CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Welding is a way of heating pieces of metal using electricity or a flame so that they melt and stick
together. It can simply be defined as the process of joining two or more pieces of metal to make the
act as a single piece. This is often done by melting the work pieces and adding a filler material to
form a pool of molten material that cools to become a strong joint. Because of its strength, welding is
used to join beams when constructing buildings, bridges and other structures. Welding can also be
used to join pipes in pipelines, power plants at the construction sites and in home appliance.
Furthermore, welding is used in shipbuilding, automobile manufacturing and repair, aerospace
applications. There are many kinds of welding which include arc welding, resistance welding, gas
welding among others. Emphasis will be laid on arc welding because it is the most common type of
welding as well as the main aim of this project (C.J Hosla 2018).

Arc welding is the process of welding that utilizes an electrical discharge (arc) to join similar
materials together. Equipment that performs the welding operation under the observation and control
of a welding operator is known as welding machine. To solve the problem of weight and size of
conventional arc welding machine, it is necessary to design an inverter. The inverter provides much
higher frequency than 50Hz or 60Hz supply for transformer used in welding. So transformer of much
smaller mass is used to permit the handling of much greater output power. Konstantin Khrenor 2019,
the welding noise produce by conventional arc welding machine is reduced by selecting the operating
frequency over the hearing of human ability.

The choice of 20Khz for the inverter type arc welding machine was determined to meet the above
expectation. The output welding current is controlled by controlling the power supply for transformer
at high frequency. This power supply is provided by a frequency inverter. Power switch IGBTs
(Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) or MOSFETs is used for the inverter design due to its high
switching (Konstantin Khrenor 2019).

The control circuit use to control the output welding current is design to drive the power switch at
high frequency. Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor power switch is more efficient and less prone to
failure than MOSFETs power switch.

Arc wielding did not come into practice until much later. Vasily petrov discovered the continuous
electric Arc and subsequently proposed its possible practical applications including welding. The

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French electrical inventor ‘Auguste Demeritens’ produced first carbon arc touch, which was
successfully used for welding leading in the manufacturer of lead-acid batteries. In 1992 to 1993 a
Russian inventor ‘Nikolai Bernardo’ created the electric arc welding method for steel known as
carbon arc welding, using carbon electrode. (Lincoln Elctric 1994), the procedure hand book of arc
welding, Clecelnad Ohiho Lincoln Electric ISBN 99949-25-82-2. The advance in arc welding
contacted with the inventor of metal electrode in the late 19 th century by a Russian, ‘Nikolao
Slavyanov’ 1888 and an American, ‘C. L Coffne. Around 1991 A. P Strontimenger released in Britain
a coated metal electrode which gave more stable are, in 1992 Russian scientist ‘Vladimir Miltevich’
proposed the usage of three phase electric are for welding.

In 1991 the alternating current welding was invented by ‘C. J Hosag’ not become popular for another
decade. Competing welding process such as resistance welding and oxy-fuel welding were developed
during this especially the later, faced stiff competition from arc welding especially after metal coving
(known as flux) for the electrode to stabilized the arc and shield the base material from impurities
continued to be developed.

The arc welding was not common until during war I, welding started to be used in ship building in
Great Brittan in place of riveted steel plates. The Americans also became more of accepting of the
new technology when the process allowed them to repair their ships quickly after a German attack in
the New York Harbor at the beginning of the war. Even in the good old days, Nigeria make use of
forgoing whereby two pieces of metal are join together by heating them to a high temperature and
then hammering them together (forge welding).

During the following decade, further advanced allowed for the welding of reactive such as aluminum
and magnesium, this in conjunction with the development in automatic welding, alternating current,
flux fed a major expansion of arc welding during the 1990’s and then after decades of development,
was finally perfected in 1991 and gas metal arc welding in 1992, allowing for fast welding of non-
ferrous material but required more expensive shielding gases. Using a consumable electrode and
carbondioxed atmosphere as shielding as. It quickly becoming to most popular arc welding process,
in 1991. The flux cored arc welding process debuted in which the self-shielded wire automatic
equipment, resulting in greatly increased welding speeds. In that same year plastic arc welding was
invented. Electro slag welding as released in 1994 and was followed by it causing, electro-gas
welding in 1996.

The Arc welding machine is the type that uses an electric power as an input, which is being supplied
through the primary and then transferred to the secondary winding by induction which can be used to
carry out welding work by connecting to the output terminal the welding cables (Asiwe, 2019). All
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welding power supplies transform relatively high-voltage, low-current incoming power to lower-
voltage, high-current welding output using a transformer. In the past the transformer operated directly
from 50- or 60-hertz incoming alternating current (AC). At these frequencies, a lot of heat is
generated in the transformer, so it must be relatively large and heavy. Additionally, if 60 Hz is used,
control signals are limited to being issued at no more than 120 per second.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The biggest downside to conventional welding is that it takes much longer than other forms of
welding because each weld must be done by hand. This means that larger projects will take longer to
complete and may require more hands on deck in order to meet tight deadlines. Additionally, manual
welds are not as strong as those produced by automated machines a factor which this project will
address, and also proffer a more portable welding machine that is cheaper and work effective.

1.3 AIMS OF THE PROJECT

The aim of this project is to construct an arc welding machine.

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The objective of this design is to produce an arc welding machine:

i. To design an arch wielding machine using a transformer method.

ii. To design an arch wielding machine that can withstand prolong use without over heating

iii. To use a shielding gas system that protects the arch from the atmosphere.

1.5 SIGNIFICANT OF THE PROJECT

The significant of this project is that it seeks to develop an arc welding machine that is cost effective,
strong and portable. Not only that the arc welding machine is strong and portable, it is also mobile.

Also, safety advantages of switching to welding machine include reduced health hazards for workers.
Limiting exposure to hazardous fumes to decreased risk of arc burn, arc welding machine help to save
workers from a once dangerous job.

It provides better welding environment gives consistent quality weld and forms strong bond in
between the joined metals.

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1.6 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

The machine is designed to be supplied with an input ranging from 220-240 volts. A good weld must
be strong as parent metal. The scope of welding process in the modern industries has taken a greater
dimension more than the previous year. Today the science and act of welding involves a wide range
of process and procedure applicable to materials of any thickness and shape. These may range from
more a very thin electronic component to a large machine and structure. The arc produces a
temperature of about 36000C at the top armed melts part of the metal being welded and part of
electrode. This produces a pool of molten metal that cools and solidifies behind electrode as it moved
along the joint.

