGIN
SET marks=Array[3] [4] of Integer
marks[0][0]=18
marks[0][1]=16
marks[0][2]=14
marks[0][3]=19

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 marks[1][0]=10
marks[1][1]=20
marks[1][2]=12
marks[1][3]=15
marks[2][0]=15
marks[2][1]=17
marks[2][2]=18
marks[2][3]=16
END

We can initialize an array from user like:

BEGIN
SET marks=Array[3] [4] of Integer

Use variable i, j as integer

For i=0 To 2 DO

For j=0 To 3 DO

READ marks[i][j]

NEXT j
END FOR

NEXT i
END FOR

END

Accessing two dimensional array elements

Syntax:
FOR i=initial value TO upperlimit DO
FOR j=initial value TO upperlimit DO
READ array name[i][j]
i=i+1
j=j+1

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 Example: Write an algorithm of a program that allows the user to enter (store) two
dimensional array elements

BEGIN
SET marks=Array [3] [8] of Integer
Use variable i as integer
Use variable j as integer
FOR i=0 TO 2 DO
FOR j=0 TO 7 DO
READ marks[i] [j]
i=i+1
j=j+1
END FOR
END FOR
END

Where i refers to the row position and j refers to the column position.
Initial value=lower limit

Writing (displaying) two dimensional array elements

syntax:
WRITE Array name [i][j]

Example: Write an algorithm of a program that displays stored two dimensional

array marks’ elements

BEGIN
SET a=Array[3][8] of integer
Use variable i As integer
Use variable j As integer
WRITE “stored two dimensional array elements are:”
FOR i=0 to 2DO
FOR j=0 to 7DO
WRITE a[i][j]
i=i+1
j= j+1
END FOR
END FOR
END

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 Activity

1. Write an algorithm to do the following operations on a two dimensional array A of

size m x n.
• Declare the array A;
• Read the element ‘values into matrix of size m x n
• Output the elements’ values of matrix of size m x n on the screen;
• Calculate the sum of all elements’ values of matrix of size m x n;
• Write a program in JavaScript Language where you apply the above
questions
2. Write an algorithm that allows a user to input data through input device and
display the smallest element’ s value on the screen.
3. Write a program in JavaScript language that implements the above algorithm.
4. Consider a 2 by 3 array T
a. Write a declaration of T
b. How many rows does T have?
c. How many columns does T have?
d. How many elements does T have?
e. Write name of elements in second row
f. Write the name of element in third column
g. Write a single statement that sets the elements of T in row 1and column 2
h. to zero
i. Write a statement that inputs the values of T from keyboard
j. Write a statement that displays the elements of first row of T

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 2.2.2. List representation

A list is a collection of data in which each element of the list contains the location of
the next element.

In a list, each element contains two parts: data and link to the next element. The data
parts of the list hold the value information and data to be processed. The link part of
the list is used to chain the data together and contains a pointer (an address) that
identifies the next element in the list.

In the list you can do the following operations:

• LIST: Creates an empty list;
• INSERT: inserts an element in the list;
• DELETE: deletes an element from the list;
• RETRIEVE: retrieves an element from the list;
• TRAVERSE: traverses the list sequentially;
• EMPTY: checks the status of the list.

Example of a list:

A bank has 10 branches created one after another at different dates. The Bank
Inspector who wants to visit all of them can follow the order of their creation. He/she
will be informed only about the name and location of the first branch. When he
reaches that branch, the Branch Manager will tell him/her the address of the next
branch, and so one.
After visiting all branches, the Bank Inspector will realize that he/she has a list of the
bank branches.
Graphically, it will be represented like a list where each branch is considered as a
node containing the names of the branch and the address of the next branch.

Difference between Arrays and Lists

A list is an ordered set of data. It is often used to store objects that are to be processed
sequentially.
An array is an indexed set of variables, such as dancer [1], dancer [2], dancer [3] It is
like a set of boxes that hold things. A list is a set of items. An array is a set of variables
that each store an item.

In a list, the missing spot is filled in when something is deleted. While in an array, an
empty variable is left behind when something is deleted. Simply a list is a sequence of
data, and linked list is a sequence of data linked with each other.

2.2.3. Linked list

This is a dynamic table/ data structure used to hold a sequence. Its characteristics
are the following:
• Items forming a sequence are not necessarily held in contiguous data
location or in the order in which they occur in the sequence.
• Each item in the list is called a node and contains an information field
and a new address field called a link or pointer field.

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 • Information field holds actual data for list item; link field contains the
address of the next item.
• The link field in the last item indicates that there are not further items.
E.g. has a value of 0.
• Associated with the list is a pointer variable which points to the first
node in the list.
• We use linked list in linking files, for example, in a hard disk.
• It can grow or shrink in size during execution of a program.
• It can be made just as long as required
• It does not waste memory space.

Linked list is classified into three types as shown below:

• Single(Singly) linked lists
• Double(doubly) linked lists
• Circular linked list

1. Single linked lists

Single linked list is a sequence of elements in which every element has link to its next
element in the sequence.

In any single linked list, the individual element is called as “Node”.

Every “Node” contains two fields, data and next. The data field is used to store actual
value of that node and next field is used to store the address of the next node in the
sequence.

In a single linked list, the address of the first node is always stored in a reference node
known as “front” (Sometimes it is also known as “head”).
Always next part (reference part) of the last node must be NULL)

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 Algorithm in Single Linked List

Creating and read an element in a NODE

BEGIN
struct node{
int info
struct node next
} head, current, temp
head=null
temp=null
current=null
Begin sub
Step 1 Read the element into x
Step 2 Create a temp node in the memory
temp =(struct node )sizeof (node)
Step 3 Assign the values in temp node as follows
temp -> info =x
temp ->next=null
End sub
END

Inserting at Specific location in the list (After a Node)

We can use the following steps to insert a new node after a node in the single linked
list

Step 1: Create a newNode with given value.

