Short Circuit Study Notes

Short-Circuit Currents | 3-
Phase VS 1-Phase

Introduction
Short-circuit calculations are performed because of several reasons. In
short-circuit studies, generally, different characteristic values of short-
circuit current e.g. peak short-circuit current (ip), equivalent thermal short-
circuit current (Ith), etc. are calculated. There is also often a need to
calculate various types of short-circuit currents e.g. symmetrical or
unsymmetrical. Each application uses a different value of short-circuit
current as input. For example, in grounding calculations, it is clear that
input value is single-line-to-ground short-circuit current. On the contrary,
generator circuit breaker selection and harmonic propagation analysis
demands three-phase short-circuit values as input.

From these considerations, it can be quite challenging to dimension

electrical devices from the thermal and dynamic effects of fault currents.
An electrical designer needs to use the maximum values of short-circuit
currents for these purposes. Generally, the value of three-phase short-
circuit current is the highest value. But this is not always the case. It is
rather important that the electrical designer has to understand which
value of short-circuit current should be taken for dimensioning of electrical
devices. The main aim of this article is to point out the subtle dilemma of
choosing the correct value of short-circuit current for dimensioning of
electrical equipment. The theoretical derivation is done on a very simple
circuit example.
Three-phase short-circuit current
Let us assume a simple network according to Figure 1. Transformer
impedance in per unit was calculated on following base values: Sbase = 100
MVA and Vbase = 110 kV.

Figure 1.
Single Line Diagram of the Electric Network

Transformer T1 is supplying the distribution load. Let us assume further

that the 110 kV network is operated as solidly grounded. Figure 2 shows
the equivalent diagram for the case of a three-phase fault in point F:

Figure 2.
Equivalent Sequence Network for the Three-phase Short-Circuit

A three-phase short-circuit is symmetrical, therefore negative and zero

sequence components are not present. The equivalent sequence network
consists only of a positive sequence network. Solving for the short-circuit
current,
where index 1 is used to indicate positive sequence

Calculating the short-circuit current will yield,

Single Phase Short-Circuit Current

Now, let´s assume the occurrence of single-phase (single-line-to-ground)
short-circuit at point F. The value of short-circuit current is dependent on
the zero-sequence connection of transformer T1 (which is given by the
type of transformer and its winding connection).
Consider a shell-type transformer. According to [2], [3] shell-type
transformers have a zero sequence to positive sequence ratio in the range
of X0/X1 = 1:10 depending on the winding connection of the transformer.
Let us consider for example a zero sequence to positive sequence
ratio, X0/X1 = 1. What this means is that the zero-sequence impedance of
the transformer is equal to its positive sequence impedance, ZT0 = ZT1. The
equivalent diagram is shown in the following figure.
 Figure 3.
Equivalent Sequence Network for the Single-phase Short-Circuit
Because all three sequence impedances are equal, ZT1 = ZT2 = ZT0, we can
calculate the short-circuit current as shown below.

The value of single-phase short-circuit current, in this case, is equal to the

three-phase short circuit current.

In the second case, let us consider a core type transformer (T1), with a
zero sequence impedance, ZT0 = 0.85ZT1. Solving for the short-circuit
current,

In this case, the value of single-phase short-circuit is bigger than three-

phase short-circuit current. This situation can occur in case of ‘near’ faults
on solidly grounded transformers or grounding transformers. This is
especially true for transformers with following winding connections:

 Yz

 Dy

 Dz

where y or z are grounded on the low voltage side.

In technical literature, it can be found that single-phase short-circuit

currents can be as high as 1.5 times the three-phase short-circuit
currents.

In solidly grounded networks, the electrical devices should be rated on the

higher value of short-circuit current.
In ungrounded networks (isolated) or in resonant, resistance/reactance
grounded networks, single-phase short-circuit fault can’t occur (instead
earth-fault occurs in these networks). Therefore, in this type of network,
the value of three-phase short-circuit current is always the highest.

Vector Group of Transformer

Dyn1|Dyn11|Ynd1|Ynd11

The naming convention popularly known as Vector Group of Transformer was

established by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) through IEC
60076-1. This was done in order to create a notation for three-phase transformer
winding configuration.

Figure 1. Wye-Delta transformer winding connection.

Vector Group of Transformer:

Common Symbol Designation
Y or y – star winding

D or d – delta winding

N or n – neutral

0 to 12 – phase displacement in terms of clock position in multiples of 30°

(see figure 2)
 Figure 2. Phase displacement

According to the standard, the notation should follow HV-LV-Phase

displacement sequence with the HV winding in uppercase and LV winding
in lowercase.

Figure 3. Vector group of Transformer Notation.

Consider for example a winding configuration shown in figure 4. As shown,

the HV winding is connected in delta while the LV winding is connected in
wye. This configuration belongs to the vector group of transformer Dyn1
where the LV lags the HV by 30°.
Figure 4. Delta primary, wye secondary with neutral. The LV lags the HV side by
30°.

The Delta Connection

Study the Delta Connection and you’re on your way
to mastering the most common Transformer Vector
Groups!
Notice how the HV winding is connected in figure 4. The delta connection
shown is that of a DAB where the polarity of phase winding A is connected
to the non-polarity of phase winding B. The DAB connection is
characterized by line currents leading the phase currents by 30°. The
other delta connection is the DAC where the polarity of phase winding A is
connected to the non-polarity of phase winding C. The DAC connection is
characterized by line currents lagging the phase currents by 30°. Knowing
the type of delta connection is very helpful in understanding the vector
groups Dyn1, Dyn11, YNd1, and YNd11. A Dyn11 for example indicates
that the LV leads the HV by 30°, therefore the HV winding should be DAC
connected.
Fault Level Calculation Using
The MVA Method

Abstract: There are a lot of methods that can be used for short-circuit
current calculation. One method was previously discussed here and is
based on the guidelines presented in IEC 60909. This article deals with an
alternative method for the short-circuit current calculation so-called the
MVA method. This method is simple, quick, and easy to remember. It is
also sufficiently accurate for engineers in practice for basic estimation of
fault levels at any point in an electrical network.
Keywords: short-circuit current, the MVA method, calculation methods

Introduction
The determination of the level of short-circuit current at any point of an
electrical network can be of interest because of several reasons, e.g.:

 design of electrical equipment (from the point of view of thermal

and dynamic effects of short-circuit currents),
 control of circuit breakers switching capability,
 design of grounding systems and the associated determination of
allowable touch-voltage, step-voltage and transferred voltage (for
example in the low-voltage grid during earth-fault in the high-
voltage grid),
 design and operation of protection devices,
 power system stability verification,
 control of voltage ratios during short-circuit and during the start-up
of large asynchronous motors,
 calculation of induced voltage in telecommunication lines caused by
high-voltage or extra-high-voltage networks,
  control of propagation and impact of upper harmonics in power
system,
 assessment of overvoltage occurrence during line-to-ground faults.

In most practical applications, it is not necessary to know the exact time

course of short-circuit currents. A simplified calculation is often sufficient.
There are several methods for the calculation of short-circuit currents.
These can be divided into numerical and numeric-graphical methods.
Some of them are listed below:

Numerical-Graphical Methods

Short-Circuit Curves Method

This method can be used when the task is limited only to finding the
short-circuit current at the short-circuit location. This method is popular
because of its simplicity and relative accuracy. The method consists of the
application of special curves that give the value of the a.c. component of
the short-circuit current in any moment of the short-circuit fault,

Nomogram Method
This is a simple graphical method that consists of subtracting the
necessary parameters of the electrical system elements (impedances)
from the graphs that were pre-printed on the sheets, separately for each
voltage level. The disadvantage of nomograms is their limited use only for
radial networks and the fact that the method accuracy is directly
dependent on the accuracy of reading from the graphs drawn.

Numerical Methods

Ohmic Method
Also known as the Impedance Method. The disadvantage of this method
is it is cumbersome if the system under investigation contains several
voltage levels,
Per-unit Method
This method is no better in terms of manual calculations than the previous
method since it involves a number of relationships and bonds associated
with reference values, which can often cause errors in the calculation
procedure,

Superposition Method
This method is used very often but requires knowledge of steady-state
conditions before the short-circuit occurrence, which reduces its
applicability for general and fast calculations.

The MVA method

The MVA method is an alternative to the earlier mentioned methods. It is
based on a mathematical modification of the ohmic method. The first step
of calculation procedure is to convert classic single-line diagram of the
power network to an equivalent MVA diagram. The next steps are based
on the simplification of an equivalent MVA diagram to one final value of
MVA at the fault point (this represents short-circuit MVA at the fault point).

This method has the following simplifications:

 magnetizing currents and losses in the transformer core are

neglected,
 power lines capacitance is neglected,
 all transformers have set nominal tap (0),
 internal voltage of all sources is equal to 1 (in per unit).

Advantages of this method are the following:

 no need to convert impedance from one voltage level to another,

 no need to select common MVA base,
 no need to consider transformer ratios,
 contains simple formulas for calculation (in comparison with other
methods),
 information about pre-fault steady-state is not required,
 fast and easy to remember,
 sufficiently accurate,
  easy to determine the contribution from each branch to fault point,
 can be used for calculation of symmetrical and unsymmetrical
faults, voltage drop during motor start-up, or steady-state.

