Beee Unit 1

1|Page
BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
UNIT-1:
Concepts:
Power, Energy, Voltage and Current
Passive elements:
Resistor, Inductor & Capacitor
Circuit Laws:
Ohms law
Kirchhoff’s laws: KVL & KCL
Network Reduction Techniques:
Series and Parallel Techniques
Network Analysis:
Mesh and Nodal Analysis
Theorems:
Superposition Theorem
Thevenin’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Electrical Sources:
Voltage Source
Current Source
BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

2|Page
Current:
The time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A). Mathematically,
𝑑𝑞 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
𝑖= 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝑆𝑒𝑐
Voltage:
The voltage or potential energy difference between two points in an electric
circuit is the amount of energy required to move a unit charge between the two
points.
Mathematically,
𝑑𝑊 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
𝑉= 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑑𝑄 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
Electrical Power:
The rate at which an electrical work done in electrical work is called power.
It is denoted by P. units are Joules/sec or watt.
Or
Power is obtained as a product of Voltage (V) and Current (I).
P = V*I ; According to ohm’s law V = I*R; I= V/R
Then power P = I2 R = V2 /R
Electrical Energy:
It is defined as total amount of work done or simply product of power and
time.
W = P*t ; W = I2 R *t Joules or (W-sec)
Resistance Parameter:
It is the property of the substance by which it opposes the current flow
through it. It is denoted by letter “R” and measured in terms ohms (Ω).
The resistance of a given substance depends on the physical properties of that
𝜌𝑙
substance and is given by 𝑅 =
𝑎
Where l is the length in meters, A is the cross sectional area in sq.m.;
R is the resistance in Ω and
𝜌 is the resistivity in Ω-m.
The relation between voltage and current for a resistance is given by V=iR &
i=V/R.

3|Page
The power absorbed by a resistor is given by P = Vi = i2R = V2/R.

If voltage across resistance is constant and current through it constant, then the
energy is given by 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑉𝐼 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
Inductance Parameter:
A wire of certain length, when twisted into a coil, becomes a basic inductor. If
current is allowed, then an electromagnetic field is formed. A change in the
magnitude of current changes the electromagnetic field. Therefore, a change in
current produces change in electromagnetic field, which induces a voltage across
the coil according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
Voltage and current relationship is given by

𝑑𝑖 𝑉
𝑉=𝐿 ; 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
Applying Integration on both sides
𝑡 𝑡𝑉
1
∫ 𝑑𝑖 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 ; 𝑖(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖(0)
0 0 𝐿 𝐿
From the equation obtained for the current in an inductor is dependent upon the
integral of voltage across its terminals and the initial current in the coil is i(0).
𝑑𝑖
The power in an inductor is given by 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑖 = 𝐿 𝑖
𝑑𝑡
Energy stored by an inductor is given by
𝑑𝑖 1
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝐿 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑖 = 𝐿𝑖 2
𝑑𝑡 2
Conclusions:
 The induced voltage across an inductor is zero if current through it is
constant which means that inductor acts as short circuit to dc.

4|Page
 A small change in current within zero time through an inductor gives an

infinite voltage across the inductor which is physically not possible. In a
fixed inductor the current in it cannot change immediately.
 Inductor can store finite amount of energy, even if the voltage across it is
zero.
 A pure inductor never dissipates energy only stores it. Due to this it is also
known as non-dissipative passive element.
Capacitance Parameter:
Any two conducting surfaces separated by an insulating medium exhibit the
property of a capacitor. A capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field
that is established by opposite charges on the two electrodes.
The amount of charge per unit voltage that is a capacitor can store is its
capacitance and is denoted by “C” and is measured in terms of Farad. The voltage
and current relationship is given by
𝑑𝑉 𝑖
𝑖=𝐶 ; 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
Applying Integration on both sides
𝑡 𝑡
𝑖 1
∫ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 ; 𝑉 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑉(0)
0 0 𝐶 𝐶
From the above equation, the voltage in a capacitor is dependent upon the integral
of current through it and the initial voltage across it. The power absorbed by the
𝑑𝑉
capacitor is given by 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝐶
𝑑𝑡
Energy stored by a capacitor is given by
𝑑𝑉 1
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑉𝐶 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶 ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉 2
𝑑𝑡 2

5|Page
Conclusions:
 The current in a capacitor is zero if the voltage across it is constant, it means
that the capacitor acts as open circuit to dc.
 A small change in voltage within zero time gives an infinite current through
the capacitor which is not physically possible. In a fixed capacitor, the
voltage cannot change abruptly.
 Capacitor can store finite amount of energy, even if the current is zero.
 A pure capacitor never dissipates energy but only stores it. Due to this it is
also known as non-dissipative passive element. However physical capacitors
dissipate power due to the internal resistance.
Classification of Network elements:

Network elements can be classified as Active & Passive elements, Linear & Non-
linear elements, Bi-lateral & Unilateral elements, Lumped & Distributed elements
& Time variant and time invariant elements
Active Element:
The element that supply energy to the circuit is called active element.
Examples: voltage and current sources, generators and electronic devices that
require power supplies etc.
Passive Element:
The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and then either
converts it into heat (R) or stored it in an electric (C) or magnetic (L) field is called
passive element.
Examples: Resistor(R), inductor(L) and capacitor (C).
Linear Element:
The element whose value is always constant irrespective of changes in time,
voltage, temperature etc. is called a linear element. For these elements, Ohm’s law
and Principle of superposition can be applied. The response of these elements is
linear with respect to the input applied to them.
Examples: Resistor, inductor and capacitor. In fact, a circuit is linear if and
only if its input and output can be related by a straight line passing through origin.

