�

KEY CONCEPTS AND FORMULAS

Control volume Pressure definition

Specific volume

Density
Static pressure variation Absolute temperature

Units

everything inside a control surface

P F (mathematical limit for small A) A
v V
m
m
? = V (Tables A.3, A.4, A.5, F.2, F.3, and F.4)
?P = ?gH (depth H in fluid of density ?)
T [K] = T [?C] + 273.15
T [R] = T [F] + 459.67
Table A.1

Concepts from Physics

Newton�s law of motion Acceleration
Velocity

F = ma
d2x d V
a = dt 2 = dt
V dx dt

CONCEPT-STUDY GUIDE PROBLEMS

2.1 Make a control volume around the whole power plant in Fig. 1.2 and, with the
help of Fig. 1.1, list the flows of mass and energy in or out and any storage of
en- ergy. Make sure you know what is inside and what is outside your chosen control
volume.
2.2 Make a control volume around the rocket engine in Fig. 1.12. Identify the mass
flows and show where you have significant kinetic energy and where stor- age
changes.
2.3 Make a control volume that includes the steam flow in the main turbine loop in
the nuclear propulsion system in Fig. 1.3. Identify mass flows (hot or cold) and
energy transfers that enter or leave the control volume.
2.4 Separate the list P, F, V , v, ?, T , a, m, L, t, and V into intensive
properties, extensive properties, and non-properties.
2.5 An electric dip heater is put into a cup of water and heats it from 20?C to 80?
C. Show the energy flow(s) and storage and explain what changes.
2.6 Water in nature exists in three different phases: solid, liquid, and vapor
(gas). Indicate the relative magni-

tude of density and the specific volume for the three phases.
2.7 Is density a unique measure of mass distribution in a volume? Does it vary? If
so, on what kind of scale (distance)?
2.8 The overall density of fibers, rock wool insulation, foams, and cotton is
fairly low. Why?
2.9 What is the approximate mass of 1 L of engine oil? Atmospheric air?
2.10 Can you carry 1 m3 of liquid water?
2.11 A heavy cabinet has four adjustable feet. What fea- ture of the feet will
ensure that they do not make dents in the floor?
2.12 The pressure at the bottom of a swimming pool is evenly distributed. Consider
a stiff steel plate lying on the ground. Is the pressure below it just as evenly
distributed?
2.13 Two divers swim at a depth of 20 m. One of them swims directly under a
supertanker; the other avoids the tanker. Who feels greater pressure?
2.14 A manometer with water shows a ?P of P0/10; what is the column height
difference?

2.15 A water skier does not sink too far down in the water if the speed is high
enough. What makes that situa- tion different from our static pressure
calculations?
2.16 What is the lowest temperature in degrees Celsius? In degrees Kelvin?
2.17
Convert the formula for water density in concept problem d to be for T in degrees
Kelvin.
2.18 A thermometer that indicates the temperature with a liquid column has a bulb
with a larger volume of liquid. Why?

