Chapter 1

Functions

Contents
1.1 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Absolute value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Shifting, scaling, reflecting the graph of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Polynomials and rational functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.3 Trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Analytic geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.1 Sets
Definition 1.1 (Sets).

(a) A set is a collection of objects called elements. Usually we denote sets by capital letters A, B, C, . . ., and
elements by lowercase letters a, b, c, . . .
(b) If an element x belongs to (or is a member of) the set S, we write x 2 S, and if it does not x 2
/ S.

(c) If each element in the set A is also a member of the set B, we say that A is a subset of B and write A ✓ B or
B ◆ A. If A ✓ B and A 6= B, we say that A is a proper subset of B and write A ( B or B ) A.
(d) The letter U denotes the universal set, which is the set of all elements under discussion; the symbol ? denotes
the empty set. For every set A we have
? ✓ A ✓ U.

(e) The union, intersection, difference of two sets A and B, and the complement of a set A are defined resp.
by
A [ B := {x : x 2 A or x 2 B}, A \ B := {x : x 2 A and x 2 B},
and
A\B=A B := {x : x 2 A and x 2
/ B}, AC := U \ A.

1
CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS 2

1.2 Numbers
In this course, we use the following notation.

1. Natural numbers: N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}

2. Integers: Z = {. . . , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}
3. Rational numbers: Q = { m
n : m, n 2 Z, n 6= 0}

4. Real numbers: R

5. Irrational numbers: R\Q

Definition 1.2. Given real numbers a < b, we define the bounded intervals

[a, b] := {x 2 R : a  x  b}, (a, b) := {x 2 R : a < x < b},

[a, b) := {x 2 R : a  x < b}, (a, b] := {x 2 R : a < x  b},

and the unbounded intervals

[a, 1) := {x 2 R : x a}, ( 1, b] := {x 2 R : x  b},
(a, 1) := {x 2 R : x > a}, ( 1, b) := {x 2 R : x < b},

and also we write

R = ( 1, 1).
The intervals [a, b], [a, 1), and ( 1, b] are called closed, and the intervals (a, b), (a, 1) and ( 1, b) are called
open. [The interval R = ( 1, +1) is both open and closed!]
1
Theorem 1.1 (Archimedean property). Given any " > 0, there is a natural number n such that < ".
n
Theorem 1.2. For every positive real number x, and for every n 2pN with n 2, there exists a unique positive real
number y such that y n = x. This number y is denoted by x1/n or n x, and is called the nth root of x.

1.2.1 Absolute value

Definition 1.3. For a real number a, we define its absolute value as
⇢
a, if a 0,
|a| :=
a, if a < 0.

Theorem 1.3. For all a, b, c 2 R, we have:

(a) |a| 0; (i) |a|  a  |a|;
(b) |a| = 0 iff a = 0; (j) |a + b|  |a| + |b| . . . triangle inequality
(c) | a| = |a|; (k) |a c|  |a b| + |b c|;
(d) |ab| = |a||b| and |a2 | = |a|2 ; (l) ||a| |b||  |a b| . . . reverse triangle inequality
(e) |a|  c iff c  a  c; (m) if b 6= 0, then | 1b | = |b|
1
;
|a|
(f) |a| < c iff c < a < c; (n) if b 6= 0, then | ab | = |b| .
(g) |a| c iff a c or a  c;
(h) |a| > c iff a > c or a < c;

Proof. The triangle inequality follows from

[ |a|  a  |a| and |b|  b  |b| ] =) (|a| + |b|)  a + b  (|a| + |b|) =) |a + b|  |a| + |b|.
CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS 3

As for the reverse triangle inequality, we have

|a| = |(a b) + b|  |a b| + |b| =) |a| |b|  |a b|.

Similarly,
(|a| |b|) = |b| |a|  |b a| = |a b|.
Therefore,
||a| |b||  |a b|.
We leave the rest as exercises. ⇤

Example 1.1. Solve the equation |x + 3| |2x 1| x=0

To this end, we observe
8 8
< (x + 3) (2x 1) x, if 12  x, < 4 2x, if 12  x,
|x+3| |2x 1| x = (x + 3) + (2x 1) x, if 3  x < 12 , = 2x + 2, if 3  x < 21 ,
: :
(x + 3) + (2x 1) x, if x < 3, 4, if x < 3.