6|Page
Non-Linear Element:
The element whose value changes with respect to time, temperature, voltage
etc. is called non-linear element. Ohm’s law and Principle of superposition cannot
be applied to these elements. The response of various elements is not linear with
respect to the input/excitation applied to them.
Examples: Diode, Thermistors etc.
Bilateral element:
A bilateral element offers same impedance or resistance to the flow of
current in either direction. The behaviour and characteristics of these elements are
same irrespective of the direction of current through it.
Examples: Resistor, inductor and capacitor elements. This element behaviour is
remains same though the direction of current through them changes.
Unilateral element:
Unilateral element offers low resistance or impedance for the flow of current
in one direction and high resistance or impedance for the flow of current in other
direction. The behaviour of this element is dependent on the direction of current
through it.
Examples: Diodes, transistors, Vacuum diodes, semiconductor devices etc.,

7|Page
Lumped element:
The elements are physically separable from one another and shown to be
concentrated at one place are called lumped elements.
Examples: Resistor, inductor and capacitor etc.,
Distributed element:
The elements which are not physically separable are called distributed
elements.
Example: A transmission line which has distributed resistance, inductance
and capacitance along its length.
Time variant and time invariant elements:

If the parameters of the network elements do not vary with time, they are
called time invariant elements, otherwise they are called time variant elements.
Example: DC and AC sources
Problems:
If 60 coulombs of charge flow past a given point in a wire in 15 seconds. How

many amperes of current is flowing in the wire?
Given data:
Charge Q=60 Coulombs
Time t=15 Seconds
Current (i)= ? ; I=q/t=60/15=4 A
Find the inductance of a coil through which flows a current of 0.2A with an
energy of 0.15J.
Given data:
Current (i)=0.2 Amperes ; Energy E or W =0.15 Joules;
1 2 2𝑊 2 ∗ 0.15
𝑊= 𝐿𝑖 ; 𝐿 = 2 = = 7.5𝐻
2 𝑖 0.04

8|Page
A current i=2e-t applied to 2H inductor. What is the respective voltage across

the inductor?
Given Data
i=2e-t A, L=2H, V=?
Voltage across the inductor V= L di/dt =2* d/dt(2e -t)= - 4 e-t V
A capacitor having a capacitance of 4µf charged to a voltage of 1000V.

Calculate the energy stored by the capacitor.
Given data:
Capacitance C= 4µf
Voltage V=1000V
Energy stored by the capacitor E or W=?
Energy stored by the capacitor W=0.5CV2
W=0.5*4*10-6*10002 ; W=2 Joules
A 50µF capacitor is charged to retain 10mJ of energy by a constant charging

current of 1A. Determine the voltage across the capacitor?
Given data:
Capacitor (C) =50µF
Energy (W) =10mJ
Current (I) =1A
Energy stored by capacitor (W)=(1/2)*C*V 2
10*10-3= (0.5)*(50*10-6)*V2 ; V=√{(10*10-3)/( (0.5)*(50*10-6) )}= 20V
Ohm’s law:
This law gives relationship between the potential difference, current and the
resistance of a dc circuit. Ohm in 1827 discovered a law called ohm’s law.
Statement:
When temperature remains constant, the current flowing through a circuit is
directly proportional to potential difference across the conductor.
Or
The current flowing through the electric circuit is directly proportional to the
potential difference across the circuit and inversely proportional to the resistance at
constant temperature.

9|Page
Mathematically given by
i αV
Where V is the potential difference across it and I is the current through the
conductor
I=V*Constant;
Here the proportionality constant is equal to 1/R;
R is the resistance of the conductor.
As per Ohm’s law, I=V/R;
V=IR.
Ohm’s law defined as ratio of potential difference between any two points of a
conductor to the current flowing between them is constant, provided that
temperature of conductor is remains constant.
Limitations:
1. This law is applicable only for the metallic conductors such as copper,
silver, nichrome etc., maintained at constant temperature.
2. This law is not applicable if the temperature varies.
3. It is not applicable for all electric circuits such as vacuum tubes,
semiconductor devices, transistors, thermistors etc.
4. Not applicable to non-linear devices such as diodes, Zener diode, voltage
regulators, transistors etc.
5. It does not hold good for non-metallic conductors such as silicon carbide.
In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff developed a pair or set of rules or

laws which deal with the conservation of current and energy within electrical
circuits. These two rules are commonly known as: Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws with
one of Kirchhoffs laws dealing with the current flowing around a closed
circuit, Kirchhoffs Current Law, (KCL) while the other law deals with the
voltage sources present in a closed circuit, Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, (KVL).

10 | P a g e
Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
The total current flowing towards a junction point is equal to the total
current flowing away from that junction point.
∑ Ik = 0
k
EXAMPLE:
Applying KCL at Junction point for the following figure
𝐾𝐶𝐿 𝑎𝑡 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡: 𝐼1 + 𝐼6 + 𝐼7 = 𝐼4 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼5
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
In any network, the algebraic sum of the voltage drop across the circuit
elements of any closed path is equal to the algebraic sum of the emf’s in the path.
Around a closed path
∑ Vi = 0
i
EXAMPLE:
Let us consider circuit in which four resistors say R 1, R2, R3 and R4 are said
to be connected in series and this combination is connected across a source of
voltage V volts. Naturally the current flowing through all of them is same and

11 | P a g e
indicated as I amperes. Assume that the current is flowing in clockwise direction.

The voltages across the elements are say V1, V2, V3 and V4.
𝐾𝑉𝐿 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑠ℎ ∶ 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + 𝑉4 = 𝑉
Series Connection of elements:
Resistors:
Let us consider circuit in which four resistors say R 1, R2, R3 and R4 are said to be
connected in series and this combination is connected across a source of voltage V
volts. Naturally the current flowing through all of them is same and indicated as I
amperes. The voltages across the elements are say V 1, V2, V3 and V4.
By applying KVL ; V= I(R1+R2+R3+ R4) ----- (1)
By applying KVL V = I * Req ------ (2)

12 | P a g e
On comparison of equations 1 and 2 we get Req = R1+R2+R3+R4

Total or equivalent resistance of the series circuit is arithmetic sum of the
resistances connected in series.
Characteristics:
1. The same current flows through each resistance.
2. The supply voltage V is the sum of the individual voltage drops across the
resistances.
3. The equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
4. The equivalent resistance is the largest of all the individual resistances.
Voltage Division rule:
Consider a series circuit consists of four resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4 are connected
across a source of V volts. The current in all resistors say I amperes.
KVL equation for the above circuit is given by
I *R1+ I *R2+ I *R3+ I *R4 –V=0 ;
V=I*(R1+R2+R3+R4)
I = V/(R1+R2+R3+R4)
The voltage drop across resistor R1 is given by
V1= IR1 = [R1 /(R1+R2+R3+R4)]*V
Similarly
V2= [R2 /(R1+R2+R3+R4)]*V
V3= [R3/(R1+R2+R3+R4)]*V
V4= [R4/(R1+R2+R3+R4)]*V
The voltage across any branch is equal to the ratio of same resistance to algebraic
sum of all resistances value multiplied by the applied voltage. The applied voltage
gets distributed among all the elements in a series circuit. Hence it is also named as
voltage divider circuit.