HOMEWORK PROBLEMS
Properties and Units
2.19 An apple �weighs� 60 g and has a volume of 75 cm3 in a refrigerator at 8?C.
What is the apple�s density? List three intensive and two extensive properties of
the apple.
2.20 A steel cylinder of mass 2 kg contains 4 L of water at 25?C at 200 kPa. Find
the total mass and volume of the system. List two extensive and three intensive
properties of the water.
2.21 A storage tank of stainless steel contains 7 kg of oxy- gen gas and 5 kg of
nitrogen gas. How many kmoles are in the tank?
2.22 One kilopond (1 kp) is the weight of 1 kg in the stan- dard gravitational
field. What is the weight of 1 kg in Newtons (N)?
Force and Energy
2.23 The standard acceleration (at sea level and 45? lat- itude) due to gravity is
9.806 65 m/s2. What is the force needed to hold a mass of 2 kg at rest in this
gravitational field? How much mass can a force of 1 N support?
2.24 A steel piston of 2.5 kg is in the standard gravitational field, where a force
of 25 N is applied vertically up. Find the acceleration of the piston.
2.25 When you move up from the surface of the earth, the gravitation is reduced as
g 9.807 3.32 10?6 z, with z being the elevation in meters. By what per- centage
is the weight of an airplane reduced when it cruises at 11 000 m?
2.26 A model car rolls down an incline with a slope such that the gravitational
�pull� in the direction of mo- tion is one-third of the standard gravitational
force (see Problem 2.23). If the car has a mass of 0.06 kg, find the acceleration.
2.27 A van is driven at 60 km/h and is brought to a full stop with constant
deceleration in 5 s. If the total mass of the van and driver is 2075 kg, find the
nec- essary force.
2.28 An escalator brings four people whose total mass is 300 kg, 25 m up in a
building. Explain what happens with respect to energy transfer and stored energy.
2.29 A car of mass 1775 kg travels with a velocity of 100 km/h. Find the kinetic
energy. How high should the car be lifted in the standard gravitational field to
have a potential energy that equals the kinetic energy?
2.30 A 1500 kg car moving at 20 km/h is accelerated at a constant rate of 4 m/s2 up
to a speed of 75 km/h. What are the force and total time required?
2.31 On the moon the gravitational acceleration is approx- imately one-sixth that
on the surface of the earth. A 5-kg mass is �weighed� with a beam balance on the
surface of the moon. What is the expected reading? If this mass is weighed with a
spring scale that reads correctly for standard gravity on earth (see Problem 2.23),
what is the reading?
2.32 The escalator cage in Problem 2.28 has a mass of 500 kg in addition to the
mass of the people. How much force should the cable pull up with to have an
acceleration of 1 m/s2 in the upward direction?
2.33 A bucket of concrete with a total mass of 200 kg is raised by a crane with an
acceleration of 2 m/s2 relative to the ground at a location where the local
gravitational acceleration is 9.5 m/s2. Find the re- quired force.
2.34 A bottle of 12 kg steel has 1.75 kmoles of liquid propane. It accelerates
horizontally at a rate of 3 m/s2. What is the needed force?
Specific Volume
2.35 A 15-kg steel gas tank holds 300 L of liquid gaso- line with a density of 800
kg/m3. If the system is decelerated with 2g, what is the needed force?
2.36 A power plant that separates carbon dioxide from the exhaust gases compresses
it to a density of 110 kg/m3 and stores it in an unminable coal seam with

a porous volume of 100 000 m3. Find the mass that can be stored.
2.37 A 1-m3 container is filled with 400 kg of granite stone, 200 kg of dry sand,
and 0.2 m3 of liquid 25?C water. Using properties from Tables A.3 and A.4, find the
average specific volume and density of the masses when you exclude air mass and
volume.
2.38 One kilogram of diatomic oxygen (O2, molecular weight of 32) is contained in a
500-L tank. Find the specific volume on both a mass and a mole basis (v and v�).
2.39 A tank has two rooms separated by a membrane. Room A has 1 kg of air and a
volume of 0.5 m3; room B has 0.75 m3 of air with density 0.8 kg/m3. The membrane is
broken, and the air comes to a uni- form state. Find the final density of the air.
2.40 A 5-m3 container is filled with 900 kg of granite (density of 2400 kg/m3). The
rest of the volume is air, with density equal to 1.15 kg/m3. Find the mass of air
and the overall (average) specific volume.

Pressure
2.41 The hydraulic lift in an auto-repair shop has a cylin- der diameter of 0.2 m.
To what pressure should the hydraulic fluid be pumped to lift 40 kg of piston/arms
and 700 kg of a car?
2.42 A valve in the cylinder shown in Fig. P2.42 has a cross-sectional area of 11
cm2 with a pressure of 735 kPa inside the cylinder and 99 kPa outside. How large a
force is needed to open the valve?
FIGURE P2.42