Let’s consider following a simple 22kV electrical network according to

Figure 1 (taken from [3] and modified). Let us assume that the industrial
power network is connected through the power line V1 and supplied from
the 22 kV external distribution network. For sake of simplicity, we consider
only one synchronous generator, TG, and one synchronous motor, SM1 in
the industrial power network. The task is to find out the value of initial
symmetrical three-phase short-circuit current at 6.6 kV busbar.

Figure 1. Single Line

Diagram of the Industrial Electrical Network

As mentioned earlier, the first step is the calculation of the MVA level of
each component and converting the single line diagram to its equivalent
MVA diagram.

Calculation of MVA level of each element of

the electrical network

22kV External distribution network

22kV Power Line (V1)
For overhead power lines, the short-circuit MVA can be calculated directly
from the impedance in form Zv=R+jX, therefore we can write

22/6.6kV Transformer (T1)

An advantage of this method is that the short-circuit voltage of the

transformer (percentage value of reactance) is given directly in
relationship with the nominal apparent power of the transformer. The
same is valid for motors and generators as well.
6.6kV Generator (TG)

6.6kV Motor (SM1)

The equivalent MVA diagram is shown in figure 2.

 Figure 2.
Equivalent MVA Diagram of the Industrial Electrical Network

Now we can reduce the equivalent MVA diagram. For elements connected
in series the equivalent value of initial symmetrical short-circuit power is
equal to the sum of inverted MVA values of elements.

For example, the equivalent MVA at branch A (consisting of network

feeder, transformer T1 and power line V1) is

For elements connected in parallel, the final value of initial symmetrical

short-circuit power is equal to the sum of MVA values of elements.
The electrical network equivalent MVA can be obtained from the sum of
three parallel branches A, B, and C.

The graphical representation of industrial power network reduction is

shown in figure 3.

Figure 3. MVA Network Reduction

Finally, the initial symmetrical short-circuit current at the fault point can
be calculated from the equivalent network MVA.
Comparison to IEC 60909
In order to validate the accuracy of the MVA Method, we will calculate the
initial symmetrical short-circuit current at the fault point using the
calculation method based on IEC 60909. For simplicity, resistance will be
neglected.

22kV External Distribution Network

22kV Power Line (V1)

22/6.6kV Transformer (T1)

6.6kV Generator (TG)

6.6kV Motor (SM1)

The equivalent short-circuit impedance at the fault point is calculated to
be

Calculating the short-circuit MVA,

Finally, the initial symmetrical short-circuit current at the fault point can
be calculated from the equivalent network MVA.
Bonus
If the value of initial symmetrical short-circuit current is known, the peak
short-circuit current can be determined using

A comparison of the results between the two methods is shown in the

following table. The results based on IEC 60909 calculation method will be
used as a reference.

Table 1.
Comparison of Short-circuit Values

It can be seen that the MVA method gives results with sufficient accuracy.

Conclusion
The methods calculation short-circuit currents vary in complexity and the
amount of effort put into. The MVA method is known to be simple, quick,
and easy, and is sufficiently accurate for engineers in practice for basic
estimation of fault levels at any point in an electrical network.
Practical Evaluation of a Power
Fuse Interrupting Capacity

The selection of the short-circuit rating of power fuses and low voltage
circuit breakers are treated differently than medium and high voltage
circuit breakers. According to ANSI/IEEE standards, these protective
devices respond to short-circuit instantaneously which means that at the
initiation of the fault, fuses or low voltage circuit breakers should not only
be able to withstand the magnetic and thermal forces resulting from the
magnitude of the short-circuit current but should also be capable to safely
interrupt the available short-circuit duty.

A distinction between fused and unfused low voltage circuit breakers with
regards to the evaluation of their short-circuit ratings is specified in IEEE
C37.13. For fuses and fused low voltage circuit breakers, the evaluation is
based on the total asymmetrical RMS first cycle currents whereas for
unfused low voltage circuit breakers, the basis of evaluation is the peak
first cycle currents.

Furthermore, like symmetrically rated medium and high voltage circuit

breakers, fuses and low voltage circuit breakers already has an embedded
asymmetry factor based on 20% test power factor (X/R ratio of 4.9) for
fuses and fused low voltage circuit breakers and 15% test power factor
(X/R ratio of 6.6) for unfused low voltage circuit breakers. The test power
factor, however, may be higher than the test power factors specified in
IEEE C37.13. For this reason, it is best to consult with the device
manufacturer for the technical data specifications.

Power Fuse Specifications

 Max. Rated Voltage: 15kV

 Rated Frequency: 60Hz

 Rated Continuous Current: 18A

 Rated Short Circuit Interrupting Current: 20kA RMS, Symmetrical

 Test PF: 6.7%

Maximum Available Short Circuit

Current
Like low voltage circuit breakers, fuses operate instantaneously on fault
thus the 0.5 cycles symmetrical short circuit current is used in calculating
the interrupting duty. The fault level information may be requested from
the local electrical distribution utility.

I’sym = 12.786kA
with an X/R ratio of

X/R = 9.683

Calculation of Interrupting Duty

The interrupting duty for fuses is calculated by introducing a multiplying
factor based on the total asymmetrical RMS first cycle current as shown
below.
The calculation of the multiplying factor is very important in order to
estimate the maximum interrupting duty of the power fuse. However,
since the fault point X/R ratio is lesser than the power fuse test X/R ratio
(derived from test PF), calculating the multiplying factor may not be
necessary. In this case, the maximum available short circuit current can
be used directly to determine the power fuse short circuit interrupting
rating.

To illustrate this, let us evaluate the multiplying factor using the fault
point X/R ratio and the fuse test PF.

From the fuse technical data specification on the test PF, we can calculate
the test X/R ratio.

From this, we can calculate the multiplying factor and ultimately the total
asymmetrical RMS first cycle current.
The above calculation confirms that for a fault point X/R ratio that is less
than the protective device test X/R ratio, the maximum available short
circuit current can be used directly to determine the power fuse short
circuit interrupting rating.

In the application example, the maximum available short circuit current of

12.786kA is lesser than the fuse rated short circuit interrupting current
20kA.
Short Circuit Study | An
Introduction to Circuit Breaker
Sizing

Power systems appear in various sizes and levels of complexity. Because

of this, careful design considerations and studies such as load flow are
exhaustively conducted. This is to ensure that the system will be
operating as designed, thus maintaining a very high level of continuity of
service. But despite all these efforts, unavoidable conditions that result to
short circuit on the system cannot be entirely eliminated.

Power System States

A power system can be in any of the following states: normal, abnormal,
and faulted state. In a normal state, the system is operating within the
designed limits and maximum equipment life is expectancy is anticipated.
An abnormal state is when the system operates outside the designed
limits for short periods that may accelerate equipment aging. A faulted
state is when the system is subjected to severe stress and where
equipment failure is very likely. A faulted state maybe caused by natural
events, accidents, deterioration of insulation and other causes that are
impossible or impractical to avoid.

Figure 1. States of a Power System

A faulted state can be distinguished generally by a sudden and significant

increase in current. It is because of this high current that the system is
subjected to high levels of stress given that mechanical and thermal
stress are functions of the square of the current, i2. Short circuit current is
usually supplied from utility transmission system, generators, and
synchronous and induction motors.
Figure 2. Changes in System Operating Values in a Faulted State

Anatomy of A Short Circuit Current

A faulted power system can be simplified into an equivalent circuit with an
ideal sinusoidal voltage source, and a resistance and inductance
connected in series. The closing of the switch in figure 3, simulates a short
circuit condition.

Figure 3.
Equivalent Circuit of a Faulted System

By Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law,

where

E is the magnitude of the voltage source in rms

i(t) is the instantaneous current at any time t
R is the resistance of the circuit in ohms
L is the inductance of the circuit in henry
t is the time in seconds
α is the phase angle of the voltage source when the switch is
closed
ω is equal to 2πf at system frequency
Solving for the instantaneous current i(t),

where

The instantaneous short circuit current i(t) is composed of two

components, the transient dc component and the steady-state ac
component. While the steady-state ac component is symmetrical, the
transient dc component decays exponentially with time based on the
system X/R ratio. This makes the fault current asymmetrical. It is
important to note that the magnitude of the dc and ac component is
dependent on phase angle of the voltage source when the fault occurs,
and together with the system X/R ratio, the degree of the fault current
asymmetry.

As an example, for a purely inductive system, the fault current waveform

is shown in figures 4 and 5. Figure 4 shows a short circuit current
waveform with the voltage source phase angle equal to 0° at the time of
fault while figure 5 shows a short circuit current with the voltage source
phase angle equal to 90° at the time of fault. Notice that the maximum
asymmetry occurs when the voltage source phase angle is equal to 0° at
the time of fault. This is true for any system X/R. For a purely resistive
circuit, the transient dc component is forced to zero.

Figure 4. Fault with R = 0; α = 0°

Figure 5. Fault with R = 0; α = 90°

Figure 6 shows a typical short circuit current waveform with the voltage
source phase angle equal to 27° at the time of fault and a system X/R
ratio of 15.

Fault 6. Fault with X/R = 15; α = 27°

The ‘Half-Cycle’ Current

When conducting a short circuit study, the maximum fault current is of
particular interest because circuit breakers are sized according to this
value. Most of the computer programs adopt the ‘Half-Cycle’ current
assumption to determine the peak and rms values of the maximum fault
current available. The ‘Half-Cycle’ current assumes a purely reactive
system where the maximum fault current occurring exactly one-half cycle
after the onset of a fault. However this assumption may underestimate
the maximum fault current because in practical systems, the current is
usually lagging the applied voltage by an angle based on the system X/R.
This will result to the fault current reaching its maximum value before
one-half cycle.