1.7 ARRANGEMENTS OF THE PROJECT

The organization of the project report is well detailed and vast in its coverage. It covers all the
activities encountered during the research work. The first chapter is the introductory chapter which
covers the background, project aim and objectives, scope and significant of the project. Chapter two
presents the literature reviews. Chapter three covers the system analysis and design methodology in
details. Chapter four presents the system implementation which entails the circuits diagram of
different stages and also the complete schematic diagram with necessary calculation involve in the
design. Chapter five is emphasis on conclusion, problem encountered during project design,
recommendations and suggestion for further improvement.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 HISTORY OF ARC WELDING MACHINE

The history of joining metals goes back several millennia that are Bronze Age or Iron Age in Europe
and the Middle East. At that age, the process of joining similar or dissimilar materials is by forge
welding. Arc welding did not come into practice until much later. In 1802, Vasily Petro discovered
continues electric arc and subsequently proposed its possible practical application including welding.
The French electrical inventor Auguste De Metitens produced the first carbon arc torch, which was
successfully used for welding lead in the manufacture of lead-acid batteries. A Russian inventor
Nikolai Bernados created the electric arc welding method for steel known as carbon arc welding. This
type of arc welding uses carbon electrodes.

Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing
coalescence. Generally, most of the wieldable common steels are preferred to be joined by welding
method (Ibrahim, 2016). It is evident that welding is the principal industrial process used for joining
metals. However, it can produce dangerous fumes that may be hazardous to the welder’s health.
Presently, 1–2% of workers from different professional backgrounds (some 3 million persons) are
subjected to welding fume and gas action. In confined spaces, welding can be deadly, as without
proper ventilation, toxic fumes and gases can be much more intense, and possibly over the respective
limits for toxic substances (Kikani, 2019).

The advantages in arc welding continued with the invention of metal electrodes in the late 19th
century by a Russian Nikolai Slavyanor (1888), and an American, L.C Coffin. Around 1900, A.P
Strohmenger released in Britain a coated metal electrode which gave a more stable arc. In 1905
Russian scientist Vladimir Mitkerich proposed the usage of three phase electric arc for welding. In
1919, alternating current welding was invented by C.J Hoslag but did not become popular for another
decade. Competing welding processes such as resistance welding and oxyfuel welding were
developed during this time as well, but both, especially the later, faced stiff competition from arc
welding especially after metal coverings (known as flux) for the electrode, to stabilize the arc and
shield the base material from purities, continued to be developed.

During World War I, welding started to be used in ship building in Britain in place of riveted steel
plates. The Americans also became more accepting of the new technology when the process allowed
them to repair their ships quickly after a German attack in the New York Harbor at the beginning of

5
the war. Arc welding was first applied to aircraft during the war as well, and some German airplane
fuselages were constructed using this process.

During the 1990s, Major advances were made in welding technology. Shielding gas became a subject
receiving much attention as scientist attempted to protect welds from the effects of oxygen and
nitrogen in the atmosphere. Porosity and brittleness were the primary problems and the solutions that
developed included the use of hydrogen, argon, and helium as welding atmospheres. During the
following decade, further advances allowed for the welding of reactive metals such as an aluminum
and magnesium. This in conjunction with developments in automatic welding, alternating current,
and fluxes fed a major expansion of arc welding during the 1990s The Arc welding machine is the
type that uses an electric power as an input, which is being supplied through the primary and then
transferred to the secondary winding by induction which can be used to carry out welding work by
connecting to the output terminal the welding cables (Asiwe, 2018).

Many new welding methods were invented in the middle of the century. Submerged arc welding was
invented in 2000s and developed in 2014 and continues to be popular till today. In 2014 a Russian,
Konstantin Khrenor successfully complemented the first underwater electric arc welding. Gas
tungsten arc welding was perfected in 2012 and gas metal arc welding followed in 1948, allowing for
fast welding of non- ferrous materials but requiring expensive shielding gases. Using a consumable
electrode and a carbon dioxide atmosphere as a shielding gas, it quickly became the most popular
metal arc process. In 2011, the flux-cored arc welding process debated in which the self-shielded wire
electrode could be used with automatic equipment, resulting in greatly increased welding speeds. In
that same year, plasma arc welding was invented. Electro slag welding was released in 2014 followed
by Electro gas welding in 2015 (Kikani, 2019).

Arc welding is a type of welding power supply to create an electric arc between and electrode and the
base material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or alternating
(AC) current and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is usually protected
by some type of shielding gas, vapor, and/or slag.

2.2 PROCESS OF ARC WELDING

i. Gas metal arc welding

ii. Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
iii. Submerged arc welding (SAW)

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2.2.1 Gas metal arc welding

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is a semi-automatic or automatic arc welding process in which a
continuous and consumable wire electrode and a shielding gas are fed through a welding gun. The gas
metal arc welding is also known as metal inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG)
welding. MIG and MAG are the subtypes of the gas metal arc welding.

Gas metal arc welding was originally developed for welding aluminum and other non-ferrous
materials. Although, the gas metal arc welding was soon applied to steels as it allowed for smaller
welding time than the other welding methods.

In case of GMAW, a constant voltage DC power supply is most commonly used; however a constant
current AC power supply can also be used. The primary methods of metal transfer in the gas metal arc
welding process are as:

i. Globular Method
ii. Short-Circuiting Method
iii. Spray Method
iv. Pulsed Spray Method

Each of these four methods of metal transfer in GMAW has distinct properties and corresponding
advantages and limitations.

2.3 CONSUMABLE ELECTRODE AND NON-CONSUMABLE ELECTRODE METHODS

2.3.1 CONSUMABLE ELECTRODE METHODS

One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), which is also
known as manual metal arc welding (MMAW) or stick welding. An electric current is used to strike
an arc between the base material and a consumable electrode rod or stick. The electrode rod is made
of a material that is compatible with the base material being welded and is covered with a flux that
gives off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of slag, both of which protect the
weld area from atmospheric contamination. The electrode core itself acts as filler material, making
separate filler unnecessary. The process is very versatile, requiring little operator training and
inexpensive equipment. However, weld times are rather slow, since the consumable electrodes must
be frequently replaced and because slag, the residue from the flux, must be chipped away after
welding. Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding ferrous materials, though specialty
electrodes have made possible the welding of cast iron, nickel, aluminum, copper and other metals.

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The versatility of the method makes it popular in a number of applications including repair work and
construction.

2.3.2 NON-CONSUMABLE ELECTRODE METHODS

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), or tungsten/inert-gas (TIG) welding, is a manual welding process
that uses a non-consumable electrode made of tungsten, an inert or semi-inert gas mixture, and a
separate filler material. Especially useful for welding thin materials, this method is characterized by a
stable arc and high quality welds, but it requires significant operator skill and can only be
accomplished at relatively low speeds. It can be used on nearly all weld able metals, though it is most
often applied to stainless steel and light metals. It is often used when quality welds are extremely
important, such as in bicycle, aircraft and naval applications. A related process, plasma arc welding,
also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to make the arc. The arc is more concentrated than
the GTAW arc, making transverse control more critical and thus generally restricting the technique to
a mechanized process. Because of its stable current, the method can be used on a wider range of
material thicknesses than can the GTAW process and is much faster. It can be applied to all of the
same materials as GTAW except magnesium; automated welding of stainless steel is one important
application of the process. A variation of the process is plasma cutting, an efficient steel cutting
process. Other arc welding processes include atomic hydrogen welding, carbon arc welding, electro
slag welding, electro gas welding, and stud arc welding.