2.43 A hydraulic lift has a maximum fluid pressure of 500 kPa. What should the
piston/cylinder diameter be in order to lift a mass of 850 kg?
2.44
A laboratory room has a vacuum of 0.1 kPa. What net force does that put on the door
of size 2 m by1 m?
2.45 A vertical hydraulic cylinder has a 125-mm-diameter piston with hydraulic
fluid inside the cylinder and an ambient pressure of 1 bar. Assuming standard grav-
ity, find the piston mass that will create an inside pressure of 1500 kPa.
2.46 A piston/cylinder with a cross-sectional area of
0.01 m2 has a piston mass of 100 kg resting on the stops, as shown in Fig. P2.46.
With an outside atmo- spheric pressure of 100 kPa, what should the water pressure
be to lift the piston?

FIGURE P2.46

2.47 A 5-kg cannnonball acts as a piston in a cylinder with a diameter of 0.15 m.

As the gunpowder is burned, a pressure of 7 MPa is created in the gas behind the
ball. What is the acceleration of the ball if the cylinder (cannon) is pointing
horizontally?
2.48 Repeat the previous problem for a cylinder (cannon) pointing 40? up relative
to the horizontal direction.
2.49 A large exhaust fan in a laboratory room keeps the pressure inside at 10 cm of
water relative vacuum to the hallway. What is the net force on the door measuring
1.9 m by 1.1 m?
2.50 A tornado rips off a 100-m2 roof with a mass of 1000 kg. What is the minimum
vacuum pressure needed to do that if we neglect the anchoring forces?
2.51 A 2.5-m-tall steel cylinder has a cross-sectional area of 1.5 m2. At the
bottom, with a height of 0.5 m, is liquid water, on top of which is a 1-m-high
layer of gasoline. This is shown in Fig. P2.51. The gasoline surface is exposed to
atmospheric air at 101 kPa. What is the highest pressure in the water?

P0
FIGURE P2.51
2.56
Liquid water with density ? is filled on top of a thin piston in a cylinder with
cross-sectional area A and total height H , as shown in Fig. P2.56. Air is let in
under the piston so that it pushes up, causing the wa- ter to spill over the edge.
Derive the formula for the air pressure as a function of piston elevation from the
bottom, h.

2.52 What is the pressure at the bottom of a 5-m-tall col- umn of fluid with
atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa on the top surface if the fluid is
a. water at 20?C?
b. glycerine at 25?C?
c. gasoline at 25?C?
2.53 At the beach, atmospheric pressure is 1025 mbar. You dive 15 m down in the
ocean and you later climb a hill up to 250 m in elevation. Assume that the den-

FIGURE P2.56

Manometers and Barometers

Air

sity of water is about 1000 kg/m3 and the density of air is 1.18 kg/m3. What
pressure do you feel at each place?
2.54 A steel tank of cross-sectional area 3 m2 and height 16 m weighs 10 000 kg and
is open at the top, as shown in Fig. P2.54. We want to float it in the ocean so
that it is positioned 10 m straight down by pouring concrete into its bottom. How
much concrete should we use?

FIGURE P2.54

2.55 A piston, mp 5 kg, is fitted in a cylinder, A 15 cm2, that contains a gas. The
setup is in a cen- trifuge that creates an acceleration of 25 m/s2 in the direction
of piston motion toward the gas. Assuming standard atmospheric pressure outside the
cylinder, find the gas pressure.
2.57
You dive 5 m down in the ocean. What is the absolute pressure there?
2.58 A barometer to measure absolute pressure shows a mercury column height of 725
mm. The tempera- ture is such that the density of the mercury is 13 550 kg/m3. Find
the ambient pressure.
2.59 The density of atmospheric air is about 1.15 kg/m3, which we assume is
constant. How large an absolute pressure will a pilot encounter when flying 2000 m
above ground level, where the pressure is 101 kPa?
2.60 A differential pressure gauge mounted on a vessel shows 1.25 MPa, and a local
barometer gives at- mospheric pressure as 0.96 bar. Find the absolute pressure
inside the vessel.
2.61 A manometer shows a pressure difference of 1 m of liquid mercury. Find ?P in
kPa.
2.62 Blue manometer fluid of density 925 kg/m3 shows a column height difference of
3 cm vacuum with one end attached to a pipe and the other open to P0 101 kPa. What
is the absolute pressure in the pipe?
2.63 What pressure difference does a 10-m column of at- mospheric air show?
2.64 The absolute pressure in a tank is 85 kPa and the lo- cal ambient absolute
pressure is 97 kPa. If a U-tube with mercury (density = 13 550 kg/m3) is attached
to