13 | P a g e
Inductors:
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
KVL equation: 𝑉 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − − − (1)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
KVL equation: 𝑉 = 𝐿𝑒𝑞 − − − (2)
𝑑𝑡
On comparison of equations 1 and 2 we get Leq = L1+L2

Total or equivalent inductance of the series circuit is arithmetic sum of the
inductances connected in series.
Capacitors:

14 | P a g e
KVL equation: V = V1+V2
Differentiating above equation with respect to time then

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉1 𝑑𝑉2 𝑑𝑣
= + ; 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉 1 1
= 𝑖 ∗ ( + ) − − − (1)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶1 𝐶2
The current flowing through the capacitor

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑖
𝑖 = 𝐶𝑒𝑞 ; = − − − (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑒𝑞
On comparison of equations 1 and 2 we get

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐂𝐞𝐪 𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐
The reciprocal of the total equivalent capacitance of the series combination is the
sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitors, connected in series.
Parallel Connection of elements:
The parallel circuit is one in which the elements are connected across one another
in such a way that one terminal of each is connected to form a junction point while
the remaining terminals are also joined to form another junction point.
Resistors: Consider a parallel circuit shown in the figure in which the two resistors
are connected in parallel and this combination is connected across a source of
voltage V.

15 | P a g e
In parallel circuit current passing through each resistance is different. Let total
current drawn is say “I” amperes. There are two paths for this current say I 1
through R1 and I2 through R2 , while the voltage across the two ends of each
resistor is the same and equals to the supply voltage.
Applying KCL at the junction point then
I=I1 + I2 ; Since I1= V/ R1 & I2= V/ R2
I= V/ R1 + V/ R2
I= V{1/ R1 + 1/ R2 } ---- (1)
According to ohms law

I= V/ Req --- (2)
Comparing 1 and 2 equations we get
V/ Req = [V/ R1 ]+[ V/ R2 ] ; V/ Req = V{[1/ R1 ]+[1/ R2]} ;

16 | P a g e
1/ Req = [1/ R1 ]+ [1/ R2 ] ; Req = [R1 * R2 ] /[R1 + R2 ]

Since reciprocal of resistance is conductance (G) then Geq = G1 + G2
Characteristics:
1. The same potential difference gets across all the resistances in parallel.
2. The total current gets divided into the number of paths equal to the number
of resistances in parallel. The total current is always be the sum of all the
individual currents i.e., I = I1 + I2 + I3 + ----+In
3. The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit is equal to the
sum of the reciprocal of the individual resistances.
4. The equivalent resistance is the smallest of all the individual resistances. Req
< R1; Req < R2; Req < Rn
5. The equivalent conductance is the arithmetic addition of the individual
conductance's. Geq = G1 + G2 + --- + Gn
Current Division rule:
Consider a parallel circuit of two resistors R 1 and R2 connected across a source of

voltage V Volts. The current through R1 is I1 and through R2 is I2, while the total
current drawn from the source is I.
∴ 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝑉 𝑉 R
But 𝐼1 = , 𝐼2 = 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑉 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 ∴ I1 = I2 ( 2 )
𝑅1 𝑅2 R1

17 | P a g e
Substituting the value of I1 in IT, then

R1 R1
I2 = IT ( ) ; Now I1 = IT − I2 = IT − IT ( )
R1 +R2 R1 +R2
R2
I1 = IT ( )
R1 + R 2
The current in any branch is equal to the ratio of opposite branch resistance to the
total resistance value, multiplied by the total current in the circuit. The total current
gets distributed among all the elements which are connected in parallel. Hence
parallel circuit acts as current divider circuit.
Inductors:
Consider a parallel circuit shown in the figure in which the two inductors are
connected in parallel and this combination is connected across a source of voltage
V. Let total current drawn is say “I” amperes, I1 be the current through L1 and I2
be the current through L2 , while the voltage across the two ends of each inductors
is same as that of supply voltage.
By applying KCL ; I = I1+I2

Differentiating above equation with respect to time then
[dI/dt] = [dI1 /dt]+ [dI2 /dt]
We know that V =L1*[dI1/dt]; [dI1/dt]= V / L1 ; [dI2/dt]= V / L2
[dI/dt] =[V / L1]+[V/ L2]
[dI/dt]=V* {[1/ L1]+[1/ L2]} ---- (1)

18 | P a g e
The voltage across the inductor

V= Leq * [dI/dt] --- (2)
By comparison 1 and 2 1/Leq = [1/L1+1/L2] ---- (3)
The reciprocal of the equivalent inductance of a parallel circuit is equal to the sum
of the reciprocal of the individual inductances.
Capacitors:
Consider a parallel circuit shown in the figure in which the two capacitors are
connected in parallel and this combination is connected across a source of voltage
V. Let total current drawn is say “I” amperes, I1 be the current through C1 and I2
be the current through C2 , while the voltage across the two ends of each capacitors
is same as that of supply voltage.
By applying KCL ; I = I1+I2

The current through capacitor is I=C [dV /dt]
I=C1 [dV /dt]+ C2 [dV /dt]; I=[C1+ C2] [dV/dt] ---- (1)

19 | P a g e
The current through the capacitor

I= Ceq * [dV/dt] --- (2) ; By comparison 1 and 2
Ceq = C1+C2 ---- (3)
The equivalent capacitance of a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the of the
individual capacitances.
Connection Series Parallel
Resistors Req = R1+R2+---- +Rn 1/Req = [1/R1]+[1/R2]+--- +[1/Rn]

Inductors Leq = L1+L2+----+ Ln 1/Leq = [1/L1]+[1/L2]+--- +[1/Ln]
Capacitors 1/Ceq = [1/C1]+[1/C2]+--- +[1/Cn] Ceq = C1+C2+C3+---- +Cn
Determine the value of R3 for the circuit shown in figure.