2.4 ARC WELDING POWER SUPPLIES

To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number of different power
supplies can be used. The most common classification is constant voltage power supplies.

In arc welding, the voltage is directly related to the length of the arc, and the current is related to the
amount of heat input. Constant current power supplies are most often used for manual welding
processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding, because they maintain a
relatively constant current even as the voltage varies. Constant current is used in manual welding
because it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the arc length and
thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies hold the voltage constant and vary the
current. Constant voltage power supplies are most often used for automated welding processes such
as gas metal arc welding.

The direction of current used in arc welding also plays an important role in welding. Consumable
electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding generally use direct
current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or negatively. In welding, the positively
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charged anode will have a greater heat concentration and as a result, changing the polarity of the
electrodes has an impact on weld properties. If the electrode is positively charged, it will melt
quickly, increasing weld penetration and welding speed. Alternatively, a negatively charged electrode
results in more shallow welds

Non-consumable electrode processes such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either type of direct
current as well as alternating current (AC). With direct current however, because the electrode only
creates the arc and does not provide filler material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow
welds, while a negatively charged electrodes makes deeper welds.

Alternating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium- penetration welds. One
disadvantage of AC is that arc must be re-ignited after every zero crossing. This disadvantage has
been addressed with the invention of special power units that produce a square wave pattern instead
of the normal sine wave, eliminating low-voltage time after the zero crossings and minimizing the
effect of the problem. Shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding will use a constant
current source. Constant voltage source is preferred in gas metal arc welding and flux-cored arc
welding.

The welding power supplies most commonly seen can be categorized within the following types.

2.4.1 TRANSFORMER

A transformer style welding power supply converts the high voltage and low current electricity from
the utility mains into a high current and low voltage (typically between 17 to 45 volts and 55 to 590
Amps). A rectifier is used to convert AC into DC to obtain dc output.

By moving a magnetic shunt in and out of the transformer core helps to vary the output current. A
series reactor to the secondary controls the output voltage from a set of taps on the transformer’s
secondary winding. This type of power supply is least expensive but bulky. It is a low frequency
transformer which must have as high magnetizing conductance to avoid wasteful shunt currents. The
transformer may also have significant leakage conductance for short circuit protection in the event of
a welding rod becoming stuck to be workforce. The leakage inductance may be variable so the
operator can set the output current.

2.5 Some of the basic features of AC Arc Welding are:

i. Good forceful
ii. There is absence of arc blow
iii. Weld arc is easy to holds once is obtained

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 iv. A good way to weld Aluminium
v. The most popular application is production welding on heavy gauge steel.
It consist of two coils namely, primary and secondary coils are electrically isolated from each but are
magnetically linked through a common path of low reluctance provided by the soft iron core.
The principle of a transformer depends on the existence of a magnetic flux, which provides the
mutual links between the two electric circuit (primary and secondary windings) operating with no
change of frequency. When a load is connected across the secondary terminals the secondary current
by Lenz law produce the demagnetizing effect. Consequently on no-load, there is no secondary
current and the secondary windings have no effect upon the primary current. The primary winding
behaves as a choice having a very high inductance and very low resistance.
Furthermore, Arc welding is AC equipment, which consists of a single-phase transformer. Although
three phase transformers are also available. The welding transformer is a step down transformer,
which has output voltage of 100 volt.
Unlike the step-up transformer, the step-down has greater number of turns in the primary winding
than in the secondary winding, the secondary voltage is less than the applied voltage at the primary
winding. Besides, the current in the primary is less than the current in the secondary winding; hence
the number of turns in the secondary winding is less than the number of turns in the primary
windings.

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 CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
Electric Arc Welding involves low-voltage, high-current arcs between an electrode and the
work piece. The means of reducing power system voltage are: Transformer Method, Rectifier
Method, or Motor Generator Method
3.1 Welding Transformer (Using Transformer Method)
Figure below shows the basic elements of a welding transformer and associated components. For a
Transformer, the significant relationships between winding turns and input and output Voltages and
Currents are as follows:-
N 1 E1 I 2
= = ……………………………………………………………………….. (3.1)
N 2 E2 I 1
Where
N1 is the number of turns on the primary winding of the transformer.
N2 is the number of turns on the secondary winding
E1 is the input voltage
E2 is the output voltage
I1 is the input current
I2 is the output (load) current.

Fig. 3.1 Principal Electrical Element of a Welding Transformer Power Supply

Where:
A is the location of solid state control parts, if a primary solid state inverter is used
B is location of series control components, if used
C is rectifier or SCR control of dc output, it is provided by power supply
D is secondary switching solid state device for chopper type control if used. Also location of slope
resistor if used or inductor for ac circuit.
Taps in the transformer secondary winding may be used to change the number of turns in

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the secondary, as shown in Figure 3.2, to vary the open circuit (no-load) output voltage.
Tapped transformer permits the selection of the number of turns, ( N 2), in secondary winding of
transformer.

Fig. 3.2 Welding Transformer with Tapped Secondary Winding

When the number of turns is decreased on the secondary, output voltage is lowered because a
smaller proportion of the transformer secondary winding is in use. The tap selection, therefore,
controls open circuit voltage. As shown by the equation 3.1, the primary-secondary current ratio is
inversely proportional to the primary-secondary voltage ratio. Thus, large secondary (welding)
currents can be obtained from relatively low line currents.
A transformer may be designed so that the tap selection will directly adjust the output volt-ampere
slope characteristics of a proper welding condition. More often, however, an impedance source is
inserted in series with the transformer secondary windings to provide this characteristic, as shown in
Figure below.
Some types of power sources use a combination of these arrangements, with the taps adjusting the
open circuit (or no-load) voltage of the welding machine and the impedance providing the
desired volt-ampere slope characteristics.