At t = 0.5 cycle with α = 0°, the maximum peak fault current is

determined.

Let
Similarly, the maximum rms fault current can be determined using

This is the concept behind the commonly used multiplying factors in

determining the momentary short circuit current and protective device
duties at the ½ cycle after the fault.
The calculated short circuit current by applying these multiplying factors
can be used for the verification of circuit breaker close and latch
capability, bus bracing capability, relay instantaneous overcurrent
protection, and interrupting capabilities of fuses and low voltage circuit
breakers.
Circuit Breaker Interrupting
Rating Calculations

Circuit Breaker. While the determination of the closing and latching duty is
fairly a straightforward process, the calculation of the interrupting duty for
medium- and high-voltage circuit breakers is a bit trickier. There are a few
more things to consider in the calculation such as circuit breaker
interrupting time and contact parting time, remote and local short circuit
current sources (for Synchronous Generators), and circuit breaker rating
structure.

Medium- and High-Voltage Circuit

Breaker Rated Cycle
The calculation of circuit breaker interrupting duty depends on how fast it
can clear the fault, more specifically, from the time of short circuit
initiation up to the time when breaker primary contacts part. This duration
is commonly referred to as the circuit breaker contact parting time or CPT.
Figure 1 shows the sequence of events from the initiation of the short
circuit up to the extinction of arc on primary arcing contacts. It is
important to note that the contact parting time assumes a relay time
(time from fault initiation up to the time the trip command is given) of 0.5
cycles. The default contact parting time is dependent on the breaker
interrupting speed. Table 1 shows the breaker interrupting time and its
corresponding contact parting time.

Figure 1. Circuit Breaker Rated Cycle

Table 1. Circuit Breaker Interrupting and

Contact Parting Time

Practical experience: Circuit breaker contact parting time is

the rounded up (nearest whole number) value of half its
interrupting (except 2 cycle CB). For example, the contact
parting time of a 5 cycle circuit breaker is 2.5 rounded up,
3 cycles!
AC Decay in Short Circuit
Calculations
Synchronous generators and induction motors’ short-circuit contribution
varies with time. To account for this, an equivalent circuit is used with
time-varying impedances driven by a constant voltage source. This
approach simplifies the calculation process while still providing an
adequate estimation of the short circuit current. Figure 2 shows a typical
short circuit current waveform and its representation based on time-
varying impedances.

Figure 2. AC Decay: Time-varying Impedances

Remember that the closing and latching duty calculations are based on
symmetrical short circuit current from the 0.5 cycle network (also referred
to as the subtransient network). The multiplying factors were derived from
the ‘half-cycle’ current assumption. The calculation of the medium- and
high-voltage circuit breaker interrupting duty, on the other hand, is based
on its contact parting which ranges from 1.5 to 4 cycles as shown in table
1.

For this reason, the impedances to be used in the calculation of the

symmetrical short circuit current should be based on the 1.5-4 cycle
network (also referred to as the transient network). Table 2 shows the
rotating equipment reactances from 0.5, 1.5-4, and 30 cycle networks.
 Table 2.
Machine Reactances

DC Decay in Short Circuit

Calculations
Short circuit current asymmetry results from the transient dc component
that decays exponentially with time. A detailed calculation will require
different rates of decay for various X/R ratio between one source and the
fault point. For multisource systems, this could be quite cumbersome.

The use of a single equivalent X/R ratio was recommended in order to

simplify the calculation process. However, this single X/R ratio is not your
typical X/R derived from the Thevenin’s equivalent impedance. Instead,
the single X/R ratio is to be calculated from the ‘separate X and R’
networks.

Separate X and R Networks

The rationale behind this is that the X/R ratio from the ‘separate X and R’
network will generally be greater than the Thevenin’s equivalent. Hence
yielding a certain degree of conservatism. To illustrate this, consider the
network shown in figure 3. The utility and generator are parallel sources
to the fault.
 Figure 3. Network Diagram

Figure 4 shows the impedance diagram of the network shown in figure 3.

Figure 4. Impedance
Diagram

A Thevenin’s equivalent circuit will yield and equivalent impedance, Zth,

as shown in figure 5.
 Figure 5. Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

Using the ‘separate X and R’ reduction, the network shown in figure 3 is

decomposed into separate X and R networks as shown in figure 6.

Figure 6. Separate X and R Networks

From this network, the fault point X/R ratio is calculated.

DC Decay Multiplying Factors

DC decay in ANSI short circuit studies is accounted for by introducing
multiplying factors to the symmetrical current. In the previous article,
multiplying factors in the calculation of circuit breaker closing and latching
duty were introduced. The instantaneous short circuit current is composed
of two components, the transient dc component, and the steady-state ac
component.
While the steady-state ac component is symmetrical, the transient dc
component decays exponentially with time-based on the system X/R ratio.
This creates asymmetry consequently increasing the magnitude of the
fault current in the first few cycles of its inception. The multiplying factors
in determining the first cycle asymmetrical peak and RMS value of the
short circuit current are based on the ‘half-cycle’ current and a purely
reactive circuit assumption.

Remote and Local Short Circuit

Current Sources (for Synchronous
Generators)
Synchronous generators have a special treatment in the interrupting duty
calculation for medium- and high-voltage circuit breakers in that their
short circuit contribution varies depending on their proximity to the fault.
Generator contribution can either be local or remote. Generators are
considered remote if
the generator contribution, Ig, to the fault is lesser than 0.4 times the
value of a hypothetical three-phase fault, I t, at its terminal, or
the per-unit impedance external to the generator up to the fault point is at
least 1.5 times its per unit subtransient impedance on a common system
MVA base or
the generator is located at least two transformers away from the fault
point.

Otherwise, they are considered local to the fault.

Importance of Determining Remote and Local

Contributions
The identification of generators as local or remote is important in
determining the correct multiplying factors used in the calculation of
breaker interrupting duty. For a specific generator, the multiplying factor,
if it was identified as remote is greater than if it was local.

Why is this so?

If we inspect the network reactances for synchronous generators in table
2, the values are the same for the 0.5 cycle and 1.5-4 cycle networks. This
is intentional since generator AC decay is conditional on its proximity to
the fault. AC decay is considered only for local generators while remote
generators are assumed to feature no AC decay. In other words, the
remote multiplying factor for generators is higher in magnitude than its
local counterpart.

Remote Multiplying Factors

Since the remote multiplying factor only accounts for the DC decay, it can
be calculated analytically using the instantaneous short-circuit current
equation with time t set to the circuit breaker contact parting time (CPT).

Local Multiplying Factors

The local multiplying factors, however, are dependent on a list of curves
provided under the IEEE Std C37.5 for totally rated circuit breakers and
IEEE Std C37.010 for symmetrically rated circuit breakers. The following
figure shows the local multiplying factors for totally rated circuit breakers.
 Figure 8. Local Multiplying Factor for Totally
Rated Circuit Breaker

Totally and Symmetrically Rated

Circuit Breakers
Medium- and high-voltage circuit breakers are rated either on a total
current or symmetrical current basis under the applicable standard, IEEE
Std C37.5 and C37.010, respectively. Totally rated circuit breakers reflect
an earlier breaker rating structure while symmetrically rated circuit
breaker reflect a more recent rating structure.

Both rating structures quantify the DC decay by applying local and remote
multiplying factors. The difference between these rating structures is that
symmetrically rated circuit breakers already have an embedded
asymmetry factor, S. This asymmetry factor is based on a required
percent value of the DC component on a standard time constant of 45ms
corresponding to an X/R ratio of 17 for 60Hz system.
where

Figure 9 shows the required %dc component for different circuit breaker
contact parting times.

Figure 9. Percent DC Component for Different Contact Parting Times

Remote and Local multiplying factors for symmetrically rated circuit

breakers are obtained by dividing the multiplying factors for totally rated
circuit breakers by the applicable asymmetry factor, S. Table 3 shows the
S factor for the typical circuit breaker contact parting times.
 Table 3. S-factor for Typical Circuit Breaker Contact
Parting Time

Adjust both the calculated remote multiplying factor and local multiplying
factors obtained from the local curve to account for this embedded
asymmetry using,

Calculate the circuit breaker interrupting duty using the ‘No AC Decay’
approach as recommended in IEEE Std 551.

where
kAIC Rating of Circuit Breakers
| Calculation in Low Voltage
System

Low voltage circuit breakers, unlike their medium- and high-voltage

counterparts, respond to short-circuit instantaneously. Therefore, the
calculation of the interrupting short-circuit duty for the selection or
verification of kAIC rating of circuit breakers is based on the one-half cycle
network. The reactances of the rotating equipment to be used in the
calculation of the short-circuit current is presented in IEEE Std C37.010
and IEEE Std C37.13.

To learn more about rotating equipment reactances and their effect on

short-circuit current contribution, click here.