• Step 2: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)
• Step 3: If it is Empty then, set newNode => next = NULL and head =
newNode.
• Step 4: If it is Not Empty then, define a node pointer temp and initialize
with head.
• Step 5: Keep moving the temp to its next node until it reaches to the
node after which we want to insert the newNode (until temp1 => data is
equal to location, here location is the node value after which we want to
insert the newNode).
• Step 6: Every time check whether temp is reached to last node or not. If
it is reached to last node then display ‘Given node is not found in the
list!!! Insertion not possible!!!’ and terminate the function. Otherwise
move the temp to next node.
• Step 7: Finally, Set ‘newNode => next = temp => next’ and ‘temp =>
next= newNode’

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 Deleting a Specific Node from the list

We can use the following steps to delete a specific node from a single linked list
• Step 1: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)
• Step 2: If it is Empty then, display ‘List is Empty!!! Deletion is not
possible’ and terminate the function.
• Step 3: If it is Not Empty then, define two Node pointers ‘temp1’ and
‘temp2’ and initialize ‘temp1’ with head.
• Step 4: Keep moving the temp1 until it reaches to the exact node to be
deleted or to the last node. And every time set ‘temp2 = temp1’ before
moving the ‘temp1’ to its next node.
• Step 5: If it is reached to the last node then display ‘Given node not
found in the list! Deletion not possible!!!’ And terminate the function.
• Step 6: If it is reached to the exact node which we want to delete, then
check whether list is having only one node or not
• Step 7: If list has only one node and that is the node to be deleted, then
set head = NULL and delete temp1 (free (temp1)).
• Step 8: If list contains multiple nodes, then check whether temp1 is the
first node in the list (temp1 == head).
• Step 9: If temp1 is the first node then move the head to the next node
(head = head => next) and delete temp1.
• Step 10: If temp1 is not first node then check whether it is last node in
the list (temp1=> next == NULL).
• Step 11: If temp1 is last node then set temp2 => next = NULL and delete
temp1 (free (temp1)).
• Step 12: If temp1 is not first node and not last node then set temp2 =>
next = temp1=> next and delete temp1 (free (temp1)).

Displaying a Single Linked List

We can use the following steps to display the elements of a single linked list
• Step 1: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)
• Step 2: If it is Empty then, display ‘List is Empty!!!’ and terminate the
function.
• Step 3: If it is Not Empty then, define a Node pointer ‘temp’ and initialize
with head.
• Step 4: Keep displaying temp=> data with an arrow (->) until temp
reaches to the last node
• Step 5: Finally display temp => data with arrow pointing to NULL (temp
=> data -> NULL).

2. Double linked lists

Double linked list is a sequence of elements in which every element has links to its
previous element and next element in the sequence.

So, we can traverse forward by using next field and can traverse backward by using
previous field. Every node in a double linked list contains three fields and they are
shown in the following figure:

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 Algorithm in Double Linked List
Inserting at Specific location in the list (After a Node)

We can use the following steps to insert a new node after a node in the double
linked list
• Step 1: Create a newNode with given value.
• Step 2: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)
• Step 3: If it is Empty then, assign NULL to newNode =>
previous&newNode => next and newNode to head.
• Step 4: If it is not Empty then, define two node pointers temp1&temp2
andinitialize temp1 with head.
• Step 5: Keep moving the temp1 to its next node until it reaches to the
node after which we want to insert the newNode (until temp1 => data is
equal to location, here location is the node value after which we want to
insert the newNode).
• Step 6: Every time check whether temp1 is reached to the last node. If it
is reached to the last node then display ‘Given node is not found in the
list!!! Insertion not possible!!!’ and terminate the function. Otherwise
move the temp1 to next node.
• Step 7: Assign temp1 => next to temp2, newNode to temp1=> next,
temp1 to newNode => previous, temp2 to newNode => next and newNode
to temp2 =>previous.

Deleting a Specific Node from the list

We can use the following steps to delete a specific node from the double linked list
• Step 1: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)
• Step 2: If it is Empty then, display ‘List is Empty!!! Deletion is not
possible’ and terminate the function.
• Step 3: If it is not Empty, then define a Node pointer ‘temp’ and initialize
with head.
• Step 4: Keep moving the temp until it reaches to the exact node to be
deleted or to the last node.
• Step 5: If it is reached to the last node, then display ‘Given node not
found in the list! Deletion not possible!!!’ and terminate the fuction.
• Step 6: If it is reached to the exact node which we want to delete, then
check whether list is having only one node or not
• Step 7: If list has only one node and that is the node which is to be
deleted then set head to NULL and delete temp (free(temp)).

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 • Step 8: If list contains multiple nodes, then check whether temp is the
first node in the list (temp == head).
• Step 9: If temp is the first node, then move the head to the next node
(head = head => next), set head of previous to NULL (head => previous =
NULL) and delete temp.
• Step 10: If temp is not the first node, then check whether it is the last
node in the list (temp => next == NULL).
• Step 11: If temp is the last node then set temp of previous of next to
NULL (temp => previous => next = NULL) and delete temp (free(temp)).
 Step 12: If temp is not the first node and not the last node, then set temp of
previous of next to temp of next (temp => previous => next = temp => next),
temp of next of previous to temp of previous (temp => next => previous =temp
=> previous) and delete temp (free(temp)).

Displaying a Double Linked List

We can use the following steps to display the elements of a double linked list
• Step 1: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)
• Step 2: If it is Empty, then display ‘List is Empty!!!’ and terminate the
function.
• Step 3: If it is not Empty, then define a Node pointer ‘temp’ and
initialize with head.
• Step 4: Display ‘NULL <= ‘.
• Step 5: Keep displaying temp → data with an arrow () until temp
reaches to the last node
• Step 6: Finally, display temp → data with arrow pointing to NULL
(tem→ data ---> NULL).