Fig. 3.3 Typical Series Impedance Control of Output Current

In constant-current power supplies, the voltage drop, Ex, across the impedance shown in Figure 3.3,
increases greatly as the load current is increased. The increase in voltage drop, Ex, causes a large

12
reduction in the arc voltage, EA. Adjustment of the value of the series impedance controls its voltage
drop and the relation of load current to load voltage. This is called current control or, in some cases,
slope control. Voltage Eo essentially equals the no-load (open-circuit) voltage of the power supply.
In constant-voltage power sources, the output voltage is very close to that required by the
arc. The voltage drop Ex, across the impedance (reactor) increases only slightly as the load
current increases. The reduction in load voltage is small. Adjustment in the value of reactance gives
slight control of the relation of load current to load voltage.
This method of slope control with simple reactors also serves as a method to control voltage with
saturable reactors or magnetic amplifiers.
Fig. 3.4 Ideal Vector Relationship of the Alternating Voltage Output Using Reactor Control

Figure 3.4 shows an ideal vector relationship of the alternating voltages for the circuit of
Figure 3.3 when a reactor is used as an impedance device. The voltage drop across the impedance
plus the load voltage equals the no-load voltage only when added vectorially. For the example, the
open circuit voltage of the transformer is 180V; the voltage drop across the reactor is about
140V when the load (equivalent to a resistor) voltage is 113V. The vectorial addition is necessary
because the alternating load and impedance voltages are not in time phase.
The voltage drop across series impedance in an AC circuit is added vectorially to the load voltage to
equal the transformer secondary voltage. By varying the voltage drop across the impedance, the load
voltage may be changed. This peculiar characteristic (vectorial addition) of impedance voltage in
AC circuits is related to the fact that both reactors and resistances may be used to produce a
drooping voltage characteristic. An advantage of a reactor is that it consumes little or no power, even
though current flows through it and a voltage can be measured across it.
When resistors are used, power is lost and temperature rises. In a resistive circuit (no reactance), the
voltage drop across the resistor could be added arithmetically to the load voltage to equal the output
voltage of the transformer. For example, a welding machine with an constant-current
characteristic having 80V open circuit voltage and a power of 25V, 200A would need to dissipate

13
(80-25 = 55) 55V x 200A or 11000 watts (W), in the resistor to supply (25x100 =5000) 5000 W to
the arc due to the reason that in the resistive circuit, the voltage and current are in the
phase.
In the reactor circuit, phase shift accounts for the greatly reduced power loss. In the reactor circuit,
there are only the iron and copper losses, which are very small in comparison.
Variable inductive reactance or variable mutual inductance may be used to control the volt-
ampere characteristics in typical transformer or transformer-rectifier type arc welding power
sources. The equivalent impedance of a variable inductive reactance or mutual inductance is
located in the AC circuit of the power source in series with the secondary circuit of the
transformer, as shown in Figure 3.3
3.2 CONSTRUCTION OF A TRANSFORMER
The basic transformer feature is define and differentiated by the manner in which the primary and
secondary coils are wound on the laminated core.
There are two types of transformer:-
i. The shell type
ii. The Core type
3.2.1 The Shell Type
The shell type is usually made from the ‘E’ ‘I’ laminations which are attached together to form a core
of three limbs as shown in fig 3.5, in this type, the windings are placed on the centre limb. Hence, the
useful magnetic flux is within the closed region between the two coils. The shell type construction
can handle heavy currents and are mainly used in situations where we have low voltage windings
especially at the output. The shell type is therefore considered suitable for this project.

Fig. 3.5 Shell Type Transformer

3.2.2 The Core Type
The core type is made of a rectangular or square core with two limbs using the “U” and “I”
laminations as shown in fig. 3.6, The primary and secondary coil are shared equally on each of the

14
limbs. Consequently, the useful magnetic flux links the two limbs. However, this type of winding is
commonly used when a high voltage is required at the output terminals.

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Fig. 3.6 Core Type Transformer
3.3 ARC WELDING CIRCUIT
The electrical are welding circuit is the same as any electrical circuit. In the simplest electrical
circuits, there are three factors.
i. Current – flow of electricity
ii. Pressure – force require to cause the current flow
iii. Resistance – force used to regulate the flow of current
Current is a “rate of flow” current is measured by the amount of electricity that flows through a wire
in one second. The term ampere is the amount of current per second that flow in a circuit. The letter
“I” is used to designate current amperes.
Pressure is the force that causes a current to flow. The measure of electricity pressure is the volt. The
voltage between two points in electrical circuit is called the differences in potential. This forces or
potentials is called electromotive force or EMF. The difference of potential or voltage causes current
to flow in electrical circuit. The letter E is used to designate voltage.
Resistance is the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit. Every component in the circuit
including the conductor has some resistance to current flow. Current flows easier through some
conductor than others, that is, the resistance of some conductors are less than others.
Resistance depends on the materials, the cross sectional area and the temperature of the conductor.
The unit of electrical resistance is the ohm. The R designates it.
The resistance in the circuit shown. The resistor can be measured by ohmmeters. An ohmmeter can
never be used to measure resistance in a circuit flowing.
Ohm’s law expresses the relationship of these three factors as follows.
Voltage
Current =
Resistance
Volts E
Amperes = or I= ……………………………………………………… 3.2
Ohms R
A few changes to the circuit above can be made to represent an arc welding circuit. Replace the
battery with welding generator since they are both a source of EMF (Voltage) and replaced the

16
resistor with arc which is also a resistance to current flow. The arc welding circuit is shown by fig.
3.10 The current will flow from the negative terminal through the resistance of the arc to the positive
terminals.
In the early age arc welding was done with base metals electrodes in steel. It was normal to connect
the positive side of the generator to the work and negative side to electrode. This provided 65% to
75% of the heat to the work side of the circuit to increase penetration. When welding with electrode
negative, the polarity of the welding current was said to be straight when special conditions (such as
welding cast iron or no ferrous metals) made it is advisable to minimize the heat in the base metal, the
work was made negative and the electrode positive and the welding current polarity was said to be
reversed.
Another important factor to welding is the power. The rate of producing or of using energy is called
power and is measured in watts. Power in a circuit is the product of the current in amperes and the
pressure in volt or Power = Current x Voltage OR Watts = Ampere x Volts
3.4. WELDING ARC
The arc has been utilized as concentrated source of high temperature heat that can be moved and
manipulated to melt the base metal and filler metal to produce welds.
There are two basic types of welding arcs: one uses the non- consumable electrode and the other use
consumable electrode. The welding process that uses the consumable electrode arc are: Shield metal
arc welding, gas metal arc welding and submerged arc welding. A welding arc is a sustained
discharged through high conducting plasma. It produces sufficient thermal energy, which is useful for
joining metals by fusion.
The relationship between current and arc voltage is not in exact accordance with ohm’s law, since the
voltage ampere characteristic curve of the welding arc is not a straight line. The curves of an arc
shown in fig. 3.11, the arc voltage increases slightly as the current increases. This is true except for
the very low-current arc which has a higher arc voltage. The arc is maintained when electrons are
emitted or evaporated from the surface of the negative pole (cathode) and flow across a region of hot
electrically changed gas to the positive pole (anode) where they are absorbed

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 Fig. 3.7 V – I Characteristic
3.5 ARC RADIATION
The brightness and exact spectrum of a welding arc depend on the welding process, the metals in the
arc. The arc atmosphere, the length of the arc, and the welding current. The higher the current and arc
voltage the more intense the light from the arc.
The electric arc is very powerful source of light, visible, ultraviolet, and infrared. It is necessary that
welders and others close to the welding arc wear suitable protection from the arc radiation.
Arc radiation like light radiation decreases with the square of distance. The spectrum of the welding
arc is similar to that of the sun. Exposure of the skin and eyes to the arc is the same as exposure to the
sun.
Heat is radiated from the arc in form of infrared radiation. The infrared radiation is harmless provided
that the proper eye protection and clothing are worn.