Therefore the solutions are x = 2 and x = 1.

Example 1.2. Solve the inequality |x2 3x 4| > 0.

Since |x2 3x 4| = |x 4| |x + 1| , we see that x is a solution if and only if x 2 R { 1, 4}.

x+3
Example 1.3. Solve the inequality 2.
6 x
Observe that
x+3
2 if and only if |x + 3| 2|x 6| 0 and x 6= 6.
6 x

Since 8
< x + 15, if 6  x,
|x + 3| 2|x 6| = 3x 9, if 3  x < 6,
:
x 15, if x < 3,
we deduce that the set of solutions is [3, 6) [ (6, 15].
1
Example 1.4. Solve the inequality 2 < 2.
x
We observe

1 1 1 1
2 <2 , 2< 2 < 2 and x 6= 0 , 0< <4 , x2 ,1 .
x x x 4

1.3 Functions
Definition 1.4 (Functions). A function f from a set X to a set Y is a rule that assigns a single value y = f (x) in
Y to each x in X. In this case:
(a) x is called the independent variable and y the dependent variable.

(b) If y = f (x), then y is called the image of x under f , and x is called a preimage of y.
CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS 4

(c) The graph of the function f , written gr(f ), is the subset of the cartesian product X ⇥ Y = {(x, y) : x 2
X, y 2 Y } defined by
gr(f ) := {(x, f (x)) : x 2 X}.

(c) The function is often denoted by f : X ! Y or sometimes just by f when the sets X and Y are clear from the
context. The set X is called the domain of the function f and is denoted by Dom(f ) or Df , and the subset

f (X) = {y 2 Y : y = f (x) for some x 2 X} = {f (x) : x 2 X} ✓ Y

is called the range of f and is sometimes denoted by Range(f ) or by Rf . If f (X) = Y , we say that the function
is onto or surjective.
(d) The function f is called one-to-one or injective if

8x1 , x2 2 X x1 6= x2 =) f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ),

that is if each range element has a unique preimage.

(e) If f : X ! Y is one-to-one, we define the inverse function f 1 : f (X) ! X, read ”f inverse,” by the
following: For each y 2 f (X) define f 1 (y) to be the unique preimage of y under f . Then

f 1
(y) = x if and only if f (x) = y.

It is clear that f 1
: f (X) ! Y is one-to-one and onto.
(f) If f : X ! Y is one-to-one and onto, then f is called a bijection.
Definition 1.5. If f : X ! Y and g : Y ! Z, we define the composite function g f : X ! Z by

(g f )(x) := g(f (x)).

Remark 1.1. For almost all functions f in this course, we will have Df , Rf ✓ R, i.e. we will deal with real valued
functions of a real variable.
Example 1.5.

1. The absolute value function: | · | : R ! R : x 7! |x| has domain R and range [0, 1).
2. The greatest integer function: [[·]] : R ! R : x 7! [[x]] defined by setting

[[x]] := n where n is the unique integer such that n  x < n + 1,

has domain R and range Z.

3. y = xn (n 2 N is odd) has domain R and range R, and is bijective.
4. y = xn (n 2 N is even) has domain R and range [0, 1).
5. y = x n
(n 2 N is odd) has domain R {0} and range R {0}, and is bijective.
6. y = x n (n 2 N is even) has domain R {0} and range (0, 1).
p
7. y = n x (n 2 N is odd) has domain R and range R, and is bijective.
p
8. y = n x (n 2 N is even) has domain [0, 1) and range [0, 1).
p
9. Exercise: Discuss the domain and range of the function y = xp/q := q xp (where p, q 2 Z {0} have no
common factors) depending on whether p, q are odd or even, and positive or negative.
Caution: Later on we will generalize this definition to all real exponents a using logarithms as xa := ea ln x
where we will have to assume that x > 0, as the domain of the natural logarithm function is (0, 1).
CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS 5