3. Circular Linked List

In circular linked list, every node points to its next node in the sequence but the last
node points to the first node in the list.

Algorithm in Circular Linked List

Inserting at Specific location in the list (After a Node)

We can use the following steps to insert a new node after a node in the circular
linked list...

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 • Step 1: Create a newNode with given value.
• Step 2: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)
• Step 3: If it is Empty then, set head = newNode and newNode → next =
head.
• Step 4: If it is Not Empty then, define a node pointer temp and initialize
with head.
• Step 5: Keep moving the temp to its next node until it reaches to the
node after which we want to insert the newNode (until temp1 → data is
equal to location, here location is the node value after which we want to
insert the newNode).
• Step 6: Every time check whether temp is reached to the last node or
not. If it is reached to last node then display ‘Given node is not found in
the list!!! Insertion not possible!!!’ and terminate the function. Otherwise
move the temp to next node.
• Step 7: If temp is reached to the exact node after which we want to
insert the newNode then check whether it is last node (temp → next ==
head).
• Step 8: If temp is last node then set temp → next = newNode and
newNode → next = head.
• Step 9: If temp is not last node then set newNode → next = temp →
next and temp → next = newNode.

Displaying a circular Linked List

We can use the following steps to display the elements of a circular linked list
• Step 1: Check whether list is Empty (head == NULL)
• Step 2: If it is Empty, then display ‘List is Empty!!!’ and terminate the
function.
• Step 3: If it is Not Empty then, define a Node pointer ‘temp’ and
initialize with head.
• Step 4: Keep displaying temp → data with an arrow (--->) until temp
reaches to the last node
• Step 5: Finally display temp → data with arrow pointing to head →
data.

2.2.4. Queue

A queue is a linear list in which data can only be inserted at one end, called the
REAR, and deleted from the other end, called the FRONT.

These restrictions ensure that the data is processed through the queue in the order in
which it is received. In an other words, a queue is a structure in which whatever goes
first comes out first (first in, first out(FIFO) structure).

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 1. Types of queues
There exist two types of queues:
• Linear queue
• Circular queue

a. Linear Queue

Queue data structure is a linear data structure in which the operations are
performed based on FIFO principle. Queue Operations using Array
before we implement actual operations, first follow the below steps to create an
empty queue.

• Step 1: Include all the header files which are used in the program and
define a constant ‘SIZE’ with specific value.
• Step 2: Declare all the user defined functions which are used in
queue implementation.
• Step 3: Create a one dimensional array with above defined SIZE (
int queue[SIZE])
• Step 4: Define two integer variables ‘front’ and ‘rear’ and initialize both
with ‘-1’. (int front = -1, rear = -1)
• Step 5: Then implement main method by displaying menu of operations
list and make suitable function calls to perform operation selected by the
user on queue.

enQueue(value) - Inserting value into the queue

• Step 1: Check whether queue is FULL. (rear == SIZE-1)

• Step 2: If it is FULL, then display “Queue is FULL!!! Insertion is not
possible!!!”” and terminate the function.
• Step 3: If it is NOT FULL, then increment rear value by one (rear++) and
set queue [rear] = value.

deQueue() - Deleting a value from the Queue

• Step 1: Check whether queue is EMPTY. (front == rear)

• Step 2: If it is EMPTY, then display “Queue is EMPTY!!! Deletion is not
possible!!!” and terminate the function.
• Step 3: If it is NOT EMPTY, then increment the front value by one (front
++). Then display queue[front] as deleted element. Then check whether
both front and rear are equal (front == rear), if it TRUE, then set both
front and rear to ‘-1’ (front = rear = -1).

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 display() - Displays the elements of a Queue

We can use the following steps to display the elements of a queue

• Step 1: Check whether queue is EMPTY. (front == rear)
• Step 2: If it is EMPTY, then display “Queue is EMPTY!!!” and terminate
the function.
• Step 3: If it is NOT EMPTY, then define an integer variable ‘I’ and
set ‘i =front+1’.
• Step 4: Display ‘queue[i]’ value and increment ‘I’ value by one (i++).
Repeat the same until ‘I’ value is equal to rear (i<= rear)

b. Circular Queue

Circular Queue is a linear data structure in which the operations are

performed based on FIFO (First In First Out) principle and the last position is
connected back to the first position to make a circle.

Circular Queue Operation

To implement a circular queue data structure using array, we first create it.
• Step 1: Include all the header files
which are used in the program and define a constant
‘SIZE’ with specific value.
• Step 2: Declare all user defined functions used in circular queue
implementation.
• Step 3: Create a one dimensional array with above defined SIZE (int
cQueue[SIZE])
• Step 4: Define two integer variables ‘front’ and ‘rear’ and initialize both
with ‘-1’. (int front = -1, rear = -1)
• Step 5: Implement main method by displaying menu of operations list
and make suitable function calls to perform operation selected by the
user on circular queue.

2. Queue operations

There are three main operations related to queues.

• Enqueue: the enqueue operation inserts an items at the rear of the
queue
• Dequeue: the dequeue operation deletes the item at the front of the
queue
• Display: show elements in the array

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 2.2.5. Stack

A stack is a restricted linear list in which all additions and deletions are made at one
end, the top. If we insert a series of data items into a stack and then remove them, the
order of the data is reversed. Data input as 5, 10, 15, 20, for example would be
removed as 20, 15, 10, and 5. This reversing attribute is why stacks are known as
Last in, First out (LIFO) data structures.

We use many different types of stacks in our daily lives. We often talk of a stack of
coins, stack of books on a table and stack of plates in a kitchen.