20 | P a g e
Solution:
Given data I= 1.5A; V=40V

20∗R3 20∗R3
Total Current I = V/ {20 + ( )} ; 1.5 = 40/(20 + ( ) ;
20+R3 20+R3
20∗R3
20 + ( ) = 26.6667 ; After simplification
20+R3
13.3333 R3= 133.333 ; R3=10.00Ω
The effective resistance of two resistors connected in series is 100Ω.

When connected in parallel, then effective value in 24Ω. Determine
the value of two resistors.
Solution:
Series R1+R2=100 => R2 =100 - R1 ;
Parallel (R1R2)/R1+R2 = 24;
R1R2 =2400
R1 (100-R1) = 2400; (R1)2-100 R1+2400=0
(R1-60) * (R1-40) = 0
Therefore, R1 = 60 Ω; R1 = 40 Ω
When R1 = 60 Ω; R2 = 100 – 60 = 40 Ω
When R1 = 40 Ω; R2 = 100 - 40 = 60 Ω

21 | P a g e
Resistors 2Ω, 3Ω, 4Ω and 5Ω respectively are connected in parallel. Determine

the voltage that must be supplied if the total power absorbed by the resistance
is 100 Watts.
Solution:
1/ Req = [1/ R1 ]+ [1/ R2 ] + [1/ R3 ]+ [1/ R4 ]
1/ Req = [1/ 2 ]+ [1/ 3 ] + [1/ 4 ]+ [1/ 5]
Req = 1/ 1.28333 =0.77922Ω
Power absorbed by the resistor P=[V*V]/R
100= [V*V]/0.77922;
V=√77.922=8.82734 Volts
Two capacitors are placed in i) series and ii) parallel. If C 1= 100µf and C2=
50µf find the maximum energy stored when a 220 V d.c. supply is across the
combination.
Solution:
Series:
1 1 1 𝐶1 ∗ 𝐶2 5000 ∗ 10−6
= + ;𝐶 = = = 33.33𝜇𝐹
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 150
1 1
𝑊= 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝑉 2 = ∗ 33.33 ∗ 10−6 ∗ (220)2 = 0.8066 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
2 2
Parallel:
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = 150 𝜇𝐹
1 1
𝑊= 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝑉 2 = ∗ 150 ∗ 10−6 ∗ (220)2 = 3.63 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
2 2
MESH ANALYSIS:
Kirchhoff’s laws are applied in the analysis of solving electrical circuits. The
method of solving a complex circuit can be simplified by using either mesh or
nodal analysis method. Generally, KVL and KCL are used in deriving the mesh
and nodal equations respectively.

22 | P a g e
Mesh analysis or nodal analysis to a particular problem depends mainly on the

number of voltage sources or current sources. If the circuit has plenty of voltage
sources, it is useful to use mesh analysis, this analysis requires that all the sources
in a circuit to be voltage sources.
On other hand if the network has more current sources, nodal analysis is more
useful. The term loop or mesh represents a closed path in the circuit through which
the current can flow in a circuit. Since the close path or loop resembles a physical
fence it is called a mesh.
The mesh current is a current that circulates around a mesh. If more than one mesh
exists, then the current gets divided among them causing independent mesh current
in every mesh.
This results in independent KVL equations expressed around each of this mesh.
For m number of independent meshes, a total of m number of KVL equation can
be obtained around each mesh.
Procedure:
Step-1: No. of Meshes M=B-N+1 Where B be the branches and N be the nodes.
Step-2: Assume currents either in clock wise or anticlockwise in the meshes.
Step-3: Mark the polarities of voltage drop across each element.

Step-4: Obtain Mesh equations by applying KVL to meshes. Solve the algebraic
equations to determine unknown mesh currents in the meshes.
Determine the mesh currents for the circuit shown in figure. All the resistor
values are in ohms.

23 | P a g e
Solution:
Step-1: No. of circuit elements / branches B= 7, No. of Nodes N= 5 (indicated by
circles) and No. of Meshes M=B-N+1; M=7-5+1=3
Step-2: Assume clock wise currents in the three meshes
Step-3: Along the current direction mark the polarities of voltage drop across each
element

24 | P a g e
Step-4: Applying KVL for mesh-1, 2 and 3 we get algebraic equation solve them to
mesh currents.
Applying KVL to mesh-1 we get I1 2+(I1-I2) 4-10=0 ; 6 I1 -4 I2 =10 -- (1)
Applying KVL to mesh-2 we get I2+6 (I2-I3)+4 (I2-I1)=0; -4 I1 + 11 I2 -6 I3 = 0 -- (2)

Applying KVL to mesh-3 we get 4 I3+20+6 (I3-I2) = 0; -6 I2 + 10 I3 = -20 --- (3)
Solve equations 1,2 and 3 We get
I1 =0.915 A ; I2 =-1.1267 A and I3 =-2.676 A
Since the currents I2 and I3 have a negative sign, the actual current direction of I2
and I3 is opposite to the assumed clock wise current direction.
I2 =1.1267 A and I3 =2.676 A

The current through 4 and 6 resistors are given by
I4 =1.1267-0.915= 0.2117A ; I6 =2.676-1.1267= 1.5493A
Determine the currents for the circuit shown in figure
Solution:
Applying KVL to mesh-1: 2I1 + 4(I1- I2)-10=0 ; 6I1 -4I2=10 ----(1)

25 | P a g e
We cannot apply KVL for mesh-2 and 3 because of current source that is common
between them. This is known as “super mesh”.
In this condition express the current source of 2A in terms of mesh currents I 2 and
I3
2= I2 - I3 ----- (2)
Apply KVL for mesh after removal of current source between mesh -2 and 3 to get
a common equation for mesh-2 and 3. Assume that currents in mesh 2 and 3 are
same.
I2 +4I3+6I3+4(I2- I1)=0 ; -4I1+5I2+10I3 =0----(3)