Definition 1.6 (combining functions). Let f and g be real valued functions with domains Df and Dg , and let
c 2 R. We define the functions cf , f + g, f · g, f /g by setting
(cf )(x) := c f (x), (f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x), (f · g)(x) := f (x) · g(x), (f /g)(x) := f (x)/g(x),
and we recall that the composition is defined by (f g)(x) = f (g(x)). Note that
Dcf = Df , Df +g = Df \ Dg , Df ·g = Df \ Dg , Df /g = Df \ Dg {x 2 Dg : g(x) = 0},
and
Df g = {x 2 Dg : g(x) 2 Df }.
|x| p
Example 1.6. Let f (x) = and g(x) = x 1 x. Then
x
Df = R {0},
Dg = ( 1, 1], Df g = ( 1, 1] {0}, Dg f =R {0}.
r
x+2
Example 1.7. Considering the function f (x) = , we note that
1 x
x+2
x 2 Df , 0,[x+2 0&1 x>0 or x+20&1 x<0]
1 x
,[x 2&1>x or x 2&1<x]
Since what is written in boldface is impossible, we deduce Df = [ 2, 1).
Definition 1.7. The graph gr(f ) of a real valued function f of a real variable is said to be
1. symmetric about the y-axis provided ( x, y) 2 gr(f ) whenever (x, y) 2 gr(f ),
2. symmetric about the origin provided ( x, y) 2 gr(f ) whenever (x, y) 2 gr(f ).
p p
Remark 1.2. Note that the equation y 2 = x does not define y as a function of x since either y = x or y = x.
However, we can still plot this equation on the xy-plane, and the arising plot (still called a graph) is symmetric about
the x-axis.
Definition 1.8. A real valued function f of a real variable having the property that x 2 Df if and only if x 2 Df
is said to be
1. even provided f ( x) = f (x) for all x 2 Df ,
2. odd provided f ( x) = f (x) for all x 2 Df .

1.3.1 Shifting, scaling, reflecting the graph of a function

Vertical and Horizontal Shifts:
• Vertical shifts: y = f (x) + k
• Horizontal shifts: y = f (x + h) [shift h units left if h > 0, and h units right if h < 0]
Vertical and Horizontal Scaling, and Reflections:
• For c > 0 the graph is scaled:
– y = cf (x) : Stretch (c > 1) or compress (c < 1) the graph vertically by a factor c
– y = f (cx) : Compress (c > 1) or stretch (c < 1) the graph horizontally by a factor c
• Reflections:
– y= f (x) : Reflect the graph across the x-axis
– y = f ( x) : Reflect the graph across the y-axis
CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS 6

1.3.2 Polynomials and rational functions

Definition 1.9. Given a0 , a1 , . . . , an 1 , an 2 R with an 6= 0, the function

P (x) = an xn + an 1x
n 1
+ . . . + a1 x + a0

is called a polynomial of degree n with real coefficients a0 , a1 , . . . , an 1 , an .

Theorem 1.4 (rational roots theorem). Suppose that the polynomial

P (x) = an xn + an 1x
n 1
+ . . . + a1 x + a0
p
has integer coefficients a0 , . . . , an with a0 6= 0 and an 6= 0. If a rational number r = , where p, q are non-zero
q
integers with no common factors, is a root of p(x), then p divides a0 and q divides an .
Proof. We are given that
p p n p n 1 p
0 = P (r) = P = an + an 1 + . . . + a1 + a0 .
q q q q

Multiplying this equation by q n yields

0 = a n pn + a n 1 pn 1
q + . . . + a1 p q n 1
+ a0 q n .

Therefore p divides a0 q n , and q divides an pn . Since p and q have no common functors, this implies that p
divides a0 and q divides an . ⇤

P (x)
Definition 1.10. A rational function is a quotient R(x) = where P and Q are polynomials.
Q(x)

1.3.3 Trigonometric functions

1
c
0.5
1 ✓r
s
✓d 0 sin ✓
cos ✓
0.5

1
2⇡ 3⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 0 ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡
2 2 2 2

5
2.5

0 0
tan ✓ sec ✓
cot ✓ csc ✓
2.5
5

2⇡ 3⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 0 ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 2⇡ 3⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 0 ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS 7