3.6 DESIGN PARAMETERS

In this section, we shall consider the various parameters associated with the design and construction
of the magnetic part: maximum core flux density (Bm), current density (j) and stacking factor (Ks)
were to be considered while in the conductive part; consideration was be given to the window area,
bobbin as well as vanishing.
All the above listed parameters helped in increasing the efficiency and the useful life-span of the
welding machine.
3.6.1 Maximum Core Flux Density (Bm)
Flux density is the ratio of the maximum flux (m) to the area (A). It is inversely proportional to the
cross sectional area or core area of the conductor.
∅m
Bm = ……………………………………………………………………………… 3.3
A
for a very high flux density, the cross sectional area must be small and this reduces the rate of
magnetic circuit losses and hence increases the efficiency of the transformer. For a single phase, shell
type, the flux density value was 1.5T.
3.6.2 Current Density
This is the ratio of conductor’s current to the cross sectional area of the conductor i.e J = Amm 2. It is
inversely proportional to the area i.e it increases with reduced area. The core area must not be very
small because it will require longer length of conductor and an increased.
3.6.3 Stacking Factor (Ks)
It is the area of the actual volume occupied by the magnetic material to the total volume of the core
and was given as kx = 0.94.
18
19
3.6.4 Window Area (Aw)

This is taken care of by suitable arrangement of the windings such that enough space (height and
width) was ensured. It is the product of the height and the width of the window. A higher value of
height than width increases the leakage reactance and vice-versa.

3.6.5 Varnishing

The winding were dipped into a pool of vanish to remove dampness and also to hold the windings
tightly together. Vanishing saves a lot of problems such as overheating and eddy current losses.

3.6.6 Bobbing

The bobbing is a thin plastic, which consist of two windings namely, the primary and the secondary
windings. It is fitted into the center limb.

The bobbin was constructed using plastics rubber with dimensions corresponding with the laminated
core the joined together with the use of adhesive such as Super glue, Aradite, etc.

3.7 WELDING TRANSFORMER DESIGN CALCULATIONS

Transformer rating=1800 Watts (18 kw)

Primary Voltage=220 Volts ¿

Highest Secondary Voltage=100 Volts

18000
Secondary Current= =180 Amps ¿
100

Turn per volts=Primary Turns/Primary Volts

Core Area=K ¿ ……………………………………………. 3.4

Where K is constant =1.152¿ )

Core Area=1.152 ¿

1
General Equation= −4 ……………………………………… 3.5
(4.44∗10 ∗F∗Core Area∗1.5)

1
¿ −4
(4.44∗10 ∗50∗44.62∗1.3)

20
 ¿ 0.194 V (Turns per volts)

V 2 I2
Primary Current=( )cos Assuming cos = 0.87 ……………….. 3.6
V1

180
I 1=100( )0.87=71.18 Amps
220

Primary Turn=Turn per volts∗Primary Volts Assuming cos = 0.87

¿ 0.194∗220=42.75=43 turns

Secondary Turns=1.03(V 2∗Turns per volts)

= 103∗100∗0.194=20.013=21 turns

Parameters Obtained:

Primary Voltage , V 1=220 V

Secondary Voltage V 2=100 V

Primary Current , I 1=71.18 Amps

Secondary Current=I 2=180 V

Primary Turns∧gauge=43 SWG 10

Secondary Turns∧gauge=21 SWG 10

This particular arc welding machine was designed to have different tapings on the secondary turns of
the Transformer so that there could be various voltage and current for different ranges of electrodes.

The output voltages are divided into three categories of voltages such as: 50 Volts, 80Volts and
100Volts operation. For 50 Volt Secondary Output

V 1 /V 2=I 2 /I 1 ……………………………………………………………………………… 3.7

therefore, I 2 ¿ V 1 I 1 /V 2 ¿ 220∗81.82/50

I 2=360 Amps

N 1 / N 2=V 2 /V 1 ………………………………………………………………………….. 3.8

therefore, N 1=N 2 V 2 /V 1
21
N 2=42.75∗50/220

10 turns

For 80 Volts Secondary Output

V 1 /V 2=I 2 /I 1 therefore, I 2=V 1 I 1 /V 2

¿ 220∗81.82/80

¿ 225 Amp

N 1 / N 2=V 2 /V 1 therefore, N 2=N 1 V 2 /V 1

¿ N 2=42.75∗80/220=16 turns

The transformer is a two-part winding type. The transformer control method used in this Project is the
tapped secondary coil control. The transformer has four (4) output terminals as shown in the figure
below. Each of these output terminals has different voltages and currents for different welding
operations (Consumable electrode).

Fig. 3.8 The Variable output of the Transformer: 50V, 80V and 100V

In external configuration of the entire machine, there are six terminals (bolts and nuts on the side of
the casing. Two are meant for Primary. Voltage connection to the supply mains, four are for
Secondary winding outputs. (50V, 80V, 100V). The zero terminal on the machine is for the earthling
of the machine while the positive terminal can be changed from one terminal to the other depending
on the job application.
3.7 CONSTRUCTION OF PARTS

The construction is divided into two main parts

(1) Magnetic part (2) Electric part

22
Table 3.1 Standard Wire Gauge (SWG)
STANDARD WIRE MAXIMUM CURRENT TURNS PER SQR. CM
GAUGE (SWG) CAPACITY (AMPS)
10 16.60 8.7
11 13.638 10.94
12 10.761 12.8
13 8.579 16.1
14 6.487 21.5
15 5.254 26.8
16 4.151 35.2
17 3.178 45.4
18 2.335 60.8
19 1.622 87.4
20 1.313 106.0
21 1.0377 137
22 0.7945 176
23 0.5838 242
24 0.4906 286
25 0.4045 341
26 0.3284 415
27 0.2726 504
28 0.2219 609
29 0.1874 711

23
3.7.1 Magnetic Part

This comprises mainly of the laminated sheets. The calculated number of sheets required were
dipped into a silicon resin varnish and allowed to dry before the arrangement, however, they were
properly cleaned so as to be dust and iron filing free. The vanish, apart from providing electrical
insulation, also prevented the sheets from rusting. The laminated sheets are of the shape which were
arranged accordingly to form a core of three limbs as shown in fig. 3.13

The laminations were held in position by side plates bolted together at intervals along the yokes and
limbs. These bolts which necessarily pass through the cores must be insulated from side plates and
the laminations while the plates are themselves insulated from the laminations. This insulation
becomes necessary as if otherwise, the bolts would short circuit the laminations paths for eddy
currents.