Any situation in which we can only add or remove an object at the top is a stack. If we
want to remove an object other than the one at the top, we must first remove all
objects above it. The following charts illustrates cases of stack

A Stack is a Last in First out (LIFO) dynamic table or data structure. It has the
following characteristics:
• List of the same kind of elements;
• Addition and deletion of elements occur only at one end, called the top of
the stack;
• Computers use stacks to implement method calls;
• Stacks are also used to convert recursive algorithms into non
recursive algorithm.

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 1. Operations performed on stacks

The different operations performed on stacks are as follows:

• Push: adds an element to the stack
• Pop: removes an element from the stack
• Peek: display at top element of the stack

Stack Operations using Array

Before implementing actual operations, first follow the below steps to create an
empty stack.
 Step 1: Include all the header files which are used in the program
and define a constant ‘SIZE’ with specific value.
 Step 2: Declare all the functions used in stack implementation.
 Step 3: Create a one dimensional array with fixed size (int stack[SIZE])
 Step 4: Define a integer variable ‘top’ and initialize with ‘-1’. (top = -1)
 Step 5: In main method display menu with list of operations and make suitable
function calls to perform operation selected by the user on the stack.

push(value) - Inserting value into the stack

• Step 1: Check whether stack is FULL. (top == SIZE-1)

• Step 2: If it is FULL, then display “Stack is FULL!!! Insertion is not
possible!!!” and terminate the function.
• Step 3: If it is NOT FULL, then increment top value by one (top++) and
set stack [top] to value (stack[top] = value).

pop() - Delete a value from the Stack

• Step 1: Check whether stack is EMPTY. (top == -1)

• Step 2: If it is EMPTY, then display “Stack is EMPTY!!! Deletion is not
possible!!!’” and terminate the function.
• Step 3: If it is NOT EMPTY, then delete stack [top] and decrement top
value by one(top-1).

Display() - Displays the elements of a Stack

• Step 1: Check whether stack is EMPTY. (top == -1)

• Step 2: If it is EMPTY, then display “Stack is EMPTY!!!” and terminate
the function.
• Step 3: If it is NOT EMPTY, then define a variable ‘ I’ and
initialize with top. Display stack[i] value and decrement
i value by one (i--).
• Step 3: Repeat above step until i value becomes ‘0’.

2. Stack exceptions

Adding an element to a full stack and removing an element from an empty stack would
generate errors or exceptions:

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 • Stack overflow exception: it occurs if you try to add an item to stack or
queue which is already full.
• Stack underflow exception: it occurs if you try to remove an item from
an empty queue or stack.

Exercises

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 2.2.5. Searching and sorting using complex data structure.

Searching is the process of finding the location of a given element in a set of elements.

Searching means to find whether a particular value is present in an array or not.

If the value is present in the array, then searching is said to be successful and the
searching process gives the location of that value in the array.

There are two simple approaches to searching:

Linear search: This method traverses a list sequentially to locate the search key.
Binary search: This method works on sorted lists by progressively making better
guesses to find the location of a search key.

1. Linear search Algorithms

The linear search is also called sequential search. It is a simple method used for
searching an array for a particular value. It works by comparing the value to
be searched with every element of the array one by one in a sequence until a match is
found.
Notice that the linear search is mostly used to search in an unordered list of elements

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 Linear Search Algorithm

linear search (a, n, item, loc)

Note:
• “a” is an array of the size n.
• “n” is the size of the array “a”
• “item” is the element to find in the array “a”.
• “loc” is the index of an element in the array “a”.
Begin
for i=0 to (n-1) by 1 do
if (a[i] = item) then
set loc=i
Print loc
exit
endif
set loc +1
endfor
end

2. Binary Search

You search an array by repeatedly dividing the search interval in half. While dividing
you begin with an interval covering the whole array. If the value of the search key is
less than the item in the middle of the interval, narrow the interval to the lower half.
Otherwise narrow it to the upper half. Repeatedly check until the value is found or the
interval is empty. This kind of search is also called the dichotomy method or bisection
method. It is possible on sorted array.

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 The full binary search Algorithm is given down here.

Binary search (a, n, item, loc)

Note:
• “a ” is an array of the size n.
• “n” is the size of the array “a”
• “ item ” is the element to find in the array “a”.
• “loc” is the index of the element in the array “a”.
Begin
set beg=0
set end=n-1
set mid=(beg+end)/2
while((beg<=end) and(a[mid]!=item) do
if(item<a[mid]) then
set end=mid-1
else
set beg=mid+1
endif
set mid=(beg+end)/2
endwhile
if(beg>end) then
set loc=-1
else
set loc=mid
endif
end

3. Sorting using complex data structure

Sorting is the process of arranging elements in some logical order either in ascending
or descending order.

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 Methods/Techniques for sorting

There are various methods for sorting in this section that we are going to discuss:
 Selection Sort
 Bubble Sort
 Insertion Sort
 Merge Sort
 Quick Sort
 Shell Sort
 Heap Sort
 Radix Sort
 Counting Sort
 Bucket Sort

3.1. Bubble sort

Bubble Sort is a simple-minded algorithm based on the idea that we look at the list,
and wherever we find two consecutive elements out of order, we swap them. This is
done as follows: Repeatedly traverse the unsorted part of the array by comparing
consecutive elements, and interchange them when they are out of order.

Bubble Sort Algorithm

Begin
for k=1 to (n-1) by 1 do
for j=0 to (n-k-1) by 1 do
if(a[j]>a[j+1]) then
set temp=a[j]

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 set a[j]=a[j+1]
set a[j]=temp
endif
endfor
endfor
end

3.2. Insertion sort

The Insertion Sort is a comparison-based algorithm that builds a final sorted array
one element at a time. It iterates through an input array and removes one element per
iteration, finds the place if the element belongs in the array, and then places it there.