The elementary approach in defining trigonometric functions is based on the unit circle.
• Angles are always measures in the counterclockwise direction (assigning the value 0 to the x-axis).
• ✓d represents the measure of the angle in degrees.
• ✓r represents the measure of the angle in radians, that is, ✓r is the length of the arc from (1, 0) to (c, s).
• The relation between these measures is based on the fact that the circumference of the unit circle is 2⇡
which corresponds to 360 . Therefore
✓r ✓d
=
⇡ 180
• In this course, angles are always measured in radians (and we shall write ✓ for ✓r in what follows).
• We define the sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, cosecant functions by
sin ✓ cos ✓ 1 1
sin ✓ := s, cos ✓ := c, tan ✓ := , cot ✓ := , sec ✓ := , csc ✓ := .
cos ✓ sin ✓ cos ✓ sin ✓

✓ (in radians) 0 ⇡/6 p⇡/4 p⇡/3 ⇡/2

sin ✓ 0 p1/2 p2/2 3/2 1
cos ✓ 1 p3/2 2/2 1/2
p 0
tan ✓ 0 3/3 1 3

Definition 1.11. A function f (x) is perioidic if the is a positive real number p such that f (x + p) = f (x) for every
x in the domain of f . The smallest such p is called the period of f .
• sin and cos have domain R and range [ 1, 1], and they are 2⇡-periodic.
⇡
• tan has domain R { + ⇡k : k 2 Z} and range R, and it is ⇡-periodic.
2
• cot has domain R {⇡k : k 2 Z} and range R, and it is ⇡-periodic.
⇡
• sec has domain R { + ⇡k : k 2 Z} and range R ( 1, 1), and it is 2⇡-periodic.
2
• csc has domain R {⇡k : k 2 Z} and range R ( 1, 1), and it is 2⇡-periodic.

A List of Trigonometric Identities:

Even/odd:
sin( ✓) = sin ✓, cos( ✓) = cos ✓.

Cofunction identities:
⇡ ⇡
sin( ✓) = cos ✓, cos( ✓) = sin ✓.
2 2
Pythagorean identities:
sin2 ✓ + cos2 ✓ = 1, 1 + tan2 ✓ = sec2 ✓, 1 + cot2 ✓ = csc2 ✓.

Double angle formulas:

sin(2✓) = 2 sin ✓ cos ✓
cos(2✓) = cos2 ✓ sin2 ✓ = 2 cos2 ✓ 1=1 2 sin2 ✓
CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS 8

Angle sum/difference identities:

sin(✓ ± ⌘) = sin ✓ cos ⌘ ± cos ✓ sin ⌘
cos(✓ ± ⌘) = cos ✓ cos ⌘ ⌥ sin ✓ sin ⌘

Product to sum identities:

1⇥ ⇤
sin ✓ sin ⌘ = cos(✓ ⌘) cos(✓ + ⌘)
2
1⇥ ⇤
cos ✓ cos ⌘ = cos(✓ ⌘) + cos(✓ + ⌘)
2
1⇥ ⇤
sin ✓ cos ⌘ = sin(✓ + ⌘) + sin(✓ ⌘)
2

Sum/difference to product identities:

⇣✓ ± ⌘ ⌘ ⇣✓ ⌥ ⌘ ⌘
sin ✓ ± sin ⌘ = 2 sin cos
2 2
⇣✓ + ⌘ ⌘ ⇣✓
⌘⌘
cos ✓ + cos ⌘ = 2 cos cos
2 2
⇣✓ + ⌘ ⌘ ⇣✓ ⌘⌘
cos ✓ cos ⌘ = 2 sin sin
2 2

Law of cosines: c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C.

1.4 Analytic geometry

Distance between points: The distance between two points (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) 2 R2 = R ⇥ R is
p
d = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 .
Midpoint: The midpoint between two points (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) 2 R2 = R ⇥ R is
✓ ◆
x 1 + x 2 y1 + y 2
, .
2 2
Lines:
• General equation: ax + by = c
• Point slope formula (for non-vertical lines): y y0 = m(x x0 ) [where (x0 , y0 ) is a point on the line
and m is its slope]
• Slope intercept formula (for non-vertical lines): y = mx + b [where (0, b) is the y-intercept and m is
the slope of the line]
• Horizontal line: y = b
• Vertical line: x = a
Circles: The equation of the circle of radius r centered at the the point (a, b) is
(x a)2 + (y b)2 = r2 .
Ellipses: The standard equation of an ellipse centered at (h, k) with major and minor axes parallel to the
coordinate axes is
(x h)2 (y k)2
2
+ = 1.
a b2