Fig. 3.9 Transformer Laminations

3.7.2 Electrical Part

For this project cylindrical or spiral winding were selected. In this type of winding the limbs of the
core were first insulated width leather rod, the secondary or low voltage winding was first placed on
the core and wound spirally with the coils adjacent to each other without spacing and the start lead at
the top.

After winding the secondary coils a layer of leather rod was wrapped around it to provide insulation
between both windings

The primary of high voltage windings were therefore placed on top and wound in the same manner as
the secondary windings. This type of arrangement is advantageous since the potential difference
between the low voltage winding and the core (which is at earth potential) was small, hence the
likelihood of fault occurring between the two is very negligible.

24
3.8 INSULATION

Insulation in transformer coil is a means provided to confine the flow of electric current to a
particular path. A breakdown of insulation results in short circuiting of the coils. This may result to
severe burnt of the transformer. Moreover, insulation is provided in the laminations of the
transformer core by the use of vanish, shellac etc. As earlier mentioned, the purpose of this insulation
is to minimize eddy current losses. In addition, insulation is required to further and the winding
coating and to eliminate the presence of air gap between the windings.

3.9 WELDING ELECTRODES

These are welding rods that are melted into the base metal or work by an electric current passing
through it. They may be bare or flux coated. The bare electrodes are used with directed current (dc)
only. Electrodes used in are welding are classified according to their operation characteristics, types
of coating qualities of the deposited metal, welding position, coating composition and welding
current.

To avoid the confusion task of electrodes selection for a specific job, the American welding society
(AWS) has established a uniform numbering system of classification of electrodes. The AWS
classification number is stamped on the coating near the grip end of the electrodes. The classification
numbers carry a prefix ‘E’ with four or five digits and convex the following information.

Prefix ‘E’ indicate that the electrode is for arc welding

First 2 (or 3) digits Tensile strength of the metal to be welded

Third (or fourth) digit Positions

e.g 1= All positions 2 = Horizontal and flat positions only

3= Flat positions only

Fourth (or fifth) digit Type of coating and welding current

A typical example is a steel arc-welding electrode with classification number “E6013”.

Where:

E is the Arc welding Electrodes

60 = 60 x 1000 = 60,000 pst (Tensile strength)

25
1 is the position of welding (Ac and Dc - straight polarity)

3 is the welding current (Ac and Dc - straight polarity)

For a particular amount of welding current (Ac), approximate values of electrodes diameter are
recommended.

These are shown in the table below

Table 3.2 Recommended Diameters of Electrodes for Different Welding Currents.

ELECTRODE APPROX METAL CURRENT SETTING (A)

DIAMETERS(IN) THICKNESS (IN)
MIN MAX
1/16 1/16 20 40
3/32 3/32 30 80
1/8 1/8 – ¼ 50 120
5/32 1/8– ¼ 75 170
3/16 ¼ – 3/16 100 210
1/32 ¼ – 3/16 120 250
¼ 1/1 – 5/16 160 330
5/16 5/16 – 3/8 200 420

For this project work, an electrode size of 3/16 (IN) diameter is most suitable (for welding current to
between 110 - 210 Amps.)

3.10 Classification of Electrodes According to Their Coatings

Electrode with a futile coating containing titanium oxides and organic materials less sensitive to
sulphur with acid coatings, high melting rate. Suitable contact electrodes for thin sheet metal.
Basic electrodes: These do not contain iron oxides in the coating. They have short are sensitive to
moisture, very little tendency to freeze. The slag melts slower than the electrodes metal which makes
the electrode suitable for vertical welding, satisfactory for low alloy steels and steels with carbon and
sulphur contents higher than those of steels that can easily be welded.
Electrodes with an acid coating containing oxidizing and reducing metal powders. Suitable for
horizontal welded with hire arc.
Deep penetration electrodes with a heavy with a heavy coating, suitable for heavy sheet metal work
without preparation.
26
Core wire electrodes: These consist of a core wire surrounded by a metal braided. The coating is
covering the whole body. Any length of this electrode can be wound on a wheel, this creating the
way to continuous welding process.
3.11 Electrode Holder

In the entire arc welding process some sort of device required to transmit the welding current from
the welding lad or cable to transmit the welding current from the welding lead or cable to the
electrodes. These come in many forms and are given different names. In shielded metal arc welding
several types of electrode holders are used to grip the electrode. In carbon arc welding, two different
type of electrode holder are used for gas tungsten arc welding the device is called welding torch. It
holds the tungsten electrode and transit the current to it.

The electrodes holder for shielded metal arc welding is by far the most common of these devices, it
transmits electrical current to the electrodes and is held by the welder. Electrode holder come in
several design which includes the pincher type and the collect type for each type of electrode holder
there are: the current rating and duty cycle, the maximum electrode holders sizes accommodated, and
the cable size that may connected to the holder. All the electrodes holders should be fully insulated
type.

The maintenance of electrode holder is extremely importance of efficient welding. It is desirable to

select the light test weight holder with holder with the required electrodes size and the current
carrying capacity.

There are two main types of electrode holder,

(i) Twist Grip Type (ii) Spring Type

In the twist grip type, turning the handle operates a screw mechanism developing a pressure grip on
the electrode, while in the spring types a coil spring is used to provide the necessary pressure required
to hold the electrode.

3.12 Ground Clamp

The ground clamp provides the means for making both a mechanically and electrically sound contacts
with the work or welding table for the purpose of providing a return path for the welding current. A
spring pressure ground clamp is considered the most convenient type of general welding work.

27
3.13 Welding Cable

Welding cables are electrical conductors, normally called the electrode lead and the work lead.
These lead carry the welding current from the power source to the arc at the pint of welding and back
to the power source. The cables along with the electrode holder and work connection complete an
electrical circuit.

The welding circuit can be source of power waste and an economic loss, power losses might resist
from the following:

i. Loss connection at the power source

ii. Loss connection at the work connector or electrode holder.
iii. Use of excessively long cables which causes abnormal voltage drop.
iv. Use of cable too small for the amperage of duty cycle being used.

To determines what size of welding cable to use, three items must be considered

i. The welding
ii. The duty cycle or operator factor.
iii. The total length of the welding circuit.