The multiplying factors in determining the first cycle asymmetrical peak

and RMS value of the short circuit current are based on the ‘half-cycle’
current and a purely reactive circuit assumption with the source voltage
phase angle of 0° at the time of fault.
These multiplying factors become the basis in calculating the multiplying
factors for low voltage circuit breakers .

kAIC Rating of Circuit Breakers:

Unfused Circuit Breakers
According to IEEE Std C37.13, the basis of the rated short-circuit current
of an unfused circuit breaker is the rms symmetrical current value at a
power factor of 15% lagging (X/Rtest ratio of 6.6). By applying this, we
obtain the multiplying factor as shown in the equation below.

kAIC Rating of Circuit Breakers:

Fused Circuit Breakers
According to IEEE Std C37.13, the basis of the rated short-circuit current
of a fused circuit breakers is the rms symmetrical current value at a power
factor of 20% lagging (X/Rtest ratio of 4.9). By applying this, we obtain the
multiplying factor as shown in the equation below.

This multiplying factor is also applicable to fuses. If the fault point X/R is
not available, IEEE Std C37.13 recommends an X/R ratio of 20. It also
important to note that small impedances such as cable impedances
should be taken into account because their effect to the calculation of
circuit interrupting duty is very significant.

The kAIC rating for circuit breakers depends on the manufacturer test
power factor. The following table shows maximum test power factor for
each type of low voltage circuit breakers.

Motor Contributions
The following recommendations were provided by IEEE Std C37.13 for
motor contributions.

 For induction motors, if impedance is not known, use 3.6 times FLC.
For synchronous motors, use 4.8 times FLC.
 If motor load installation is not known,
 System voltages of 120V and 208Y/120V, assume 50%
lighting and 50% motor load. Translates to 2 times FLC.
 System voltages of 240V to 1000V, assume 100%
motor load, 25% synchronous, 75% induction motors.
Translates to 4 times FLC.
Circuit Breaker Sizing
Calculation: A Step-by-Step
Guide

Circuit breaker sizing calculation for medium- and high-voltage circuit

breakers basically involves two symmetrical current calculations, one for
the first cycle duty and another for the interrupting duty. This guide
presents a step-by-step approach. A sample calculation is provided in
each step to reinforce learning.

Circuit Breaker Sizing Calculation:

First Cycle Duty
1. Using the ½ cycle network impedances, construct the impedance
diagram of the system. Refer to the impedance table presented here.
Figure 1. 1/2 Cycle Impedance Diagram

*Note: The values presented in this example are overly simplified. Highlight is given to the calculation process instead.

2. Calculate the Thevenin’s equivalent impedance.

Figure 2. Thevenin’n Equivalent Circuit

Alternatively, you may use the equivalent impedance calculated using the
separate X and R networks. This approach is generally conservative.

3. Calculate the symmetrical RMS current using the following formula.

where Vpre-fault is the line-to-line fault point voltage and is equal to the operating voltage under
actual service conditions.

*Note: The solution for the symmetrical RMS current is calculated from the actual voltage and ohmic value of the
impedances. For more systems with two (2) or more voltage levels, use per unit approach.
4. Calculate the fault point X/R ratio using the separate X and R reduction
process.

Figure 3. Separate X and R Networks

5. Calculate the first cycle asymmetrical peak current multiplying factor

using the following formula.

6. Calculate the first cycle asymmetrical peak current by applying MFpeak to

the previously calculated symmetrical RMS current.

7. Calculate the first cycle asymmetrical RMS current multiplying factor

using the following formula.
8. Calculate the first cycle asymmetrical rms current by applying MFrms to
the previously calculated symmetrical RMS current.

Circuit Breaker Sizing Calculation:

Interrupting Duty
1. Calculate the interrupting duty multiplying factor using the following
formula.

2. Calculate the No AC Decay (NACD) using the ratio of the remote

generators (if available) fault current contribution to the total available
fault.

In our example, the remote contribution to the fault comes from the utility
source. Using common circuit analysis technique such as current division
and/or superposition theorem, the remote contribution can be easily
calculated to be

From this, we can calculate the NACD ratio.

3. Calculate the remote multiplying factor using the X/R ratio at the fault
point and a CPT of 2 cycles.

Adjust MF for symmetrically rated circuit breaker.

Verify circuit breaker rating structure. For totally rated circuit breakers
use S = 1. For symmetrically rated circuit breakers use the S-factor
indicated on the nameplate. If not available, use the S-factor provided in
C37.010-1979. You can access this table here.

In our example, we assume a symmetrically rated circuit breaker. With a

CPT of 2 cycles, the S factor is equal to 1.2.

4. The local multiplying factor can be derived from the local curves
provided in IEEE Std C37.5 for totally rated circuit breakers and IEEE Std
C37.010 for symmetrically rated circuit breakers.

In our example, the fault point X/R ratio was calculated to be 13.29.
Selecting the multiplying factor for a CB interrupting time of 3 cycles (CPT
= 2cycles), we get
Again, adjust MF for symmetrically rated circuit breaker.

5. Calculate the AMF.

6. Calculate the circuit breaker interrupting duty using the following
formula.

Since reactances for ½ cycle and 1.5 – 4 cycle network are the same for
both utility and generator,

*Note: In calculating for the interrupting RMS symmetrical current, use reactances on the 1.5 – 4 cycle network.

That’s it for circuit breaker sizing calculation. Share your insights by

leaving a comment below.
Essential Differences Between
IEC 60909 and ANSI/IEEE C37
Series

Before we start our discussion on IEC 60909, let us first review the
concepts in ANSI/IEEE C37 series on short-circuit study.

Our previous discussions on short-circuit analysis and circuit breaker

selection were grounded on the ANSI/IEEE Standards. We started with a
brief overview of power systems faults and introduced the widely
accepted equation for a short-circuit current. Then we moved to the
derivation of ANSI/IEEE multiplying factors for the circuit breaker closing
and latching duty.
Next, we discussed several concepts affecting the calculation of circuit
breaker interrupting duty for medium- and high- voltage circuit
breakers such as circuit breaker rated cycle, AC and DC decay, separate X
and R networks, remote and local fault contributions, and circuit breaker
rating structure. After that, we moved on to the calculation of kAIC rating
for low voltage circuit breakers. We wrapped the whole series with a step-
by-step manual calculation and computer simulation using ETAP software.

In this series, we will try to explore how short-circuit calculations are

addressed by other International Standards. We will focus our discussion
on IEC short-circuit calculation methods particularly the IEC 60909. Before
diving into the calculations, it is recommended to review the following
terms used in IEC 60909 and how they relate to the short-circuit currents
defined in ANSI/IEEE standards. This way, we’ll be able to understand IEC
60909 better.

Maximum Short-circuit Current (Imax)

The short-circuit current used to evaluate circuit breaker interrupting and
peak rating derived using the voltage correction factor, C max.
Minimum Short-circuit Current (Imin)
The short-circuit current used as basis for protective relay settings derived
using the voltage correction factor, Cmin.
IEC 60909 recommends applying ‘Voltage Factors’, C max and Cmin, to the
prefault nominal system voltage in order to account for the system
prefault conditions. The following table shows the voltage factor for
different nominal system voltages.

Table 1. Voltage
Factors

In ANSI/IEEE standards, prefault load currents are neglected since they are
assumed to be of much smaller magnitude than the short-circuit currents.
Therefore, prefault voltages are assumed to be rated system voltages. In
other words, ANSI/IEEE standard assumes a voltage factor of 1.0.
However, IEEE Std 551 allows the use of the operating voltage under
actual conditions as the prefault voltage which could exceed the
customarily assumed 1.0 pu.

Initial Short-circuit Current (I”k)

The RMS value of the symmetrical short-circuit current at the instant of
the fault given that the impedance does not change. In ANSI/IEEE, this is
equivalent to the ½-cycle RMS symmetrical short-circuit current or the
value of the short-circuit current based on the subtransient network
impedances.
Peak Short-circuit Current( Ip)
The maximum instantaneous value of the short-circuit current. This is
equivalent to the closing and latch peak duty in ANSI/IEEE standard.
Symmetrical Short-Circuit Breaking Current
(Ib)
The RMS value of an integral cycle of the symmetrical AC component of
the short-circuit current at the instant of circuit breaker contact
separation. In ANSI/IEEE standard, this value is equivalent to
the interrupting duty.
Steady-state Short-circuit Current (Ik)
The RMS value of the short-circuit current that remains after the transient
component has completely decayed. In ANSI/IEEE, this pertains to the
RMS value of the symmetrical short circuit current at >30 cycles derived
from the steady-state network.
IEC 60909 Short-circuit:
Meshed vs Non-meshed

In our previous discussion, we introduced the terms used in IEC 60909

short-circuit calculations and compared them to more familiar ANSI/IEEE
terms. This is summarized in the table below.
ANSI/IEEE C37 Series IEC 60909

First Cycle/Momentary (1/2 Cycle Symmetrical RMS) Initial (I”k)

Closing and Latching (1/2 Cycle Asymmetrical Peak) Peak (Ip)

 Interrupting (1.5 – 4 cycles) Breaking (Ib)

Time-delayed (> 30 cycles) Steady-state (Ik)

IEC 60909 ‘Equivalent Source’

IEC 60909 uses an ‘equivalent source’ technique where only one source is
exciting the network at the fault location. All other sources are
represented by their internal impedances. Let us look for example at the
figure below. From this figure, we can see a faulted bus and how its
represented in IEC 60909. Only one source exciting the network at the
fault point while other sources in this case, the utility and generator, are
replaced with their internal impedance.

The magnitude of this equivalent voltage source is the product of a

voltage factor and the nominal system voltage, cVn. This is done to
account for the system prefault conditions. To determine the applicable
voltage factor, click this link.