the tank to measure the vacuum, what column height difference will it show?
2.65 The pressure gauge on an air tank shows 75 kPa when the diver is 10 m down in
the ocean. At what depth will the gauge pressure be zero? What does that mean?
2.66 An exploration submarine should be able to descend 4000 m down in the ocean.
If the ocean density is 1020 kg/m3, what is the maximum pressure on the submarine
hull?
2.67 A submarine maintains an internal pressure of 101

FIGURE P2.72

P0 = 101 kPa

kPa and dives 240 m down in the ocean, which has an average density of 1030 kg/m3.
What is the pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the submarine
hull?
2.68 Assume that we use a pressure gauge to measure the air pressure at street
level and at the roof of a tall building. If the pressure difference can be deter-
mined with an accuracy of 1 mbar (0.001 bar), what uncertainty in the height
estimate does that corre- spond to?
2.69 A barometer measures 760 mm Hg at street level and 735 mm Hg on top of a
building. How tall is the building if we assume air density of 1.15 kg/m3?
2.70 An absolute pressure gauge attached to a steel cylin- der shows 135 kPa. We
want to attach a manometer using liquid water on a day that Patm 101 kPa. How high
a fluid level difference must we plan for?
2.71 A U-tube manometer filled with water (density 1000 kg/m3) shows a height
difference of 25 cm. What is the gauge pressure? If the right branch is tilted to
make an angle of 30? with the horizontal, as shown in Fig. P2.71, what should the
length of the column in the tilted tube be relative to the U-tube?
2.73
The difference in height between the columns of a manometer is 200 mm, with a fluid
of density 900 kg/m3. What is the pressure difference? What is the height
difference if the same pressure difference is measured using mercury (density 13
600 kg/m3) as manometer fluid?
2.74 Two cylinders are filled with liquid water, ? 1000 kg/m3, and connected by a
line with a closed valve, as shown in Fig. P2.74. A has 100 kg and B has 500 kg of
water, their cross-sectional areas are AA 0.1 m2 and AB 0.25 m2, and the height h
is 1 m. Find the pressure on either side of the valve. The valve is opened and
water flows to an equilibrium. Find the final pressure at the valve location.

P0

FIGURE P2.74

FIGURE P2.71
2.72 A pipe flowing light oil has a manometer attached, as shown in Fig. P2.72.
What is the absolute pressure in the pipe flow?
2.75
Two piston/cylinder arrangements, A and B, have their gas chambers connected by a
pipe, as shown in Fig. P2.75. The cross-sectional areas are AA
75 cm2 and AB 25 cm2, with the piston mass in A being mA 25 kg. Assume an outside
pressure of 100 kPa and standard gravitation. Find the mass mB so that none of the
pistons have to rest on the bottom.

FIGURE P2.75
2.76 Two hydraulic piston/cylinders are of the same size and setup as in Problem
2.75, but with negligible piston masses. A single point force of 250 N presses down
on piston A. Find the needed extra force on piston B so that none of the pistons
have to move.
2.77 A piece of experimental apparatus, Fig. P2.77, is lo- cated where g 9.5 m/s2
and the temperature is 5?C. Air flow inside the apparatus is determined by
measuring the pressure drop across an orifice with a mercury manometer (see Problem
2.79 for density) showing a height difference of 200 mm. What is the pressure drop
in kPa?

liquid mercury due to a change in density (see Prob- lem 2.79). Find the relative
change (%) in volume for a change in temperature from 10?C to 20?C.
2.81 The density of liquid water is ? 1008 T /2 [kg/ m3] with T in ?C. If the
temperature increases 10?C, how much deeper doesa1m layer of water become?
2.82 Using the freezing and boiling point temperatures for water on both the
Celsius and Fahrenheit scales, develop a conversion formula between the scales.
Find the conversion formula between the Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales.
2.83 The atmosphere becomes colder at higher elevations. As an average, the
standard atmospheric absolute temperature can be expressed as T atm 288 6.5
10?3 z, where z is the elevation in meters. How cold is it outside an airplane
cruising at 12 000 m, expressed in degrees Kelvin and Celsius?