There are three methods of determine the amount of power lost in the welding leads. In the first
method, use an accurate voltmeter and measure the voltage at the welding machine terminals and the
voltage between electrode and the work connection while welding. Also, measure the welding
current. The difference between the voltage at the power source terminals and at the electrode holder
and work connection while welding. Also, measure current. The difference between the voltage lost
in the leads, then multiplied to the welding current, this gives the amount of power lost in the leads.
This is in accordance to the following formula:

Power loss = V 1 (at terminals) - V 2 (at holder) x I ❑

Or PL = ¿- V 2 ¿ x I ❑ ……………………………………………………….……………… 3.9

The second way to determine the power loss is to find the resistance of the welding cable and
multiplied this by the welding current squared.

PL = I 2 R …………………………………………………………………………………… 3.10

The third way is by finding the voltage drop and multiplied it by current.

PL = I x V D. ………………………………………………………………………...……... 3.11
28
3.14 Welding Cable

The power cable is a conductor used to carry the electrical power from disconnected or fuse box of
the building to the welding power source. Three core cable is usually used for this application. The
basis for determining the size of power conductor cables is the input power required by the welding
machine.

A factor to be considered is whether the machine operates on single-phase or three-phase power.

The power cable are rated at a higher voltage than welding cable since input power to machine can be
480 volts or higher. The nameplate of the machine will provide the amperage at the rated load and
input voltage of the machine.

3.16 Defects of Electrode

A common complaint of quality of electrodes is fingernailing, which is the name given to the burning
off an electrode faster on one side than the other. Other factors might create the fingernailing.

Fingernailing is the most common when using direct current and is more evident with the smaller
electrode 1/8 in (32mm) and 5/32 in (4.0mm) when used at low current. This condition can be
aggravated if the coating is concentric with the core wire more often fingernailing results from:

i. Arc blow
ii. Welding current too low
iii. Incorrect electrode angel
iv. Unbalance Joint preparation etc.

Electrode can be damage by aging very old electrodes of most types will have a furry surface on the
coating. Usually while. This is from crystallization of the sodium silicate.

3.17 Transformer Encapsulation/Housing

Once a transformer is constructed, it must be provided with a case, which renders the welding set
more portable and preventing shock to the workman.

29
It is usually in the form of a metal box, and the size of the case depends on the size of the transformer
and on the desired cooling system. Since this transformer is designed for oil cooling system the
casing needs not be perforated for ventilation as shown in figure below

Fig. 3.10: Casing / Encapsulation

3.18 Necessity for Cooling

Welding machine can be oil or air-cooling. Oil cooling is for bigger machines while air-cooling is
suitable for smaller machines.

In this project, the method of cooling adopted was the oil - immersed natural cooling. It is pertinent to
note that oil cooled is more efficient compared to air - cooled arc welding machines.

30
 CHAPTER FOUR

TESTING AND RESULT

4.1 Transformer Tests

The two conversion tests usually carried out on transformers are short circuit and open circuit tests.

4.2 Short Circuit (Impedance) Test

One side of the transformer winding is short circuited and the supply is fed through the other side in
gradual manner up to the full load rating of the transformer

The readings of the wattmeter (W). Ammeter ( A1) and Voltmeter (V 1) were recorded and tabulated as
shown below.

Since the existing voltage is small, the core flux and core losses will also be small and negligible.

Table 4.1 Short circuit Test

Ammeter A1 Ammeter A2 Voltmeter V1 Wattmeter W

105A 25A 85V 1KW

4.3 Open Circuit (No Load) Test

Normal rated voltage was applied to the high voltage side. The readings of the meters MAA and W
were recorded. Considering the fact that copper losses.

I2R on open circuit may be neglected; the no load input will be the normal core loss

Table 4.2 Open Circuit Results

Wattmeter W Ammeter A1 Voltmeter V2 Voltmeter V1

600W 6A 80V 220V

31
Fig. 4.1 Short Circuit Test

Fig. 4.2 Open Circuit Test

4.4 Calculation

For the Open circuit

W=VI cos θ ……………………………………………………………………………………. 4.1

W
cos θ=
VI

so that I w= Icos θ

I m= Ios¿ θ …………………………………………………………………………………… 4.2

V
Then R0= …………………………………………………………………………… 4.3
Io

Therefore

W 600
Cos= = =0.45=0.5
V I 0 220 ( 6 )

IW = Iocos θ

= 6 x 0.5 = 3Amp

32
I m=I 0 sinθ=6 sin 60

= 6 x 0.8660 = 5.4 Amps

V 220
Nm = = =40.74
I m 5.4

220
Rw = =73.33 4
3

4.5 Welding Hazards, Precautions, Safety and Maintenance

The most common hazards, which apply to all metal works, are accidents resulting from being hit by
moving machinery, from exposure to hot metal etc. The hazards, which are more or less peculiar to
welding are as follows:

1. Electrical shock

2. Arc Radiation

3. Fire and explosion.

4. Air Contamination

5. Compressed gases

6. Cleaning and chipping welds and other hazards.

4.5.1 Electrical Shock

The shock hazard is associated with all electrical equipment. This includes extension lights, electric
hand tools and all types of electrical powered machine. Ordinary household (220V) is higher than the
output voltage of a conventional arc-welding machine.

It is strongly advisable to use only welding machines that meet recognized nationals standards to
avoid unnecessary hazard. Most industrial welding machines that meet the National Electrical
Manufactures Association (NEMA) standards for electrical welding apparatus. This is mentioned in
the manufacture’s manual and is shown on the nameplate of the welding machine. The NEMA
specifications provide classes of welding machine, duty cycle requirement, and no load voltage
maximum requirements.

33
In order to comply with this, the occupational safety and Health Act (OSHA) requirements,
manufacturers have recently made changes to improve the safety of the machines. This includes the
covering of the output terminals with insulating devices.

They also made the ventilating holes smaller so that the welder cannot come in contact with high
voltage inside the case.

All electric arc welding machine must be installed in accordance with the National Electrical Code
and all local codes. Installation instructors are included in the manufacturers manual that
accompanies the welding machine. The manual also give the size of power cable that should be used
to connect the machine to the main line.

In transformer type machine, the primary and secondary transformer winding are electrically isolated
from each other by insulation.

The metal cases and frame to transformer machines must be grounded. Discount switches should be
employed with all power sources so that they can disconnected from the main for maintenance.

So also electrodes, leads and work leads should not be coiled around. The welding machine, on
should they ever be coiled the welder. Electrodes should be removed from the holders whenever they
are not in use.

They welding machine must be kept dry and competent electrical maintenance personnel should
properly dry if it should become wet if.

4.5 Welding Protection

4.51 Eye Protection

Welding must use protective welding helmets with special filter plates or filter glasses. The welding
helmets should be in good repair since opening or crack can allow are light to get through and create
discomfort.