Mesh equations:
6I1 -4I2=10 ----(1); 2= I2 - I3 ----- (2); -4I1+5I2+10I3 =0----(3)
Solve equations 1, 2 and 3 we get
I1 =3.10810 A ; I2 =2.16216 A ; I3 =0.16216 A
NODAL ANALYSIS:
A node is a point in a network common to two or more elements. If three or

more elements meets or joins at a node, then that node is named as principle node.
If the network has more number of current sources, then the nodal analysis is a
useful method, mainly depends on KCL. In this method one node is assumed as a
reference node and its potential is assumed as aero. This node is also called zero
potential node or base node or reference node or datum node. At the other nodes,
the node voltage variables are assumed whose voltage to be measured with respect
to base node. These nodes are called major nodes. The various branch currents are
assumed and KCL equations are written at all the major nodes. The current
variables are then expressed in terms of assumed node voltage variables and
branch resistances, by analysing each branch separately. Using these expressions in

26 | P a g e
the KCL equations, a set of simultaneous equations in terms of node voltage

variables are obtained. Solving these equations, the required node voltages and
hence any branch current of the network can be determined. An N node circuit will
require (N-1) unknown voltages and (N-1) equations. Thus compared to mesh or
loop analysis, we get one equation less in this method.
Determine nodal voltages for the circuit shown in figure and also determine
current through 5Ω resistor by using nodal analysis.
Solution:
Identifying Nodal /Junction points and assumes potentials at each and every Nodal
point. Out of all nodal points select one node as reference at which potential is zero
to be assumed.
Assume all currents are leaving from junction point.

27 | P a g e
KCL at junction point 1:
𝐼1 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼3 = 0
𝑉1 − 8 − 0 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑉1 + 4 − 𝑉3
+ + =0
1 3 3
1 1 1 1 20
𝑉1 [1 + + ] + 𝑉2 [− ] + 𝑉3 [− ] = − −(1)
3 3 3 3 3
Similarly, KCL at junction point 2:
𝐼3 + 𝐼5 + 𝐼3 = 0
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉2 − 𝑉3
+ + =0
3 5 3
1 1 1 1 1
𝑉1 [− ] + 𝑉2 [ + + ] + 𝑉3 [− ] = 0 − −(2)
3 3 5 3 3
Similarly, KCL at junction point 3:
𝐼3 + 𝐼1 + 𝐼3 = 0
𝑉3 − 𝑉2 𝑉3 − 6 − 0 𝑉3 − 4 − 𝑉1
+ + =0
3 1 3
1 1 1 1 22
𝑉1 [− ] + 𝑉2 [− ] + 𝑉3 [ + 1 + ] = − −(3)
3 3 3 3 3
Solve the three equations we get nodal voltages
𝑉1 = 6.33333 𝑉; 𝑉2 = 5 𝑉 & 𝑉3 = 6.66667 𝑉
In order to get above values you can use any method to solve simultaneous
equations. Preferably implement cramers rule.

28 | P a g e
𝑉1 − 8 − 0
𝐼1 = = 6.33333 − 8 = −1.66667 𝐴
1
𝑉3 − 6 − 0
𝐼1 = = 6.66667 − 6 = 0.66667 𝐴
1
𝑉1 + 4 − 𝑉3 6.33333 + 4 − 6.66667
𝐼3 = = = 1.2222 𝐴
3 3
𝑉2 5
𝐼5 = = = 1𝐴
5 5
Determine nodal voltages at nodal points and power absorbed by 10 Ω

resistor for the circuit shown in figure.
Solution:
Assume potential at node 1, 2 are V1 and V2. Assume that all currents are leaving
at a particular node while writing KCL at a junction point or a nodal point.
Nodal equation at junction point (1):
𝑉1 − 0 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
−10 + + =0
5 4
𝑉1 (5−1 + 4−1) + 𝑉2 (−4−1) = 10 − − − (1)
By inspection at junction point (2) nodal voltage V2= 5V ---- (2)
Utilizing equation (2) in equation (1) we get V1= 25V
Power absorbed by 10 Ω resistor =V22/10= 25/10=2.5 W

29 | P a g e
Determine nodal voltages at nodal points and power absorbed by 2 Ω resistor

for the circuit shown in figure.
Solution:
Assume potential at node 1, 2 are V1 and V2. Assume that all currents are leaving
at a particular node while writing KCL at a junction point or a nodal point. We
cannot apply KCL at junction point 1 and 2 because of a voltage source that is
common between them. This is known as “super node”. In this condition express
the voltage source of 10V in terms of nodal voltages V1 and V2.
10 = V1 - V2 ----- (1)

30 | P a g e
Apply KCL at common point after removal of voltage source between node 1 and
2 to get a common equation by assuming voltages at node 1 and 2 is V1 and V2.
Nodal equation at common junction point

𝑉1 − 0 𝑉2 − 0 𝑉2 − 5 − 0
−10 + + + =0
5 10 2
𝑉1 (5−1) + 𝑉2 (10−1 + 2−1 ) = 10 + 2.5 = 12.5 − − − (2)
Solve the above simultaneous equations then V 1 = 23.125V ; V2 =13.125V
Power absorbed by 2 Ω resistor =I22*2
𝑉2 − 5 2 13.125 − 5 2
=( ) ∗2=( ) ∗ 2 = 33.0078𝑊
2 2
Superposition Theorem:
Superposition theorem is extremely useful for analysing electric circuits that

contains two or more active sources. In such cases, the theorem considers each
source separately to evaluate the current through or voltage across a component.
The resultant is given by the algebraic sum of all currents or voltages caused by
each source acting independently.
Superposition theorem can be formally stated as follows “The current
through or voltage across any element in a linear circuit containing several sources
is the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages due to each source acting alone, all
other sources being removed at that time.”
Linearity is a necessary condition for the theorem to apply. Fortunately, the v, i
relationship for R, and C are all linear.
The sources can be removed using the following methodology