Review Problems
2.84 Repeat Problem 2.77 if the flow inside the apparatus is liquid water (? 1000
kg/m3) instead of air. Find the pressure difference between the two holes flush
with the bottom of the channel. You cannot neglect the two unequal water columns.
2.85 A dam retains a lake 6 m deep, as shown in Fig. P2.85. To construct a gate in
the dam, we need to know the net horizontal force on a 5-m-wide, 6-m- tall port
section that then replaces a 5-m section of the dam. Find the net horizontal force
from the water on one side and air on the other side of the port.

FIGURE P2.77
Temperature
2.78 What is a temperature of ?5?C in degrees Kelvin?
2.79 The density of mercury changes approximately lin- early with temperature as
?Hg = 13 595 ? 2.5 T kg/m3 (T in Celsius)
so the same pressure difference will result in a manometer reading that is
influenced by tempera- ture. If a pressure difference of 100 kPa is measured in the
summer at 35?C and in the winter at 15?C, what is the difference in column height
between the two measurements?
2.80 A mercury thermometer measures temperature by measuring the volume expansion
of a fixed mass of

Side view

Top view
FIGURE P2.85

2.86 In the city water tower, water is pumped up to a level 25 m aboveground in a

pressurized tank with air at 125 kPa over the water surface. This is illustrated in
Fig. P2.86. Assuming water density of 1000 kg/m3 and standard gravity, find the
pressure required to pump more water in at ground level.
2.88
Two cylinders are connected by a piston, as shown in Fig. P2.88. Cylinder A is used
as a hydraulic lift and pumped up to 500 kPa. The piston mass is 25 kg, and there
is standard gravity. What is the gas pressure in cylinder B?

FIGURE P2.86
2.87 The main waterline into a tall building has a pres- sure of 600 kPa at 5 m
elevation below ground level. The building is shown in Fig. P2.87. How much ex- tra
pressure does a pump need to add to ensure a waterline pressure of 200 kPa at the
top floor 150 m aboveground?

Top floor

FIGURE P2.88

2.89 A 5-kg piston in a cylinder with diameter of 100 mm is loaded with a linear
spring and the outside atmo- spheric pressure is 100 kPa, as shown in Fig. P2.89.
The spring exerts no force on the piston when it is at the bottom of the cylinder,
and for the state shown, the pressure is 400 kPa with volume 0.4 L. The valve is
opened to let some air in, causing the piston to rise 2 cm. Find the new pressure.

150 m

g
Ground

Air supply line

5 m
Water main

Pump

FIGURE P2.87 FIGURE P2.89

ENGLISH UNIT PROBLEMS

English Unit Concept Problems
2.90 E A mass of 2 lbm has an acceleration of 5 ft/s2.
What is the needed force in lbf?
2.91 E How much mass is in 0.25 gal of engine oil?
Atmospheric air?
2.92 E Can you easily carry a 1-gal bar of solid gold?
2.93 E What is the temperature of 5 F in degrees Rankine?
2.94 E What is the lowest possible temperature in de- grees Fahrenheit? In degrees
Rankine?