The illustration is given here below:

The Insertion Sort traverses the array and inserts each element into the sorted part of
the list where it belongs. It involves pushing down the larger elements in the sorted
part.

Insertion Sort Algorithm

Begin
For I = 1 to N-1
J=I
Do while (J > 0) and (A(J) < A(J - 1)
Temp = A(J)
A(J) = A(J - 1)
A(J - 1) = Temp
J=J-1
End-Do
End-For
End

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 3.3. Selection sort

The Selection Sort is a simplicity sorting algorithm. Here are basic steps of selection
sort algorithm:
o Find the minimum element in the list
o Swap it with the element in the first position of the list
o Repeat the steps above for all remainder elements of the list starting at
the second position.

The idea of Selection Sort is that we repeatedly find the smallest element in the
unsorted part of the array and swap it with the first element in the unsorted part of
the array.

Selection Sort Algorithm

Begin
For I = 0 to N-1 do:
Smallsub = I
For J = I + 1 to N-1 do:
If A(J) < A(Smallsub)
Smallsub = J
End-If
End-For
Temp = A(I)
A(I) = A(Smallsub)
A(Smallsub) = Temp
End-For
End

Classification of sorting algorithms

 By number of comparisons
 By Number of Swaps
 By Memory Usage

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  By Recursion
 By Stability
 By Adaptability
 Internal Sorting
 External sorting

2.3. Non-Linear Data Structures are properly applied based on their

operational complexity

Definition

Non linear data structure is a form of data structure where the data elements do not
stay arranged linearly or sequentially.
Since the data structure is non linear, it does not involve a single level. Therefore, a
user can not traverse all of its elements in a single run.

2.3.1. Tree

Tree is a very popular data structure used in wide range of applications. A tree data
structure can be defined as follows.

In a tree data structure, if we have N number of nodes then we can have a maximum
of N-1 number of links.

Tree data structure is a collection of data (Node) which is organized in hierarchical

structure and this is a recursive definition.

1. Tree Terminology

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 a. Root

In a tree data structure, the first node is called as Root Node. Every tree must have
root node..

b. Edge

In a tree data structure, the connecting link between any two nodes is called an Edge.
In a tree with ‘N’ number of nodes there will be a maximum of ‘N-1’ number of edges.

c. Parent

In a tree data structure, the node which is predecessor of any node is called
a PARENT NODE. In simple words, the node which has branch from it to any other
node is called as parent node.

d. Child

In a tree data structure, the node which is descendant of any node is called a CHILD
Node. In a tree, any parent node can have any number of child nodes. In a tree, all the
nodes except root are child nodes.

e. Siblings

In a tree data structure, nodes which belong to same Parent are called SIBLINGS.

f. Leaf

In a tree data structure, the node which does not have a child is called a LEAF Node.
In a tree data structure, the leaf nodes are also called a External Nodes or Terminal
node.

g. Degree
In a tree data structure, the total number of children of a node is called as DEGREE of
that Node. In simple words, the Degree of a node is total number of children it has.
The highest degree of a node among all the nodes in a tree is called as ‹Degree of Tree’

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 h. Level
In simple words, in a tree each step from top to bottom is called as a
Level and the Level count starts with ‘0’ and incremented by one at each level (Step).

i. Height
In a tree data structure, the total number of edges from leaf node to a particular
node in the longest path is called as HEIGHT of that Node. In a tree, height of the root
node is said to be height of the tree. In a tree, height of all leaf nodes is ‘0’.

j. Depth
In a tree data structure, the total number of edges from root node to a particular
node is called DEPTH of that Node. In a tree, the total number of edges from root node
to a leaf node in the longest path is said to be Depth of the tree. In a tree, depth of
the root node is ‘0’.

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 k. Path
In a tree data structure, the sequence of Nodes and Edges from one node to another
node is called as PATH between those two Nodes.

l. Sub Tree
In a tree data structure, each child from a node forms a sub tree recursively. Every
child node will form a sub-tree on its parent node.

a. Binary Tree Representations

A binary tree data structure is represented using two methods. Those methods are as
follows:

• Linked List of Binary Tree representation

• Array Representation

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 Let T be a Binary Tree. There are two ways of representing T in the memory as follow
Linked

a. Linked List of Binary Tree representation

Consider a Binary Tree T. T will be maintained in memory by means of a linked list

representation, which uses three parallel arrays; INFO, LEFT, and RIGHT
pointer variable ROOT as follows. In Binary Tree, each node N of T will
correspond to a location k such that:

1. LEFT [k] contains the location of the left child of node N.

2. INFO [k] contains the data at the node N.
3. RIGHT [k] contains the location of right child of node N.

Representation of a node:

Example
Consider the binary tree T in the figure of Binary Tree

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 b. Array Representation of Binary Tree

For Example:
Consider the following Tree:

b. Binary Tree Traversals

When we wanted to display a binary tree, we need to follow some order in which all the
nodes of that binary tree must be displayed. In any binary tree displaying order of
nodes depends on the traversal method.

Displaying (or) visiting order of nodes in a binary tree is called as Binary Tree
Traversal.

There are three types of binary tree traversals.

• In - Order Traversal
• Pre - Order Traversal
• Post - Order Traversal

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 Traversal is a process to visit all the nodes of a tree and may print their values too.
Because, all nodes are connected via edges (links) we always start from the root (head)
node. That is, we cannot randomly access a node in a tree.

a. In-order Traversal

In this traversal method, the left sub tree is visited first, then the root and later the
right sub-tree. We should always remember that every node may represent a sub tree
itself.

If a binary tree is traversed in-order, the output will produce sorted key values in an
ascending order.

We start from A, and following in-order traversal, we move to its left subtree B. B is
also traversed in-order. The process goes on until all the nodes are visited. The output
of inorder traversal of this tree will be:

D→B→E→A→F→C→G

Algorithm:

Until all nodes are traversed

Step 1 − Recursively traverse left subtree.