Figure 1. ‘Equivalent Source’ Illustration

There might be a little confusion with regards to the concept of

‘equivalent source’. One might assume that only the value of the short-
circuit current at the fault location needs to be calculated using the
equivalent source and impedance. This may not be the case since one will
need to calculate the individual contribution of the fault sources
depending whether current path to the fault location are ‘meshed’ or ‘non-
meshed’.
*‘Non-meshed’ Current Paths
Unlike ANSI/IEEE, IEC 60909 uses multiplying factors specific for each
individual source contribution such that the total short-circuit current at
the fault location, may it be the initial, peak, breaking, or steady-state, is
the sum of the respective individual contribution from the fault sources. In
figure 2, the total short-circuit current is the sum of the individual
currents, I1, I2, and I3.

Figure 2. ‘Non-meshed’
Current Path

‘Meshed’ Current Paths

This is more like the ANSI/IEEE methodology, the impedance to the fault
forms a meshed network such that the calculation of the short-circuit
current uses the equivalent system impedance at the fault point instead.
When calculating short-circuits, it is important to identify whether a
source contributes to the fault through a ‘meshed’ or a ‘non-meshed’
current path. This is very important especially in the calculation of
multiplying factors since, AGAIN, they are specific for each individual
source contribution to the total short-circuit current at the fault location,
may it be the initial, peak, breaking, or steady-state.

Figure 3 shows fault current sources from a ‘meshed’ and ‘non-meshed’

current paths. The contribution from the ‘meshed’ network which is
I1 should be determined from the equivalent impedance representing the
‘meshed’ network. The total short-circuit current is then calculated as the
sum of the individual currents, I1, I2, and I3.

Figure 3. ‘Meshed’ Current Path

Before we end…

…one bit of advise, when conducting short-circuit analysis using IEC

60909, always identify the ‘meshed’ current paths and then resolve them
into an equivalent system impedance at the fault point. You would want to
work with a simple network diagram such as the one shown in figure 2,
right? Then you should always find a way to transform everything into
‘non-meshed’ current paths. This way, you can calculate the individual
short-circuit contribution from different sources. AGAIN, multiplying
factors are specific for each individual source contribution to the total
short-circuit current at the fault location, may it be the initial, peak,
breaking, or steady-state.
IEC 60909: ‘Far from’
Generator Short-Circuit
We started our discussion on IEC 60909 by introducing the different terms
used in the standard and compared them to ANSI-approved standards.
Then we presented the concept of ‘meshed’ and ‘non-meshed’ currents
paths and its significance in the calculation of initial, peak, breaking, and
steady-state short-circuit currents. In this article, we will go deeper into
IEC 60909 by introducing the concept of ‘far from’ and ‘near’ generator
short-circuit.
Let’s start by reviewing our discussion on short-circuit analysis according
to ANSI-approved standards. The concept of ‘local’ and ‘remote’
multiplying factors was introduced in order to account for the AC and DC
decrement in the calculation of the interrupting duty at the fault point.
While the local multiplying factors account for both AC and DC decrement,
remote multiplying factors account only for the DC decrement. The
calculation of the interrupting duty takes in the application of a weighted
multiplying factor accounting for the ‘local’ and ‘remote’ generators
through the concept of ‘No AC Decay’ ratio or NACD.
So how does this relate to ‘far from’ and ‘near’
generator short-circuit in IEC 60909?
The calculation of initial, peak, breaking, and steady-state short currents
depend on the application of the correct multiplying factor. As was
discussed in our previous article on IEC 60909, multiplying factors are
specific for each individual source contribution to the total short-circuit
current at the fault location, may it be the initial, peak, breaking, or
steady-state. The application of the correct multiplying factor depends on
whether the fault is ‘far from’ or ‘near’ generator.

‘Far from’ Generator Short-circuit

As with the definition of the remote source in ANSI-approved standards,
‘far from’ generator short-circuit presents no AC decrement. In other
words, the magnitude of the symmetrical AC component of the fault
remains constant. Let’s look at the fault currents with ‘far from’ generator
short-circuits.

Initial Short-circuit Current (I”k)

For each individual source contribution with impedance, Zn, for ‘non-
meshed’ current paths or the complex equivalent impedance for a
‘meshed’ current path, the initial short-circuit current is calculated using
The total initial short-circuit current is the sum of the contribution from
individual sources,

Peak Short-circuit Current (IP)

IEC 60909 defines the peak short-circuit current as the maximum
instantaneous value of the short-circuit current. This is equivalent to the
closing and latch peak duty in ANSI-approved standards. Peak short-circuit
current is calculated by introducing a crest factor, Κ, to the initial short-
circuit current, I”k.

The determination of the crest factor rests on whether the fault is coming
from ‘non-meshed’ or ‘meshed’ current paths. Click here to review the
concept of current paths.

‘Non-meshed’ Current Paths

For each individual source contribution, the crest factor is calculated using

The crest factor is dependent on the X/R ratio of the impedance of the
between the source and the fault.

‘Meshed’ Current Paths

As with the ‘non-meshed’ current paths, the calculation of the crest factor
for involving ‘meshed’ current paths is somewhat the same except for the
choice of the X/R ratio. IEC 60909 suggests three methods to determine
the crest factor involving ‘meshed’ current paths. These are the following:

 Dominant X/R ratio

  The X/R ratio is taken from the branch with the highest
X/R ratio but given that this branch carries at least 80%
of the fault current contribution.
 Equivalent X/R ratio
 The X/R ratio is taken from the complex equivalent
impedance with the crest factor calculated using

 Equivalent Frequency
 The X/R ratio is calculated according to the following
equation,

Xc, Rc, and fc are based on 20Hz for a 50Hz system, or 24Hz
for a 60Hz system.

It is important to note that the crest factor involving ‘meshed’ current

paths is limited to 1.8 and 2.0 for low- and high-voltage networks,
respectively.

The total peak short-circuit current is the sum of the contribution from
individual sources,

Symmetrical Short-circuit Breaking Current

(Ib)
The calculation of the symmetrical short-circuit breaking current for ‘far
from’ generator faults is quite straightforward since no AC decrement is
present. With this, the breaking current is equal to the initial short-circuit
current.

The total symmetrical short-circuit breaking current is the sum of the

contribution from individual sources,
Steady-state Short-circuit Current (Ik)
For ‘far from’ generator faults, the symmetrical AC component of the
short-circuit currents remains the same throughout the duration of the
fault. Thus, the steady-state short-circuit current is equal to the initial
short-circuit current.

The total steady-state short-circuit current is the sum of the contribution

from individual sources,

Short-circuit analysis in IEC 60909 involving only ‘far from’ generators

faults is very simple and straightforward because of the absence of the AC
decrement. However, for ‘near’ generator faults, AC decrement becomes
significant. In our next discussion, we will focus on the calculation of short-
circuit currents for ‘near’ generators faults.
IEC 60909: ‘Near’ Generator
Short Circuit Calculation

We talked about the ‘Far from’ generator short circuit calculation in our
previous article but we never mentioned the conditions to consider a short
circuit to be ‘far from’ or ‘near’ generator.

So really, when do we consider a short circuit to be ‘far from’ or ‘near’

generator?

According to IEC 60909, a short circuit is considered to ‘near’ generator

when at least one synchronous machine contributes a current exceeding
twice its rated current, I”k/IrG > 2, or synchronous and asynchronous
motors contribute more than 5% of the initial short circuit current
calculated without considering any motors.
Computational Significance for
Generator Short Circuit Calculation
‘Near’ generator short circuit considers AC decrement in the subsequent
calculation of short circuit currents. This means that the ‘near’ generator
steady-state short circuit currents have smaller magnitude than the
symmetrical short circuit breaking currents. These breaking currents are,
in turn, smaller in magnitude than the initial short circuit currents.

The calculation of the initial and peak short circuit currents for ‘near’
generator short circuits is the same as the ‘far from’ generator short
circuits. In determining the breaking and steady-state short circuit
currents for ‘near’ generator short circuits, additional steps are required
unlike ‘far from’ generator short circuits were initial, breaking, and steady-
state short circuit currents are equal (I”k = Ib = Ik). It is important to
determine which generators are ‘far from’ or ‘near’ the fault so that the
additional steps in the calculation of the breaking and steady-state
currents are only left to ‘near’ generator short circuit.

Symmetrical Short Circuit Breaking

Current (Ib)
In the calculation of symmetrical short circuit breaking current for ‘near’
generator short circuit, AC decrement is accounted for by introducing a
factor µ as shown in the equation below.

As with ANSI-approved standards, the breaking current depends on the

contact parting time of the protective device or the minimum time
delay tmin in IEC 60909 terms. This can be seen from the factor µ. The
factor µ also depends on the ratio of generator initial short circuit current
and rated current, I”kG/IrG. The following equations define the factor µ for a
particular minimum time delay. For other values of minimum time delay,
linear interpolation between curves is acceptable.
These equations apply to turbo generators, salient-pole generators and
synchronous compensators excited by either rotating or static converters
(provided, for static exciters, the minimum time delay is less than 0.25s
and the maximum excitation voltage is less than 1.6 times rated load
excitation-voltage). For all other cases, µ = 1.
It is also worth noting that the prerequisite for the identification of ‘far
from’ or ‘near’ generator short circuits is preserved in the factor µ in that
if the ratio I”kG/IrG is not greater than 2, µ is set to 1. This will set the
breaking current equal to the initial short circuit current, a characteristic
of ‘far from’ generator short circuit.