31 | P a g e
1. Ideal voltage sources are short-circuited

2. Ideal current sources are open-circuited
In general, practical sources are replaced by their internal resistances.
Procedural Steps:
STEP1: Select a single source acting alone. Short the other voltage sources and
open the current sources, if internal impedances are not known. If known, replace
them by their internal impedances.
STEP2: Find the current through or the voltage across the required element, due to
the source under consideration, using a suitable reduction technique.
STEP3: Repeat the above two steps for all the sources.
STEP4: Add all the individual effects/responses produced by individual sources, to

obtain the total current in or voltage across the element.
Illustration of superposition theorem:

Consider a network, shown in the figure, having two voltage sources V 1 and
V2. Let us calculate the current in branch A-B of the network, using superposition
theorem.
STEP 1:
According to this theorem, consider each source independently. Let V 1 is
acting independently. At this time, other sources must be replaced by internal
impedances. But as internal impedance of V 2 is not given, the source V2 must be
replaced by short circuit. Hence circuit becomes, as shown in figure. Using any of

32 | P a g e
the network reduction techniques, obtain the current through branch A-B i.e. I AB
dueto source V1 alone.
STEP 2:
Now consider source V2 alone, with V1 replaced by a short circuit, to obtain
the current through branch A-B. The corresponding circuit is shown in the figure.
Obtain I AB due to source V2 alone, by using the network reduction techniques.

STEP 3:
According to this theroem, the total current through branch A-B is the
algebraic sum of the currents through branch A-B, produced by each source acting
independently.
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑉1 + 𝐼𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑉2
Use superposition theorem; determine the voltage across 4 Ω resistor shown in

the figure.

33 | P a g e
Solution:
Step-1:
Consider 6V source is acting and 3A source is deactivated
Voltage division formulae ; V4Ω=6 * 4/(8+4) = 2 V
Step-2:
Consider 3 A source is acting and 6V source is deactivated
V4Ω=I4 * 4 ; By using current divider formulae
I4=3 * 8/(8+4) = 2 A ; V4Ω=I4 * 4= 8V
Step-3:
According to this theorem the total response is given by
VT =(V1+V2); VT = (+2+8) =10V

34 | P a g e
Applying super position Theorem, determine V3Ω in the circuit shown below.
Solution:
Step-1: 20V voltage source is acting alone and other sources & 1A- open circuit,
2A- open circuit
By using voltage divider formulae,
the voltage across 3 ohm resistor is given by V3= 20* (3/6)=10V
Step-2:
1 A current source is acting alone and other sources 20V - short circuit , 2A- open
circuit

35 | P a g e
Mesh analysis
Assume currents in clock wise direction in three meshes. By using Super mesh
concept:
i2 – i1=1 --- (1); 4(i1 – i3) +2(i2 – i3) +3 i2=0 ---(2);
6i3 +2(i3 – i2)+ 4(i3 – i1)=0 ---(3)
Solve the three simultaneous equations we get
i1 = - (2/3) = - 0.6667 A , i2= (1/3) = 0.33333A ; i3= (-1/6) = - 0.16667 A
Voltage across 3Ω resistor is given by V3=3*i2=1V
Step-3:
2A current source is acting alone and other sources, 20V - short circuit, 1A- open
circuit

36 | P a g e
Current divider formulae I3= 2* (3/6) =1A;
Voltage across 3Ω resistor is given by V3=- 3* (1) = - 3 V
According to superposition theorem, the total response is given by
V3= V10 (due to 20V source) + V3 (due to 1A source) + V3 (due to 2A source)
𝑉3 = 𝑉3 (20𝑉) + 𝑉3 (1𝐴) + 𝑉3 (2𝐴) ; 𝑉3 = 10 + 1 − 3 = 8𝑉

Thevenin’s theorem:
Thevenin’s theorem provides a useful tool when solving complex and large
electric circuits by reducing them to a single voltage source in series with a
resistor. It is particularly advantageous where a single resistor or load in a circuit is
subject to change. Formally, the Thevenin’s theorem can be stated as “Any two-
terminal linear electric circuit consisting of resistors and sources, can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit containing a single voltage source in series with a resistor
connected across the load.” In the circuit diagrams shown in Figure, the current
through the load resistance RL is the same. Hence the circuits are equivalent as far
as the load resistor RL is concerned.
The following steps outline the procedure to simplify an electric circuit using
Thevenin’s theorem where VTH and RTH are the Thevenin’s voltage and
Theevenin’s resistance respectively.
1. Remove the load resistance RL.
2. VTH is the open circuit (OC) voltage across the load terminals and
3. RTH is the resistance across the load terminals with all sources replaced by their
internal resistances.

37 | P a g e
Alternatively, measure the OC voltage across, and the short circuit (SC) current
through the load terminals. Then VTH = Voc and RTH= Voc/ Isc
For the network given in figure below, determine the Thevenin’s equivalent
between A and B terminals.
Step-1:Determination of Thevenin’s Voltage (VTh):
Assume meshes from left hand side to right hand side Assume currents in clock
wise direction
I1=6 A --- (1)
Mesh -2 Equation : 10 I2 +10(I2-I3)+5 (I2-I1)=0 ; -5I1+25I2-10I3 =0 --- (2)
Mesh -3 Equation : 10 I3+10(I3-I2) -16=0; -10 I2+20I3=16 --- (3)
Solve 1,2 and 3 equations we get I1=6 A ; I2=1.9 A and I3=1.75A
Apply KVL to mesh-2: VTh =15 I2 -5I1 = -1.5V

38 | P a g e
Step-2: Determination of RTh:
RAB ={(10+5)//(100/20)} ; RAB = 15//5= 3.75Ω
Step-3: Thevenin’s equivalent between A and B terminals
VAB = -1.5V & RAB = 15//5= 3.75Ω
Apply Thevenin’s Theorem to find V0 in the circuit shown in figure.
Solution:
Step-1: To determine VTh:

39 | P a g e
Mesh analysis:
By inspection Current in Mesh-1: i1=3A --- (1)
KVL to Mesh-2: 4i2 +5i2 +12 +16(i2 - i1)=0 ; -16 i1+25 i2=-12 --- (2)
Use equation 1 in equation 2 we get i2=36/25=1.44 A ;
Then Vth= 5i2+12= 96/5=19.2V
Step-2: To determine RTh:
Rth= 1+ (20//5)= 1+ 4=5Ω