2.95 E What is the relative magnitude of degree Rankine to degree Kelvin?

English Unit Problems

2.96 E An apple weighs 0.2 lbm and has a volume of 6 in.3 in a refrigerator at 38
F. What is the apple�s density? List three intensive and two extensive properties
of the apple.
2.97 E A steel piston of mass 5 lbm is in the standard gravitational field, where a
force of 10 lbf is ap- plied vertically up. Find the acceleration of the piston.
2.98 E A 2500-lbm car moving at 15 mi/h is acceler- ated at a constant rate of 15
ft/s2 up to a speed of 50 mi/h. What are the force and total time re- quired?
2.99 E An escalator brings four people with a total mass of 600 lbm and a 1000 lbm
cage up with an ac- celeration of 3 ft/s2. What is the needed force in the cable?
2.100 E One pound mass of diatomic oxygen (O2 molec- ular mass 32) is contained in
a 100-gal tank. Find the specific volume on both a mass and a mole basis (v and
v�).
3
2.107
E A 7-ft-m tall steel cylinder has a cross-sectional area of 15 ft2. At the bottom,
with a height of 2 ft, is liquid water, on top of which is a 4-ft-high layer of
gasoline. The gasoline surface is exposed to atmospheric air at 14.7 psia. What is
the highest pressure in the water?
2.108 E A U-tube manometer filled with water, density
62.3 lbm/ft3, shows a height difference of 10 in. What is the gauge pressure? If
the right branch is tilted to make an angle of 30? with the horizontal, as shown in
Fig. P2.71, what should the length of the column in the tilted tube be relative to
the U-tube?
2.109 E A piston/cylinder with a cross-sectional area of
0.1 ft2 has a piston mass of 200 lbm resting on the stops, as shown in Fig. P2.46.
With an outside atmospheric pressure of 1 atm, what should the water pressure be to
lift the piston?
2.110 E The main waterline into a tall building has a pres- sure of 90 psia at 16
ft elevation below ground level. How much extra pressure does a pump need to add to
ensure a waterline pressure of 30 psia at the top floor 450 ft above ground?
2.111 E A piston, mp = 10 lbm, is fitted in a cylinder,
A = 2.5 in.2, that contains a gas. The setup is in a

2.101 E A 30-lbm steel gas tank holds 10 ft of liquid gaso- line having a density
of 50 lbm/ft3. What force is needed to accelerate this combined system at a rate of
15 ft/s2?
2.102 E A power plant that separates carbon dioxide from the exhaust gases
compresses it to a density of 8 lbm/ft3 and stores it in an unminable coal seam
with a porous volume of 3 500 000 ft3. Find the mass that can be stored.
2.103 E A laboratory room keeps a vacuum of 4 in. of wa- ter due to the exhaust
fan. What is the net force on a door of size 6 ft by 3 ft?
2.104 E A valve in a cylinder has a cross-sectional area of

centrifuge that creates an acceleration of 75 ft/s2. Assuming standard atmospheric

pressure outside the cylinder, find the gas pressure.
2.112 E The atmosphere becomes colder at higher eleva- tions. As an average, the
standard atmospheric absolute temperature can be expressed as T atm
518 3.84 10?3 z, where z is the elevation in
feet. How cold is it outside an airplane cruising at 32 000 ft expressed in degrees
Rankine and Fahrenheit?
2.113 E The density of mercury changes approximately linearly with temperature as

2 in.2 with a pressure of 100 psia inside the cylin- der and 14.7 psia outside. How
large a force is needed to open the valve?

?Hg

= 851.5 ? 0.086 T lbm/ft (T in degrees

Fahrenheit)

2.105 E A manometer shows a pressure difference of 1 ft of liquid mercury. Find ?P

in psi.
2.106 E A tornado rips off a 1000-ft2 roof with a mass of 2000 lbm. What is the
minimum vacuum pres- sure needed to do that if we neglect the anchoring forces?

so the same pressure difference will result in a manometer reading that is

influenced by temper- ature. If a pressure difference of 14.7 lbf/in.2 is measured
in the summer at 95 F and in the win- ter at 5 F, what is the difference in column
height between the two measurements?