Multiplying Factor µ

For short circuits involving ‘meshed’ current paths, determining µ from a

single equivalent ratio I”kG/IrG is not applicable. In this case, setting the
symmetrical short circuit breaking current equal to the initial short circuit
current is permitted. This will affect the accuracy though will be more
conservative.
The symmetrical short circuit breaking current contribution from
asynchronous motors are quantified by introducing an additional factor q
and replacing the ratio I”kG/IrG with I”kM/IrM. The factor q takes into account
the rapid decay of the motor short circuit due to the absence of an
excitation field.

where

PrM is the rated active power in MW

p is the number of pairs of poles of the motor
Take note that the factor q is limited to 1.
Multiplying Factor q

The total symmetrical short circuit breaking current is the sum of the
contribution from individual sources,

Steady-state Short Circuit Current (Ik)

Steady-state short circuit current for ‘near’ generator short circuits is
normally lower in magnitude than the symmetrical short circuit breaking
current. It depends on the excitation system, the voltage regulator action,
and saturation influences. Synchronous machines with static exciters fed
directly from its terminals has zero steady-state contribution for short
circuits on its terminals. This is because the field voltage collapses with
the terminal voltage during fault. They only contribute to the steady-state
short circuit if the there is an impedance between its terminals and the
fault location, e.g., faults on the high-voltage side of the unit transformer
in the case of power station units.

The calculation of the steady-state short circuit current is rather

straightforward in that it depends only on the generator rated current and
the excitation voltage. However, the procedures presented are only
accurate for the case of one generator or power station unit supplying the
fault. Maximum and minimum values are calculated in order to provide
the range of the steady-state short circuit contribution. The minimum
steady-state short circuit current is calculated based on a constant and
unregulated excitation voltage using the following equation.

The maximum steady-state short circuit current is calculated based on

maximum excitation voltage using the following equation.

The multiplying factor λmax depends on the whether the generator is a

turbo or salient-pole generator; and the ratio of the maximum excitation
voltage to the excitation voltage under normal load conditions (series 1 or
2).
Series 1 multiplying factor λmax is based on the highest possible excitation
voltage which is 1.3 times the rated excitation voltage at rated apparent
power and power factor for turbo generators or 1.6 times the rated
excitation voltage at rated apparent power and power factor for salient-
pole generators.
Series 2 multiplying factor λmax is based on the highest possible excitation
voltage which is 1.6 times the rated excitation voltage at rated apparent
power and power factor for turbo generators or 2.0 times the rated
excitation voltage at rated apparent power and power factor for salient-
pole generators.
Short Circuit Impedance
Calculation | IEC60909

Short circuit impedance calculation techniques based on IEC 60909 with

correction factors for synchronous generators, power supply units, and
transformers.

Determining the current paths whether ‘non-meshed’ or ‘meshed’ and the

proximity of the fault, ‘far from’ or ‘near’ generators are prerequisites in
the calculation of short circuit currents in IEC 60909. Prior to this is the
determination of the impedances of the electrical equipment. For many,
the short circuit impedance calculation is a straightforward process but in
IEC 60909, the determination of impedances for certain equipment
requires a slightly different approach. This is especially useful in the
calculation of short circuit currents prescribed in the standard.
Network Feeders
Network feeders are usually represented by the initial symmetrical short
circuit MVA, SkQ”, or the initial symmetrical short circuit current, IkQ”. With
the nominal voltage at point Q (UnQ shown in the figure), the impedance
can be calculated using,

If the short circuit RQ/XQ ratio is available, the reactance XQ can be

calculated using,

If no short circuit RQ/XQ ratio information is available, the resistance RQ and

reactance XQ can be approximated using the following relationship,

For networks operating at a nominal voltage greater than 35kV, setting

the impedance equal to the reactance is usually sufficient.

It is also possible to use the above techniques in cases where the short
circuit is fed through a transformer by introducing the transformation ratio
such that
Synchronous Generators
For synchronous generators, the following information is usually available.

1. Rated Apparent Power, SrG

2. Rated Voltage, UrG
3. Rated Power Factor, cos φrG
4. Per unit Subtransient Reactance, x”d
The generator reactance can be determined from x”d using

To determine RG, the following approximations are fairly accurate.

RG = 0.05X”d, when UrG ≥ 1kV and SrG ≥ 100MVA
RG = 0.07X”d, when UrG ≥ 1kV and SrG ≤ 100MVA
RG = 0.15X”d, when UrG < 1kV

The generator subtransient impedance can be calculated using

Correction Factor for Generators (KG)

The voltage correction factors presented in our introductory discussion on
IEC 60909 were intended to account for the system pre-fault conditions.
Generally, voltage variation in power systems falls within ±5% to ±10% of
the system nominal voltages. The calculation of maximum short-circuit
current using applicable voltage factors, however, may not be sufficiently
applicable to generators or power station units especially considering their
subtransient behavior, i.e., equivalent voltage source cVn is used instead
of substransient voltage E”. Accordingly, IEC 60909 introduced impedance
correction factors specifically for generators and power station units.
The impedance correction factor for generators directly connected to the
system can be calculated using,

where

ZGK is the generator corrected impedance

ZG is the generator subtransient impedance
KG is the generator impedance correction factor
Cmax is the voltage correction factor
UrG is the generator rated voltage
x”d is the generator per unit subtransient reactance
φrG is the phase angle between IrG and UrG/ 3
Correction Factor for Power Supply Unit (KPSU)
For generators with a dedicated transformer, a single correction factor is
applied to the sum of their impedances. It is as if the generator and its
dedicated transformer are treated as one unit.

where

ZPSU is the power supply unit corrected impedance

ZG is the generator subtransient impedance in ohms
ZrTHV is the transformer rated impedance referred to the HV side in ohms
tr is the transformer rated voltage ratio, VHV/VLV
KPSU is the power supply unit impedance correction factor
Cmax is the voltage correction factor
UnQ is the nominal system voltage
UrG is the generator rated voltage
x”d is the generator per unit subtransient reactance
xT is the transformer per unit reactance
φrG is the phase angle between IrG and UrG/ 3

Two-Winding Transformers
The impedance of two-winding transformers are calculated as follows:

where

ZT is the transformer positive sequence impedance

ukr is the transformer short circuit voltage at rated current
UrT is the transformer rated voltage
SrT is the transformer rated apparent power
RT is the transformer positive sequence resistance
PkrT is the transformer total winding losses at rated current
IrT is the transformer rated current
XT is the transformer positive sequence reactance
Correction Factor for Transformers (KT)
As with synchronous generators, transformer impedance correction factor
can be calculated using,
where

ZKT is the transformer corrected impedance

ZT is the transformer positive sequence impedance
KT is the transformer impedance correction factor
Cmax is the voltage correction factor
xT is the transformer per unit reactance
UrT is the transformer rated voltage
SrT is the transformer rated apparent power
XT is the transformer reactance in ohms

It is important to note that the short circuit impedance calculation

presented in this article are chosen based on the author’s perspective on
the topic. The readers are encouraged to review the calculations
prescribed in IEC 60909.
Circuit Breaker Short-Circuit
Duty Calculation | IEC60909

Circuit breaker short-circuit duty calculation is a very important step in

our discussion on IEC 60909. We had just completed our discussion on the
basic concepts of IEC 60909. We started with the introduction of IEC
60909 by defining the common terms used in the standard and how they
compare to the terms in the ANSI-approved standards.
Next, we introduced the concept of ‘meshed’ and ‘non-meshed’ networks,
how to identify them, and how important they are in the calculation of
short-circuit currents. Then we introduced another important concept in
IEC 60909 which is the ‘far from’ and ‘near’ generator short-circuits where
we dived deeper into the calculation of short-circuits by
introducing multiplying factors, how and when to use them.
Lastly, we took a step back and presented a discussion on how IEC 60909
determines the short-circuit impedances for common network
components.

In this article, we will reinforce the concepts presented though a simple

application example. Circuit breaker short-circuit duty calculation will be
presented in a step-by-step approach. For comparison, we will use the
same sample network from our application example for the ANSI-
approved standard.

Sample Network
Figure 1 shows a network with two sources, one is network feeder through
a transmission line and the other is a synchronous generator. Our faulted
point is the bus where the synchronous generator is directly connected.
Figure 1. Sample Network Diagram

Calculation of Short-Circuit
Impedance
We will start by creating an impedance diagram using the concepts that
we learned from our previous discussions.

Network Feeder
Network feeders are usually represented by the initial symmetrical short
circuit MVA, SkQ, or the initial symmetrical short circuit current, IkQ”. With
the nominal voltage UnQ, the impedance can be calculated as follows.
In this example, we will be calculating the maximum short-circuit duty.
Given this, we will set the voltage correction factor cmax = 1.1. Refer to
this link for the list of voltage correction factors used in IEC 60909.

Next, we calculate the reactance based on our computed ZQ and the

given X/R ratio.

From there, it is easy to calculate RQ.

Transmission Line
The method in calculation of transmission lines impedance was omitted in
our previous discussion since its determination is the same throughout
different standards and is available in different power system analysis
books. It is important to note, however, that since we are dealing with the
calculation of the maximum short-circuit currents, it is necessary to adjust
the transmission line resistance to a temperature of 20°C as prescribed in
IEC 60909.