Step-3: Voltage across 10 Ω resistor from thevenin’s equivalent
V10= Vth*(10/15)= 19.2 *(10/15)=64/5 =12.8 V

40 | P a g e
Norton’s Theorem:
Statement:
“Any two-terminal linear electric circuit consisting of resistors and sources, can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit containing a single current source in parallel with
a resistor connected across the load.”
The following steps outline the procedure to simplify an electric circuit using
Norton’s theorem where IN and RN are the Norton’s current and Norton’s resistance
respectively.
1. Replace the load resistance RL by short circuit.
2. IN is the short circuit (SC) current flows through the load terminals and
3. RN is the resistance across the load terminals with all sources replaced by their
internal resistances.
Determine the current through 6Ω resistor for the circuit shown in figure by
using Norton’s theorem.
Solution:
Step-1: Determination of Norton’s current:

41 | P a g e
By Inspection we can write I1=21 A,

Apply KVL to mesh-2 we get 3I2+3(I2-I3)+2(I2-I1)=0 ; 8I2-3I3=42 ---- (1)
Apply KVL to mesh-3 we get 3(I3-I2)=0 ---- (2) I3=I2 ---- (3)
Use above relation in equation 1 we get
I2=42/5=I3 ; Therefore I3 = ISC= IN=8.4 A
Step-2: Determination of Norton’s equivalent resistance
ROC=RN= 3//(3+2)= 3*5/8= 15/8 =1.875Ω

42 | P a g e
Step-3: The Norton’s equivalent circuit shown in figure.
Current through 6Ω resistor from the equivalent circuit

I6=IN * (RN /RN+6); I6= 8.4*(1.875/1.875+6)=2 A.
Determine the current in 160Ω resistor for the circuit shown in figure by
using Nortons theorem.
Solution:
Step-1: To determine IN
Applying KVL to mesh-1; 20I1=100 ; I1=5 A

Applying KVL to mesh-2; 20I2 =70 ; I2=3.5---- (2)
The current in short circuit path is I1+I2=8.5 A = IN
Step-2: To determine RN or Rth

43 | P a g e
RN or Rth= (20//20)= 10 Ω
Step-3: Current through 160 Ω resistor
I160 = IN * (RN/ RN+10)

= 8.5 *(10/10+160) =0.5 A
Maximum power transfer theorem:
This theorem is used to find the value of load resistance for which there would be
maximum amount of power transfer from source to load.
Statement:
A resistance load, being connected to a dc network, receives maximum power

when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance (Thevenin’s equivalent
resistance) of the source network as seen from the load terminals.
Explanation:
A variable resistance RL is connected to a dc source network as shown in Figure

(a), while Figure (b) represents the Thevenin’s voltage V th and Thevenin’s
resistance Rth of the source network. The aim is to determine the value of R L such
that it receives maximum power from the dc source.

44 | P a g e
With reference to Figure (b)
The power delivered to the resistive load is given by

2
𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝑃𝐿 = (𝐼𝐿 )2 ∗ 𝑅𝐿 = ( ) ∗ 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
The power delivered to the resistive load can be maximized by varying R L and
hence maximum power can be delivered when
𝑑𝑃𝐿
= 0;
𝑑𝑅𝐿
2
𝑑 𝑉𝑇ℎ
{( ) ∗ 𝑅𝐿 } = 0
𝑑𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
After simplification we get 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑅𝐿
Hence it is proved that power transfer from a dc source network to a resistive

network is maximum when the internal resistance of the DC source network is
equal to the load resistance. With RL=RTh, the system being perfectly matched for
load and source, the power transfer becomes maximum and this amount of power
is maximum can be obtained as
2
2
𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑅𝐿 = ( ) ∗ 𝑅𝐿 ; 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
2
𝑉𝑇ℎ 𝑉𝑇ℎ 2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =( ) ∗ 𝑅𝐿 =
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝐿 4𝑅𝑇ℎ

45 | P a g e
Procedural steps involved in this theorem:
Step-1: Remove the load resistance and find the Thevenin’s resistance of the
source network looking through the open circuited load terminals.
Step-2: As per maximum power transfer theorem, this RTh is the load resistance of
the network (RL=RTh) that allows maximum power transfer.
Step-3: Find the Thevenin’s Voltage (VTh) across the open circuited terminals.
Step-4: The magnitude of maximum power value is given by
𝑉𝑇ℎ 2
4𝑅𝑇ℎ
Determine the maximum power delivered to load resistor RL of the circuit

shown in figure.
Solution:
Apply KVL for mesh-1

Mesh-1: 16i1-12i2=32 ---(1) ; By inspection; Mesh-2: i2= -2A ---(2)
Substitute 2 in 1 we get 16i1=(12i2+32)=8; i1=0.5A ---(3)

46 | P a g e
The current in mesh-2 should be in anticlock wise direction (i2=-2A)

Thevenin’s Voltage is given by VTh=V12Ω = 12(i1+ i2)= 12(0.5+2) =30V
RTh= 1+(4//12)= 4 Ω
Step-3:
According to Maximum power transfer theorem, maximum power delivered to

load resistor when load resistance equal to source resistance or thevenin’s
resistance (R L=RTh). i.e., RL=4Ω
𝑉𝑇ℎ 2 30 ∗ 30
𝑝𝐿 = = = 56.25 𝑊
4𝑅𝑇ℎ 4∗4
Determine the value of R shown in the figure such that maximum power
transfer takes place. What is the amount of power?