Step 2 − Visit root node.
Step 3 − Recursively traverse right subtree.

b. Pre-order Traversal

In this traversal method, the root node is visited first, then the left subtree and finally
the right subtree.

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 A→B→D→E→C→F→G

Algorithm:

Until all nodes are traversed −

Step 1 − Visit root node.
Step 2 − Recursively traverse left subtree.
Step 3 − Recursively traverse right subtree.

c. Post-order Traversal

In this traversal method, the root node is visited last, hence the name. First
we traverse the left sub tree, then the right sub tree and finally the root node.

D→E→B→F→G→C→A

Algorithm:

Until all nodes are traversed

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 Step 1 − Recursively traverse left subtree.
Step 2 − Recursively traverse right subtree.
Step 3 − Visit root node.

Binary Search tree exhibits a special behavior. A node’s left child must have a value
less than its parent’s value and the node’s right child must have a value greater than
its parent value.

c. Basic Operations on binary tree

A Binary Search Tree (BST) is a tree in which all the nodes follow the below-mentioned
properties
• The left sub-tree of a node has a key less than or equal to its parent
node’s key.
• The right sub-tree of a node has a key greater than to its parent node’s
key.
Thus, BST divides all its sub-trees into two segments; the left sub-tree and the right
sub-tree and can be defined as

left_subtree (keys) ≤ node (key) ≤ right_subtree (keys)

Basic Operations

Following are the basic operations of a tree −

• Search − Searches an element in a tree.
• Insert − Inserts an element in a tree.
• Pre-order Traversal − Traverses a tree in a pre-order manner.
• In-order Traversal − Traverses a tree in an in-order manner.
• Post-order Traversal − Traverses a tree in a post-order manner.

Exercises

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 2.3.2. Graph
1. Introduction

A Graph is a non-linear data structure consisting of vertices and edges. The vertices are
sometimes also referred to as nodes and the edges are lines or arcs that connect any
two nodes in the graph.

More formally a Graph is composed of a set of vertices( V ) and a set of edges( E ). The
graph is denoted by G(E, V).

Graphs are used to solve many real-life problems. Graphs are used to represent
networks. The networks may include paths in a city or telephone network or circuit
network. Graphs are also used in social networks like linkedIn, Facebook. For example,
in Facebook, each person is represented with a vertex(or node). Each node is a structure
and contains information like person id, name, gender, locale etc.

2. Representations of Graph
Here are the two most common ways to represent a graph :
 Adjacency Matrix
 Adjacency List

Adjacency Matrix
An adjacency matrix is a way of representing a graph as a matrix of boolean (0’s and
1’s).
Let’s assume there are n vertices in the graph So, create a 2D
matrix adjMat[n][n] having dimension n x n.

Representation of Undirected Graph to Adjacency Matrix:

The below figure shows an undirected graph. Initially, the entire Matrix is initialized
to 0. If there is an edge from source to destination, we insert 1 to both cases
(adjMat[destination] and adjMat[destination]) because we can go either way.

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 Representation of Directed Graph to Adjacency Matrix:

The below figure shows a directed graph. Initially, the entire Matrix is initialized to 0.
If there is an edge from source to destination, we insert 1 for that
particular adjMat[destination]
adjMat[destination].

Adjacency List
An array of Lists is used to store edges between two vertices. The size of array is
equal to the number of vertices (i.e, n). Each index in this array represents a
specific vertex in the graph. The entry at the index i of the array contains a linked
list containing the vertices that are adjacent to vertex i.
Let’s assume there are n vertices in the graph So, create an array of list of
size n as adjList[n].

 adjList[0] will have all the nodes which are connected (neighbour) to vertex 0.

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  adjList[1] will have all the nodes which are connected (neighbour) to vertex 1 and so
on.

Representation of Undirected Graph to Adjacency list:

The below undirected graph has 3 vertices. So, an array of list will be created of size
3, where each indices represent the vertices. Now, vertex 0 has two neighbours (i.e, 1
and 2). So, insert vertex 1 and 2 at indices 0 of array. Similarly, For vertex 1, it has
two neighbour (i.e, 2 and 1) So, insert vertices 2 and 1 at indices 1 of array.
Similarly, for vertex 2, insert its neighbours in array of list.

Representation of Directed Graph to Adjacency list:

The below directed graph has 3 vertices. So, an array of list will be created of size 3,
where each indices represent the vertices. Now, vertex 0 has no neighbours. For
vertex 1, it has two neighbour (i.e, 0 and 2) So, insert vertices 0 and 2 at indices 1 of
array. Similarly, for vertex 2, insert its neighbours in array of list.

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 3. Types of Graphs

1. Undirected Graphs: A graph in which edges have no direction, i.e., the edges do
not have arrows indicating the direction of traversal. Example: A social network
graph where friendships are not directional.

2. Directed Graphs: A graph in which edges have a direction, i.e., the edges have
arrows indicating the direction of traversal. Example: A web page graph where
links between pages are directional.

3. Weighted Graphs: A graph in which edges have weights or costs associated with
them. Example: A road network graph where the weights can represent the
distance between two cities.

4. Unweighted Graphs: A graph in which edges have no weights or costs associated

with them. Example: A social network graph where the edges represent
friendships.

5. Complete Graphs: A graph in which each vertex is connected to every other

vertex. Example: A tournament graph where every player plays against every
other player.

6. Bipartite Graphs: A graph in which the vertices can be divided into two disjoint
sets such that every edge connects a vertex in one set to a vertex in the other set.
Example: A job applicant graph where the vertices can be divided into job
applicants and job openings.

7. Trees: A connected graph with no cycles. Example: A family tree where each
person is connected to their parents.

8. Cycles: A graph with at least one cycle. Example: A bike-sharing graph where the
cycles represent the routes that the bikes take.