With the reactance equal to

The impedance of the transmission line can be easily calculated using

The total impedance from the network feeder to the fault point can be
calculated from the sum of the feeder and transmission line resistance
and reactance, therefore,
and the R/X ratio

Synchronous Generator
The easiest way to determine the generator impedance is to start with the
calculation of its reactance using,

Next is to determine the generator resistance. Since the generator in this

example has a rated apparent power of 5.952MVA, we can approximate
its resistance using,

The generator impedance is calculated using,

To account for the generator substransient behavior, IEC 60909 has
recommended impedance correction factors. For generators this is,

The corrected impedance is calculated using,

The impedance diagram is shown in figure 2.

Figure 2. Impedance Diagram

Calculation of Initial Symmetrical
Short-Circuit Currents

Network Feeder
The calculation of initial symmetrical short-circuit current contribution
from the network feeder through the transmission can be calculated
using,

Synchronous Generator
The same process is done to calculate the initial symmetrical short-circuit
current contribution from the generator.
Total Initial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current
The total initial symmetrical short-circuit current is calculated as follows,

Calculation of the Peak Short-circuit

Current

Network Feeder
The calculation of the peak short-circuit current contribution from the
network feeder through the transmission can be calculated from

The crest factor is determined using

The peak short-circuit current contribution from the network feeder is

Synchronous Generator
The same process is done to calculate the peak short-circuit current
contribution from the generator.

Total peak short-circuit current

The total peak short-circuit current is calculated as shown
Calculation of Symmetrical Short-
circuit Breaking Current

Network Feeder
Since network feeders’ short-circuit contribution are considered ‘far-from’
generator short-circuit, the symmetrical short-circuit breaking current is
equal to the initial symmetrical short-circuit current.

Synchronous Generator
For a synchronous generator, it is necessary to determine first whether
the short-circuit is ‘far-from’ or ‘near’ generator. We can check the ratio of
its initial symmetrical short-circuit current contribution to its rated current
if its greater than 2.

-Since I”kG/IrG is greater than 2, the synchronous generator in this example

is a ‘near’ generator.
To calculate the symmetrical short-circuit breaking current contribution of
the generator, a factor µ is introduced.

IEC 60909 has provided the equations to calculate µ based on a particular

minimum time delay. For this example, let us assume a minimum time
delay of 0.05s.
Calculating for the generator symmetrical short-circuit breaking current
contribution we get,

Total Symmetrical Short-Circuit Breaking

Current
The total symmetrical short-circuit breaking current is calculated as shown

Calculation of Asymmetrical Short-

circuit Breaking Current
If the calculation of the asymmetrical short-circuit breaking current is of
interest, the following procedures apply.

Determine the aperiodic DC component of the initial symmetrical short-

circuit current using the following equation,
Network Feeder

Synchronous Generator
For synchronous generators, the calculation of the aperiodic DC
component requires an X/R ratio provided by the manufacturer.
Unfortunately, the approximation of RG to get the X/R ratio cannot be
used. For this example, based on the manufacturer’s data, the X/R ratio
for the given generator is 19.

Calculate the total aperiodic DC component using,

Total Asymmetrical Short-Circuit Breaking
Current
Calculate the total asymmetrical short-circuit breaking current using,

Calculation of Steady-State Short-

Circuit Current

Network Feeder
Since network feeders’ short-circuit contributions are considered ‘far-from’
generator short-circuit, the steady-state short-circuit current is equal to
the initial symmetrical short-circuit current.

Synchronous Generator
Steady-state short-circuit current for ‘near’ generator short-circuits is
normally lower in magnitude than the symmetrical short-circuit breaking
current. The calculation of the steady-state short-circuit current is rather
straightforward in that it depends only on the generator rated current and
the excitation voltage.
Since the circuit breaker short-circuit duty is of interest here, the
maximum steady-state short-circuit current is calculated using,

The multiplying factor λmax depends on whether the generator is a turbo or

salient-pole generator and the ratio of the maximum excitation voltage to
the excitation voltage under normal load conditions (series 1 or 2).

The generator in this example is a turbogenerator with a maximum

excitation voltage of 1.3 times its rated. Therefore, we will be using the
series 1 curve for turbo generators. From the manufacturer’s data, the
saturated value of synchronous reactance is 1.55.
Figure 3. Series 1 Curve for Turbo Generators

Based on the given curve, the multiplying factor λmax is determined as

shown

The steady-state short-circuit current contribution from the generator is

calculated as shown
Total Steady-State Short-Circuit Current
The total steady-state short-circuit current is calculated as shown

And that’s about it.

Circuit breaker short-circuit duty calculation based on IEC 60909 is quite

lengthy and would take a lot of time when done manually. A good
computer software will surely help in the analysis!

In our next article, we’ll present the IEC 60909 analysis procedure using
ETAP software.
Short Circuit Analysis Using
ETAP | IEC 60909

Short circuit analysis using ETAP software based on IEC 60909 standard.

In the previous discussion, we have presented the step-by-step process of

short-circuit calculation based on IEC 60909. The calculations were quite
intensive and time-consuming as compared to ANSI-approved methods
thus the use of computer software is recommended. As with our final
discussion on ANSI short-circuit calculation method, we will conclude the
IEC 60909 series with a short circuit analysis using ETAP software.
Before proceeding to the topic, it is recommended that you familiarize
yourself with the software user interface. You can refer to this link to
review the basic elements and toolbars available in the software, and the
step-by-step process of modeling. We will be using the same network as
with the ANSI short-circuit application example so that we can make a
comparison of the results.
At this point, you are expected to know already how to model the sample
network in ETAP. Your network model should look like the figure as shown
below.

Verify that the following device parameters are consistent with your
model. These parameters are pre-requisite to running the short circuit
analysis using ETAP for IEC 60909.

Utility

Rated kV: 25

3-Phase MVAsc: 228.964

3-Phase kAsc: 5.288

X/R: 17.887

Transmission Line

R – T1 Pos.: 0.08171 (Unit in Ohms)

X – T1 Pos.: 0.18041 (Unit in Ohms)

Synchronous Generator

kV: 25

MVA: 5.952

FLA: 137.5

Xd”: 19

Xd”/Ra: 19

Xd: 155

Exciter Type: Turbine 130%

Setting-up the Study Parameters

After reviewing the device parameters, we are now ready to set-up the
study case. Navigate to the Study-Case toolbar and click the ‘Edit Study
Case’ button. Verify that the faulted bus is Bus2.
Navigate to the ‘Standard’ tab. Select ‘IEC’ for the ‘Standard’ field and
‘Max.’ for the ‘Short-Circuit Current’ field. Leave all other fields to their
default values.
Next, navigate to the ‘Adjustment’ tab and uncheck all checkboxes as
shown in the figure below.
Notice that the ‘Resistance Temperature Correction’ fields are greyed-out.
Remember that IEC 60909 requires the resistance correction of a
transmission line to 20°C for the calculation of maximum short-circuit
currents. You can review the resistance correction calculation through
this link.

You can now close the ‘Study Case’ window by clicking ‘OK’. After setting-
up the study case, the short-circuit toolbar on the right side of your ETAP
window should look like the figure below.
Before running the Short circuit analysis using ETAP, it is important to
identify what equipment is to be specified. In this example, we are
interested in the circuit breaker. Double-click on the high-voltage circuit
breaker on the one-line diagram and navigate to the ‘Rating’ tab and click
on the ‘Library’. A new window should pop-out. Select the circuit breaker
as shown and click ‘OK’.

On the ‘Min. Delay’ field drop-down list, select 0.05. This is to be

consistent with our calculation using the ANSI-approved method where we
set the rated interrupting time to 3 cycles. Click ‘OK’ to close the high-
voltage circuit breaker editor.

Short-Circuit Analysis
To start the short circuit analysis using ETAP, click on the ‘Run 3-Phase
Device Duty (IEC 60909). If a new window will pop-out requiring you to
specify the report name. Enter the output file name of the report and click
‘OK’.

Click on the ‘Report Manager’ in order to open/view the study output

report. For this example, click on the ‘Summary’ tab and select
‘Summary’. Click ‘OK’.
Comparison of Results
The following table shows the short-circuit analysis results for the same
network using the ANSI-approved method and the IEC 60909.

Final Thoughts
Short-circuit analysis is a very important process in the planning and
design of any power system. There are different international standards
that address the method of calculation but among these, the most
common is the ANSI-approved standards and the IEC 60909 standard.
These standards have different approach in the calculation of short-circuit
currents and device duties with IEC 60909 more computationally intensive
and conservative. The choice regarding which standard to use depends on
the design engineer but more importantly should be based on the
standard to which the equipment to be acquired or assessed is certified.
Detailed Short Circuit
Calculation Using ETAP

Short circuit calculation using ETAP can be done through the ‘Short Circuit
Analysis’ module. This module allows the calculation of fault duties
according to the C37 Series of the ANSI/IEEE Standards and can be
accessed from the mode toolbar as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1. Accessing ETAP Short-Circuit Analysis Mode

As with other study modes within ETAP, the short-circuit analysis mode
options or preferences can be accessed through the Study Case Toolbar
while various studies under short-circuit analysis mode can be accessed
through the Study Mode Toolbar.