47 | P a g e
Solution:
Apply KVL for mesh-1 ; Mesh-1: 3i1-2i2=4 ---(1)
By inspection Mesh-2: -2i1+8i2=0 ---(2)
Solve 1 and 2 equations we get i1=1.6 A ; i2=0.4 A
Thevenin’s Voltage VX-Y = VTh ; VX - VY -6 -0.4=0; VX -Y=6.4V
RTh= RX-Y ={(1//2)+5}//1 = 0.85Ω

48 | P a g e
Step-3:
According to Maximum power transfer theorem, maximum power delivered to

load resistor when load resistance equal to source resistance or thevenin’s
resistance (R L=RTh). i.e., RL=0.85 Ω
𝑉𝑇ℎ 2 6.4 ∗ 6.4

𝑝𝐿 = = = 12.04 𝑊
4𝑅𝑇ℎ 4 ∗ 0.85
Voltage and Current Sources:
The types of active circuit elements that are most important to us are those
that supply electrical energy to the circuits or network connected to them. These
are called “electrical sources”. With the two types of electrical sources being
the voltage source and the current source.
Electrical sources, both as a voltage source or a current source can be classed as
being either independent (ideal) or dependent, (controlled) that is whose value
depends upon a voltage or current elsewhere within the circuit, which itself can be
either constant or time-varying.

49 | P a g e
Independent sources:
An independent voltage source maintains a voltage (fixed or varying with
time), which is not affected by any other quantity. Similarly, an independent
current source maintains a current (fixed or time varying), which is unaffected by
any other quantity. The symbols used for independent sources are shown in figure.
Voltage Source:
A voltage source, such as a battery or generator, provides a potential difference
(voltage) between two points within an electrical circuit allowing current to
flowing around it. A battery is the most common voltage source for a circuit with
the voltage that appears across the positive and negative terminals of the source
being called the terminal voltage.
Ideal and Practical Voltage sources:
Ideal voltage source is defined as the energy source which gives constant
voltage across its terminals irrespective of the current drawn through its terminals.
The symbol for ideal voltage source and their V-I characteristics are shown in
figure.
But practically, every voltage source has small internal resistance shown in
series with voltage source and is represented by R se as shown in the figure.

50 | P a g e
Applying KVL to the circuit shown in figure.

VS=IL* R Se + IL* RL ; Since VL=ILRL
VS=IL * R Se + VL ; VL= VS –(IL* R Se)
For an ideal voltage source RSe=0 then VL= VS
The V-I characteristics of a practical voltage source is shown in the figure.
Current Source:
A Current Source is an active circuit element that is capable of supplying a
constant current flow to a circuit regardless of the voltage developed across its
terminals.
Ideal and Practical Current sources:
Ideal current source is the source which gives constant current at its terminals
irrespective of the voltage appearing across its terminals. The symbol for ideal
current source and their V-I characteristics are shown in figure.
But practically, every current source has high internal resistance, shown in parallel
with current source and it is represented by Rsh and shown in the figure.
Applying KCL to the circuit shown in figure.

IS=IL+ISh ; IL=IS-[VL/RSh]
For an ideal current source RSh=∞ then IL=IS

51 | P a g e
The V-I characteristics of a practical current source is shown in the figure.
Time variant and time invariant sources:
The sources in which voltage is not varying with time are known as time
invariant sources otherwise known as time variant sources which are shown in
figure.
AC source:
An alternating quantity is the current or voltage which changes periodically both in
magnitude and direction. In alternating wave form, there are two half cycles, one
positive and other negative. These two half cycles make one cycle. Voltage or
Current increases in magnitude in one particular direction, attains maximum and
starts decreasing, passing through zero it increases in opposite direction and
behaves similarly.
Dependent /Controlled sources:

Dependent sources are those whose source value depends on either voltage or
current in the circuit. These are classified as

52 | P a g e
Voltage dependent voltage source:

This source produces voltage as a function of voltage elsewhere in the circuit. This
is also known as voltage controlled voltage source as shown in the figure (1). The
constant is named as voltage gain.
Voltage dependent current source:
This source produces current as a function of voltage elsewhere in the circuit. This
is also known as voltage controlled current source as shown in the figure (2). The
constant is named as conductance and is measured in mhos.
Current dependent voltage source:
This source produces voltage as a function of current elsewhere in the circuit. This
is also known as current controlled voltage source as shown in the figure (3). The
constant is named as resistance and is measured in ohms.
Current dependent current source:
This source produces current as a function of current elsewhere in the circuit. This
is also known as current controlled current source as shown in the figure (4). The
constant is named as current gain.

Beee Unit 1

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Beee Unit 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Beee Unit 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1|Page

BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

The power absorbed by a resistor is given by P = Vi = i2R = V2/R.

Voltage and current relationship is given by

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

 A small change in current within zero time through an inductor gives an

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

Classification of Network elements:

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

Time variant and time invariant elements:

If 60 coulombs of charge flow past a given point in a wire in 15 seconds. How

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

A current i=2e-t applied to 2H inductor. What is the respective voltage across

A capacitor having a capacitance of 4µf charged to a voltage of 1000V.

A 50µF capacitor is charged to retain 10mJ of energy by a constant charging

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff developed a pair or set of rules or

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

𝐾𝐶𝐿 𝑎𝑡 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡: 𝐼1 + 𝐼6 + 𝐼7 = 𝐼4 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼5

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

indicated as I amperes. Assume that the current is flowing in clockwise direction.

𝐾𝑉𝐿 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑠ℎ ∶ 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + 𝑉4 = 𝑉

Series Connection of elements:

By applying KVL ; V= I(R1+R2+R3+ R4) ----- (1)

By applying KVL V = I * Req ------ (2)

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

On comparison of equations 1 and 2 we get Req = R1+R2+R3+R4

Voltage Division rule:

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

On comparison of equations 1 and 2 we get Leq = L1+L2

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

KVL equation: V = V1+V2

Differentiating above equation with respect to time then

The current flowing through the capacitor

On comparison of equations 1 and 2 we get

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

According to ohms law

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

1/ Req = [1/ R1 ]+ [1/ R2 ] ; Req = [R1 * R2 ] /[R1 + R2 ]

Consider a parallel circuit of two resistors R 1 and R2 connected across a source of

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

Substituting the value of I1 in IT, then

By applying KCL ; I = I1+I2

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

The voltage across the inductor

By applying KCL ; I = I1+I2

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT

The current through the capacitor

Connection Series Parallel

Resistors Req = R1+R2+---- +Rn 1/Req = [1/R1]+[1/R2]+--- +[1/Rn]

Determine the value of R3 for the circuit shown in figure.

BASIC ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (UNIT-1) KMIT