COMPUTER, DESIGN AND OPEN-ENDED PROBLEMS

2.114 Write a program to list corresponding temperatures in ?C, K, F, and R from

50?C to 100?C in incre- ments of 10 degrees.
2.115 Write a program that will input pressure in kPa, atm, or lbf/in.2 and write
the pressure in kPa, atm, bar, and lbf/in.2
2.116 Write a program to do the temperature correction on a mercury barometer
reading (see Problem 2.64). Input the reading and temperature and output the
corrected reading at 20?C and pressure in kPa.
2.117 Make a list of different weights and scales that are used to measure mass
directly or indirectly. Inves- tigate the ranges of mass and the accuracy that can
be obtained.
2.118 Thermometers are based on several principles. Ex- pansion of a liquid with a
rise in temperature is used in many applications. Electrical resistance,
thermistors, and thermocouples are common in in- strumentation and remote probes.
Investigate a va- riety of thermometers and list their range, accuracy, advantages,
and disadvantages.
2.119 Collect information for a resistance-, thermistor-, and thermocouple-based
thermometer suitable for the range of temperatures from 0?C to 200?C. For each of
the three types, list the accuracy and response of the transducer (output per
degree change). Is any calibration or correction necessary when it is used in an
instrument?
2.120 A thermistor is used as a temperature transducer. Its resistance changes with
temperature approximately as
R = R0 exp[?(1/T ? 1/T0)]
where it has resistance R0 at temperature T 0. Select the constants as R0 = 3000 ?
and T 0 = 298 K,

and compute ? so that it has a resistance of 200 ? at 100?C. Write a program to

convert a measured resistance, R, into information about the temper- ature. Find
information for actual thermistors and plot the calibration curves with the formula
given in this problem and the recommended correction given by the manufacturer.
2.121 Investigate possible transducers for the measure- ment of temperature in a
flame with temperatures near 1000 K. Are any transducers available for a
temperature of 2000 K?
2.122 Devices to measure pressure are available as dif- ferential or absolute
pressure transducers. Make a list of five different differential pressure transduc-
ers to measure pressure differences in order of 100 kPa. Note their accuracy,
response (linear ?), and price.
2.123 Blood pressure is measured with a sphygmo- manometer while the sound from the
pulse is checked. Investigate how this works, list the range of pressures normally
recorded as the systolic (high) and diastolic (low) pressures, and present your
findings in a short report.
2.124 A micromanometer uses a fluid with density 1000 kg/m3, and it is able to
measure height difference with an accuracy of 0.5 mm. Its range is a max- imum
height difference of 0.5 m. Investigate if any transducers are available to replace
the micro- manometer.
2.125 An experiment involves the measurements of tem- perature and pressure of a
gas flowing in a pipe at 300?C and 250 kPa. Write a report with a sug- gested set
of transducers (at least two alterna- tives for each) and give the expected
accuracy and cost.

Properties of a Pure Substance

In the previous chapter we considered three familiar properties of a substance:

specific volume, pressure, and temperature. We now turn our attention to pure
substances and con- sider some of the phases in which a pure substance may exist,
the number of independent properties a pure substance may have, and methods of
presenting thermodynamic properties.
Properties and the behavior of substances are very important for our studies
of devices and thermodynamic systems. The steam power plant in Fig. 1.1 and the
nuclear propulsion system in Fig. 1.3 have very similar processes, using water as
the working substance. Water vapor (steam) is made by boiling at high pressure in
the steam generator followed by expansion in the turbine to a lower pressure,
cooling in the condenser, and a return to the boiler by a pump that raises the
pressure. We must know the properties of water to properly size equipment such as
the burners or heat exchangers, turbine, and pump for the desired transfer of
energy and the flow of water. As the water is transformed from liquid to vapor, we
need to know the temperature for the given pressure, and we must know the density
or specific volume so that the piping can be properly dimensioned for the flow. If
the pipes are too small, the expansion creates excessive velocities, leading to
pressure losses and increased friction, and thus demanding a larger pump and
reducing the turbine�s work output.
will boil from liquid to vapor at a low temperature, say 20?C. This absorbs
energy from Another example is a refrigerator, shown in Fig. 1.6, where we need a
substance that the cold space, keeping it cold. Inside the black grille in the back
or at the bottom, the now
hot substance is cooled by air flowing around the grille, so it condenses from
vapor to liquid at a temperature slightly higher than room temperature. When such a
system is designed, we need to know the pressures at which these processes take
place and the amount of energy, covered in Chapter 5, that is involved. We also
need to know how much volume the substance occupies, that is, the specific volume,
so that the piping diameters can be selected as mentioned for the steam power
plant. The substance is selected so that the pressure is reasonable during these
processes; it should not be too high, due to leakage and safety concerns, and not
too low, as air might leak into the system.
A final example of a system where we need to know the properties of the
substance is the gas turbine and a variation thereof, namely, the jet engine shown
in Fig. 1.11. In these systems, the working substance is a gas (very similar to
air) and no phase change takes place. A combustion process burns fuel and air,
freeing a large amount of energy, which heats the gas so that it expands. We need
to know how hot the gas gets and how large the expansion is so that we can analyze
the expansion process in the turbine and the exit nozzle of the jet engine. In this
device, large velocities are needed inside the turbine section and for the exit of
the jet engine. This high-velocity flow pushes on the blades in the turbine to
create shaft work or pushes on the jet engine (called thrust) to move the aircraft
forward.
47