9. Sparse Graphs: A graph with relatively few edges compared to the number of
vertices. Example: A chemical reaction graph where each vertex represents a
chemical compound and each edge represents a reaction between two
compounds.

10. Dense Graphs: A graph with many edges compared to the number of vertices.
Example: A social network graph where each vertex represents a person and each
edge represents a friendship.

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 Types of Graphs:
1. Finite Graphs
A graph is said to be finite if it has a finite number of vertices and a finite number of
edges. A finite graph is a graph with a finite number of vertices and edges.
Finite graphs are often used to model real
real-world
world situations, where there is a limited
number of objects and relationships between them

2. Infinite Graph:
A graph is said to be infinite if it has an infinite number of vertices as well as an
infinite number of edges.

3. Trivial Graph:
A graph is said to be trivial if a finite graph contains only one vertex and no edge. A
trivial graph is a graph with only one vertex and no edges.

4. Simple Graph:

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 A simple graph is a graph that does not contain more than one edge between the pair
of vertices. A simple railway track connecting different cities is an example of a
simple graph.

5. Multi Graph:
Any graph which contains some parallel edges but doesn’t contain any self-loop
self is
called a multigraph. For example a Road Map.
 Parallel Edges: If two vertices are connected with more than one edge then such
edges are called parallel edges that are many routes but one destination.
 Loop: An edge of a graph that starts from a vertex and ends at the same vertex is
called a loop or a self-loop.
loop.

6. Null Graph:

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 A graph of order n and size zero is a graph where there are only isolated vertices with
no edges connecting any pair of vertices. A null graph is a graph with no edges. In
other words, it is a graph with only vertices and no connections between them. A
null graph can also be referred to as an edgeless graph, an isolated graph, or a
discrete graph

7. Complete Graph:
A simple graph with n vertices is called a complete graph if the degree of each vertex
is n-1, that is, one vertex is attached with n-1 edges or the rest of the vertices in the
graph. A complete graph is also called Full Graph

8. Pseudo Graph:
A graph G with a self-loop and some multiple edges is called a pseudo graph. A
pseudograph is a type of graph that allows for the existence of loops (edges that
connect a vertex to itself) and multiple edges (more than one edge connecting two
vertices). In contrast, a simple graph is a graph that does not allow for loops or
multiple edges.

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 4. Advantages of graphs

1. Graphs can be used to model and analyze complex systems and relationships.
2. They are useful for visualizing and understanding data.
3. Graph algorithms are widely used in computer science and other fields, such as
social network analysis, logistics, and transportation.
4. Graphs can be used to represent a wide range of data types, including social
networks, road networks, and the internet.

5. Application of Graphs

Real-Time
Time Applications of Graph:
 Social media analysis:: Social media platforms gegenerate
nerate vast amounts of data in
real-time,
time, which can be analyzed using graphs to identify trends, sentiment, and
key influencers. This can be useful for marketing, customer service, and
reputation management.
 Network monitoring: Graphs can be used to monito
monitorr network traffic in real-time,
real
allowing network administrators to identify potential bottlenecks, security threats,
and other issues. This is critical for ensuring the smooth operation of complex
networks.
 Financial trading: Graphs can be used to analyze real-timetime financial data, such
as stock prices and market trends, to identify patterns and make trading
decisions. This is particularly important for high
high-frequency
frequency trading, where even
small delays can have a significant impact on profits.
 Internet of Things gs (IoT) management: IoT devices generate vast amounts of
data in real-time,
time, which can be analyzed using graphs to identify patterns,
optimize performance, and detect anomalies. This is important for managing
large-scale
scale IoT deployments.
 Autonomous vehicles: Graphs can be used to model the real real-time
time environment
around autonomous vehicles, allowing them to navigate safely and efficiently.
This requires real-time
time data from sensors and other sources, which can be
processed using graph algorithms.
 Disease surveillance:: Graphs can be used to model the spread of infectious
diseases in real-time,
time, allowing health officials to identify outbreaks and

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 implement effective containment strategies. This is particularly important during
pandemics or other public health emergencies.
 The best example of graphs in the real world is Facebook. Each person on
Facebook is a node and is connected through edges. Thus, A is a friend of B. B is
a friend of C, and so on.

6. Difference between graph and tree

Graph :
A graph is a collection of two sets V and E where V is a finite non-empty set of
vertices and E is a finite non-empty set of edges.
 Vertices are nothing but the nodes in the graph.
 Two adjacent vertices are joined by edges.
 Any graph is denoted as G = {V, E}.

A graph is a collection of vertices (also known as nodes) and edges that connect these
vertices. Each edge represents a relationship or connection between two vertices.

Graphs can be directed or undirected, meaning that edges have a specific direction
or they do not.

Tree :
A tree is a special type of graph that is connected and acyclic, meaning that there are
no cycles in the graph.

In a tree, there is a unique path between any two vertices, and there is a single
vertex called the root that is used as the starting point for traversing the tree.
Trees can be used to model hierarchical relationships, such as the structure of a file
system or the organization of a company.
Binary trees can be used to solve problems such as searching and sorting, as well as
to represent expressions and parse trees.

Graph vs Tree
The basis of
Comparison Graph Tree

Graph is a non-linear data Tree is a non-linear data

Definition structure. structure.

It is a collection of vertices/nodes It is a collection of nodes and

Structure and edges. edges.

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 The basis of
Comparison Graph Tree

A graph can be connected or A tree is a type of graph that is

disconnected, can have cycles or connected, acyclic (meaning it
Structure loops, and does not necessarily has no cycles or loops), and has a
cycle have a root node. single root node.