Figure 2. Short-Circuit Study

The Study Case Toolbar

Figure 3. Study Case Toolbar

The short-circuit analysis mode preferences can be accessed through the
Study Case Toolbar. To begin with the short-circuit analysis, a Study Case
should be identified. The ‘New Study Case’ button initializes the creation
of a new study case. ETAP does this by creating a duplicate copy of the
existing study case. If done the first time, clicking the ‘New Study Case’
button will create a copy of the default study case. Once done, the new
study case will be available on the drop-down menu.

You can also find from the Study Case toolbar a List of Output Reports
where results from previous studies can be viewed. A Report Manager
allows you to save the Output Reports in specific formats.

The Study Case Editor can be accessed by clicking the ‘Edit Study Case’
button. The Short-Circuit Study Case Editor contains preferences and
parameters in which you can specify the solution control variables, faulted
bus selection, applicable standards, and other options for output reports.
Under the ‘Standard’ tab, select ANSI to set your short-circuit study based
on the C37 series of the ANSI/IEEE standards.
Figure 4. Edit Study Case

For newer ETAP versions, creating a new study case is accessible in the
‘Edit Study Case’ pop-out menu as shown in the next figure.
 Figure 5. Creating
New Study Case on Newer ETAP Versions

The Study Mode Toolbar

By selecting ANSI in the standard tab of the Study Case toolbar, the Study
Mode toolbar is set to ANSI/IEEE. The ANSI/IEEE short-circuit toolbar allows
you to do the following:

 Run 3-phase device duty calculations based on ANSI c37 series

 Run 1-phase system device duty calculations (Not available on
basic software license)
 Calculate ½ cycle RMS symmetrical short circuit currents
 Calculate 1.5-4 cycle RMS symmetrical short-circuit currents
 Calculate 30 cycle RMS symmetrical short-circuit currents
 Specify what you want to display on the one-line diagram
 Open an alert view of the device duty calculation
 0Open Report Manager
 Open ANSI Short Circuit Analyzer (Only available to ETAP 14 and
above versions)
Figure 6. Short-Circuit Toolbar

Application Example
This guide provides a step-by-step approach using the minimum input
required in order to run a short-circuit study on ETAP software.

Consider this very simple system composed of one utility source and one
generator source. The utility source represents a remote source short-
circuit current while the generator represents the local source of short-
circuit current.
 Figure 7. Model One-Line Diagram

Model Parameters

Power Grid
There are only a few things to set-up the Power Grid model. The ID,
Operation Mode, Rated kV, and the Short-Circuit parameters. Double click
on the Power Grid to start filling-in the parameters.
 Figure 8. Power
Grid Info Tab

In the ‘Info’ tab, you will find the ‘ID’ field. Type-in the name of the Power
Grid.

Navigate to the ‘Operation Mode’ and verify if ‘Swing’ is ticked. Take note
that ETAP requires at least one swing source for all available study modes.

The ‘Rating’ tab allows you to input the Power Grid ‘Rated kV’ and
‘Generation Category’. There’s not much to do here than inputting rated
kV of the Power Grid.
 Figure 9. Power
Grid Rating Tab

Next up is the ‘Short-Circuit’ tab. You can either

specify the 3-phase and 1-phase short-circuit kA and X/R while ETAP
calculates the rest

OR

specify the percent positive- and zero-sequence resistance and reactance

on a 100MVAbase while ETAP calculates the rest.

It depends on what data is readily available to you.

 Figure 10. Power
Grid Short-Circuit Tab

And your done setting-up the Power Grid model. Click the ‘OK’ button to
save the settings.

Synchronous Generator
Setting up the generator model can be quite complicated but again we are
only up to the minimum input required to run the short-circuit study.
Double click on the synchronous generator to start setting-up.

Don’t be overwhelmed with the number of setting tabs available. We’ll

only set-up a few.
 Figure 11. Generator
Info Tab

As with the utility model, fill in the ‘ID’ field with the name of the
generator. In the ‘Operation Mode’, you can leave at as ‘Voltage Control’.
As mentioned, ETAP only requires at least one swing source to be able to
run any of the study modes.

Next tab. ‘Rating’.

 Figure 12. Generator
Rating Tab

In the ‘Rating’ tab, you can specify the generator rated capacity, kV,
power factor, efficiency and more. For this example, fill in the parameters
as shown in the figure. These parameters were determined for
convenience’s sake and do not reflect real-world synchronous generators.
After inputting these parameters, move on to the next tab.
 Figure 13. Generator
Imp/Model Tab

The last tab that we are concerned about is the ‘Imp/Model’ with so much
field to fill-up but we don’t have to do much here. Just click on the ‘Typical
Data’ and verify the values on the figure. Click the ‘OK’ button to save the
settings.

Next, we move on to modeling our transmission line.

Transmission Line
There are lesser tabs here compared to the synchronous generator but
setting-up the minimum input requirement for the transmission line model
takes a bit more than the utility and synchronous generator model.

Again first things first, the ‘Info’ tab.

 Figure 14. Transmission
Line Info Tab

Fill in the name and the length of the transmission line on the ‘ID’ and the
‘Length’ field, respectively. Don’t forget to set the unit of measurement
for the specified length!
 Figure 15. Transmission
Line Parameter Tab

The ‘Parameter’ tab allows you to specify the phase and neutral
conductors. To that, you can input the conductor parameters that you
have or you can refer to the ETAP library and select the conductors from
the list.
 Figure 16.
Selecting Phase Conductor

Click on the ‘Conductor Lib…’ under the ‘Phase Conductor’ to access ETAP
Library Quick Pick for Transmission Lines. For this example, navigate to
‘EPRI/M.LAYER’ and select ‘Linnet’.
 Figure 17.
Selecting the Ground Wire

For the Ground Wire, you can either choose from the available Ground
Wire Library or the Conductor Library. For this example, we will choose the
ground wire from the Conductor Library. Click on the ‘Conductor Lib…’ and
navigate to ‘EPRI/S.LAYER’. Select ‘Penguin’ from the available list.
 Figure 18. Transmission
Line Configuration

The last tab to set-up is the ‘Configuration’ tab. In this tab, we specify the
transmission line configuration including the spacing and the height. Enter
the values as shown in the figure. Click the ‘OK’ button to save the
settings.

Study Case
To access the short-circuit module in ETAP, click on the ‘Short-Circuit’
button as shown in the figure.
Figure 19. Accessing the Short-Circuit Module

Navigate to the Study-Case toolbar and click the ‘Edit Study Case’ button.
A new window will pop-up where you can specify the study preferences
and parameters such as solution control variables, faulted bus selection,
applicable standards, and other options for output reports.

Figure 20. Study

Case Info Tab

On the ‘Info’ tab, select the bus/busses to be faulted from the list of
available busses and click the ‘<< Fault’ button. The choice of the bus
depends on where the circuit breaker/s are planned to be connected. After
the bus selection, the faulted busses are moved from the ‘Don’t Fault’ to
the ‘Fault’ field of the ‘Bus Selection’.
 Figure 21. Study
Case Faulted Bus Selection

You can also verify the faulted busses from the ‘One-Line Diagram’ since
they are highlighted red.
 Figure 21. Faulted Bus 2

Next, navigate to the ‘Standard’ tab of the Short-Circuit Study Case. For
this example, select ‘ANSI’ from the ‘Standard’ field and ‘C37.010 – 1979
and Older’ for the ‘Device Duty’ field. Selecting ‘C37.010 – 1979 and
Older’ allows the selection of S-factor based on circuit breaker contact
parting time as shown in the table below.

Table 1. Circuit Breaker S-factor (C37.010 – 1979)

Leave other parameters to their default values.

 Figure 22. Study
Case Adjustment Tab

Lastly, navigate to the ‘Adjustment’ tab and uncheck all checkboxes. This
is to verify the results later using manual calculations for learning
purposes. Click the ‘OK’ button to save the settings.

On actual projects, it is recommended to check all tolerances in order to

have conservative results.

ANSI Short-Circuit Mode

After setting up the model and study case parameters, you are now ready
to conduct ANSI short-circuit study.

Click on the ‘ANSI 3-Phase Device Duty (ANSI37)’ to start the analysis.
 Figure 23. Run ANSI 3-phase Device Duty (ANSI C37)

A new window will pop-out requiring you to specify the report name. Enter
the output file name of the report and click ‘OK’.

Figure 24. Report Output File Name

After clicking ‘OK’, the One-Line Diagram should look as shown in figure.
 Figure 25. Simulation Results on One-
Line Diagram

You may choose to modify what is displayed on the One-Line Diagram by

clicking the ‘Display Options’ in the ANSI Short-Circuit toolbar.

Figure 26. Accessing the Display Options

Click on the ‘Report Manager’ in order to open/view the study output

report.
 Figure 27. Report Manager
Complete Tab

Navigate through the different tabs in the ‘Report Manager’ to select the
information you want to view.

Figure 28. Report Manager

Summary Tab

For this example, click on the ‘Summary’ tab and select ‘Summary’. Click
‘OK’.
Figure 29. Momentary Duty Summary Report

A new window will pop-out containing the report summary as selected on

the ‘Report Manager’.

Verify the results using manual calculations. Click here to access the step-
by-step guide to sizing circuit breakers using manual calculations.
You can also compare the results using our circuit breaker sizing
calculator available in the tools section.

Figure 30. Interrupting Duty Summary Report

You may also choose to print the results by clicking the ‘Print Report’
button.

There you have it.