On occasion welders and others will have their eyes exposed to the arc for short period of time. This
will result in what is known as “Arc born” it is very similar to sunburn of the eye. It is sometimes
called an “arc flash” and for a period of approximately 24 hours welder will have the painful
sensation of sound in the eyes. The welder who receives arc flash may not be aware of it at the time.
The first indication of an arc burn may come in the middle of the night. Temporary relief can be
obtained by using eye drops and eyewashes. If the painful sensation lasts beyond one day a doctor
should be consulted for treatment.
34
35
4.52 Skin Protection

Welding should wear work or shop clothes without opening or gaps to prevent the arc rays from
contacting the skin. If the arc rays contact the skin for a period of time painful “sunburns” or “arc
burns” will result people working close to arc welding should also wear protective clothing.

Clothing should always be kept dry and this applies to gloves as well. High top shoes toes are
recommended. The leather clothes should be of the chrome tanned typed. Leather gloves should not
be used to pick up hot item since this will cause the leather to become stiff and to crack.

4.53 Fire and Explosion

Approximately 6% of the fires in industrial plants have been caused by cutting and welding primarily
with portable equipment, in area not specifically designated or approved for such work.

The three elements of the fire triangle, fuel, heat and oxygen is present at all welding operations. The
least is from the torch flame the arc or from hot base metal. The fuel is from the fuel gas employed or
from combustibles in the welding area. They oxygen present in the air but may be enriched by
oxygen used with the fuel gas.

Hot pieces of base metal may come in contact with combustible material and start fire. Fires and
explosions have also been caused when this heat is transmitted through walls of containers to
flammable atmosphere or to combustibles within containers.

Eliminating all combustibles from the welding area can prevent cutting and welding fires. Welding
area or oxyfuel gas flames rarely causes fire when used in the normal workshop area designed for
welding and cutting.

4.6 Welding Terms

Arc blow: This is deflection of electric from its normal path because of magnetic forces.

Arc Length: This distance from the end of electrodes to the point where the arc make contact with
work surface.

Base Metal: This metal to be welded, blazed, soldered or cut.

Flux: Materials used to prevent, dissolve or facilitate removal of oxides and other
undesirable surface substances.

36
Table 4.3: Common Fault and Possible Causes in Arc Welding

S/N DEFECTS S/N CAUSES

1 Poor Appearance 1 Current too high low
2 Erratic manipulation of electrodes.
3 Faulty
2 Porosity 1 Travelling too fast
2 Arc too long
3 Current too low
4 Impurities in base metal.
5 Unpurified or damp electrodes
3 Cracking 1 Wrong type of electrodes
2 Rigid point
3 Bead too concave
4 Deposit cooling too fast.
4 Excessive Spatter 1 Current too high
2 Arc to high
3 Faulty or damp electrode
5 Brittle Welds 1 Unsuitable electrodes
2 Deposit is hardening
3 Excessive base metal pick up
6 Slag difficult to remove 1 Current too high
2 Electrode damp.
7 Difficult striking 1 End of electrode covered with
slag.
Voltage/Amperage too low.
2 Electrode damp.
8 Excessive distortion 1 Welding sequence incorrect
2 Overheating (Current too high or
travelling) for slowly.

37
4.7 Applications and Advantages of Welding

There are many applications of welding both for industrial and domestic applications such as in the
construction of buildings, bridges, ships, pressure vessels, tanks, gasholders and many other types of
steelwork.

In fact, welding has superseded reverting in construction works in heavy industries. Welding
generally improves the appearance of the product. More also, welded ship cost loss to build and is up
to 10% lighter than reverted ship due to the elimination of rivet heads and overlaps.

Similarly advantages are realized in other types of welding structure such as motor ... and air crafts,
railways, pipelines as well as in food and chemical industries.

4.8 Precautions in Arc Welding

1. (a) Electric shock can cause injury and death, welding machines must be properly earthen
since gloves may be damp from perspiration. It is dangerous to stand on a damp ground when
welding.

(b) Welding cable and electrode holder must be maintained in good condition. (c)
Connection must be tight to prevent/arcing and to ensure efficient welding.

2. Goggles and Headshield

(a) Goggles and Headshield should give proper eye protection, have ample ventilation and fit
comfortably shades of coloured lenses are preferable.

(b) Clear glass or plastic lens must be used over the coloured lenses. Broken lenses must be
replaced so as to ensure proper visibility.

3. Welding inside tank or drum.

(a) This work is to be highly dangerous unless adequate precautions are taken before
commencing the welding operation the tank should be emptied and property chained so as to
avoid explosion in the course of welding.

(b) Oxygen must not be used to supply air, only air blowers or compressed air that are safe:

4. Do not weld near degreasing operations.

5. Do not weld on sealed containers that have held combustibles without providing rents and
taking special precautions.
38
6. When the electrode holder is not in use, hang it on brackets provided. Never let it in much
with compressed gas cylinder.

7. Make sure your arc welding equipment is installed properly and grounded and is in good
working condition.

8. When using water-cooled equipment, check for water leakage.

39
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

In this project, much research has been made into arc welding requirement in order to be able to
determine the required electrical characteristics for arc welding.

It is my believe therefore that this write up has a wealth of basic information on materials and
processes of arc welding machine to serve as a guide to students of Higher Institutions or any
interested person when embarking or this type of project, since it is prepared in simple terms which
the reader can just go through and will build on this foundation.

This is not just a technical matter but it introduces the human and requires conditions from both
technologists and engineers.

However, much here been acquired in terms of knowledge of an arc welding, its electrical
requirements, and practically by fabrication of lamination.

5.2 Recommendations

I wish to recommend on the fact that though students do acquire technical knowledge from the
project carried out, but it would have been much better if such goals are fully realized.

The department should provide basic components and power supply for student to carry out test and
practical in the laboratory, especially for students that will be taken up the challenge of this project in
nearest future.

Finally, students do appreciate challenging projects, at the same time they cannot have enough capital
to finance such projects. Therefore, the polytechnic authority should come to the assistance of
students by providing them with the required materials.

40
 REFERENCES
Davies A. C. Welding Science and Technology (The Science and practice of welding Volume 1 and
Ninth Edition).

Jackson CE - 1960“ The Science of Arc Welding” Adam’s Lecture, Welding Journal , USA Online
Available: http://www.jacsonsciencewelds.com Accessed on June 2012

Miller E. (Dec., 1997) “Principle of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)”. Online Available:
http://www.millerwelds.com. Accessed on June 2012.

Occupational Safety and Health Labour Department. (July 2002), “Code of Practice: Safety and
Health at Work for Manual Electric Arc Welding.” Online available:
http://www.info.gov.hk/labour, Accessed on June 2012.

Shanti N. (2002) “Automation India Welding Technology” Part-II, New Delhi-110048 Online
Available: info@automationindiawelding.com Accessed on July 2012

Theraja, B. L. and Theraja, A. K (2003), “A Text Book of Electrical Technology” 23rd Edition, S.
Chand and Company Ltd. India

Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia “The Arc Welding Machine: An Introduction to Safe Operations”.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_welding Accessed on July 2012.

41