Each node can have any number of If there is n nodes then there
Edges edges. would be n-1 number of edges

Types of Edges They can be directed or undirected They are always directed

There is no unique node called root There is a unique node called

Root node in graph. root(parent) node in trees.

Loop
Formation A cycle can be formed. There will not be any cycle.

For graph traversal, we We traverse a tree using in-order,

use Breadth-First Search (BFS), pre-order, or post-order traversal
Traversal and Depth-First Search (DFS). methods.

For finding shortest path in For game trees, decision trees,

Applications networking graph is used. the tree is used.

In a graph, nodes can have any

number of connections to other In a tree, each node (except the
Node nodes, and there is no strict root node) has a parent node and
relationships parent-child relationship. zero or more child nodes.

Graphs are commonly used to Trees are commonly used to

model complex systems or represent data that has a
relationships, such as social hierarchical structure, such as
Commonly networks, transportation networks, file systems, organization charts,
used for and computer networks. and family trees.

Connectivity In a graph, nodes can have any In a tree, each node can have at
number of connections to other most one parent, except for the

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 The basis of
Comparison Graph Tree

nodes. root node, which has no parent.

7. Breadth First Search or BFS for a Graph

The Breadth First Search (BFS) algorithm is used to search a graph data structure
for a node that meets a set of criteria. It starts at the root of the graph and visits all
nodes at the current depth level before moving on to the nodes at the next depth level.

How does BFS work?

Starting from the root, all the nodes at a particular level are visited first and then the
nodes of the next level are traversed till all the nodes are visited.
To do this a queue is used. All the adjacent unvisited nodes of the current level are
pushed into the queue and the nodes of the current level are marked visited and
popped from the queue.
Illustration:
Let us understand the working of the algorithm with the help of the following
example.

Step1: Initially queue and visited arrays are empty

Step2: Push node 0 into queue and mark it visited.

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 Step 3: Remove node 0 from the front of queue and visit the unvisited neighbours and
push them into queue.

Step 4: Remove node 1 from the front of queue and visit the unvisited neighbours and
push them into queue.

Step 5: Remove node 2 from the front of queue and visit the unvisited neighbours and
push them into queue.

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 Step 6: Remove node 3 from the front of queue and visit the unvisited neighbours and
push them into queue.
As we can see that every neighbours of node 3 is visited, so move to the next node that
are in the front of the queue.

Steps 7: Remove node 4 from the front of queue and visit the unvisited neighbours
and push them into queue.
As we can see that every neighbours of node 4 are visited, so move to the next node
that is in the front of the queue.

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 2.3.3. Table in data structure

Table is a data structure which plays a significant role in information retrieval. A set of
n distinct records with keys K1, K2, …., Kn are stored in a file. If we want to find a
record with a given key value, K, simply access the index given by its key k.

Some of possible kinds of tables are given below:

• Rectangular table
• Jagged table
• Inverted table.
• Hash tables

1. Hash Table in data structure

A Hash table is defined as a data structure used to insert, look up, and remove key-
value pairs quickly. It operates on the hashing concept, where each key is translated
by a hash function into a distinct index in an array. The index functions as a storage
location for the matching value. In simple words, it maps the keys with the value.

Hash Table is a data structure which store data in associative manner. In hash table,
data is stored in array format where each data value has its own unique index value.
Access of data becomes very fast if we know the index of desired data.

Hash table: The memory area where the keys are stored is called hash table.

It becomes a data structure in which insertion and search operations are very fast
irrespective of size of data. Hash Table uses array as a storage medium and uses hash
technique to generate index where an element is to be inserted or to be located from.

Hashing is a technique to convert a range of key values into a range of indexes of an

array. We're going to use modulo operator to get a range of key values. Consider an
example of hashtable of size 20, and following items are to be stored. Item are in (key,
value) format.

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 What is a Hash function?

A Function that translates keys to array indices is known as a hash function. The
keys should be evenly distributed across the array via a decent hash function to
reduce collisions and ensure quick lookup speeds.

 Integer universe assumption: The keys are assumed to be integers within a

certain range according to the integer universe assumption. This enables the use
of basic hashing operations like division or multiplication hashing.

 Hashing by division: This straightforward hashing technique uses the key’s

remaining value after dividing it by the array’s size as the index. When an array
size is a prime number and the keys are evenly spaced out, it performs well.

 Hashing by multiplication: This straightforward hashing operation multiplies

the key by a constant between 0 and 1 before taking the fractional portion of the
outcome. After that, the index is determined by multiplying the fractional
component by the array’s size. Also, it functions effectively when the keys are
scattered equally.

Choosing a hash function

Selecting a decent hash function is based on the properties of the keys and the
intended functionality of the hash table. Using a function that evenly distributes the
keys and reduces collisions is crucial.

Criteria based on which a hash function is chosen

 To ensure that the number of collisions is kept to a minimum, a good hash

function should distribute the keys throughout the hash table in a uniform
manner. This implies that for all pairings of keys, the likelihood of two keys
hashing to the same position in the table should be rather constant.
 To enable speedy hashing and key retrieval, the hash function should be
computationally efficient.
 It ought to be challenging to deduce the key from its hash value. As a result,
attempts to guess the key using the hash value are less likely to succeed.
 A hash function should be flexible enough to adjust as the data being hashed
changes. For instance, the hash function needs to continue to perform properly if
the keys being hashed change in size or format.

Collision resolution techniques

Collisions happen when two or more keys point to the same array index. Chaining,
open addressing, and double hashing are a few techniques for resolving collisions.

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 Here, if there is a collision we have to save data as linked list

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 Here, if collision occurs we save data in next free space

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 Here, f(i)=i2

Exercises

A company stores bookings in a random file.

For each booking, the booking ID, customer ID, item ID and quantity are stored. These
four values are all integers.

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 Outcome IMPLEMENT ALGORITHM USING JAVASCRIPT
Three
JavaScript

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