These are just a few examples of complete thermodynamic systems where a sub-
stance goes through several processes involving changes of its thermodynamic state
and therefore its properties. As your studies progress, many other examples will be
used to illustrate the general subjects.

THE PURE SUBSTANCE

A pure substance is one that has a homogeneous and invariable chemical composition.
It may exist in more than one phase, but the chemical composition is the same in
all phases. Thus, liquid water, a mixture of liquid water and water vapor (steam),
and a mixture of ice and liquid water are all pure substances; every phase has the
same chemical composition. In contrast, a mixture of liquid air and gaseous air is
not a pure substance because the composition of the liquid phase is different from
that of the vapor phase.
Sometimes a mixture of gases, such as air, is considered a pure substance as
long as there is no change of phase. Strictly speaking, this is not true. As we
will see later, we should say that a mixture of gases such as air exhibits some of
the characteristics of a pure substance as long as there is no change of phase.
In this book the emphasis will be on simple compressible substances. This term
designates substances whose surface effects, magnetic effects, and electrical
effects are insignificant when dealing with the substances. But changes in volume,
such as those associated with the expansion of a gas in a cylinder, are very
important. Reference will be made, however, to other substances for which surface,
magnetic, and electrical effects are important. We will refer to a system
consisting of a simple compressible substance as a simple compressible system.

VAPOR�LIQUID�SOLID-PHASE EQUILIBRIUM IN A PURE SUBSTANCE

Consider as a system 1 kg of water contained in the piston/cylinder arrangement
shown in Fig. 3.1a. Suppose that the piston and weight maintain a pressure of 0.1
MPa in the
cylinder and that the initial temperature is 20?C. As heat is transferred to the
water,
the temperature increases appreciably, the specific volume increases slightly, and
the pres-
sure remains constant. When the temperature reaches 99.6?C, additional heat
transfer results in a change of phase, as indicated in Fig. 3.1b. That is, some of
the liquid becomes vapor,
and during this process both the temperature and pressure remain constant, but the
specific volume increases considerably. When the last drop of liquid has vaporized,
further transfer of heat results in an increase in both the temperature and
specific volume of the vapor, as shown in Fig. 3.1c.
The term saturation temperature designates the temperature at which
vaporization
temperature. Thus, for water at 99.6?C the saturation pressure is 0.1 MPa, and for
water takes place at a given pressure. This pressure is called the saturation
pressure for the given at 0.1 MPa the saturation temperature is 99.6?C. For a pure
substance there is a definite
relation between saturation pressure and saturation temperature. A typical curve,
called the
vapor-pressure curve, is shown in Fig. 3.2.
If a substance exists as liquid at the saturation temperature and pressure, it
is called a saturated liquid. If the temperature of the liquid is lower than the
saturation temperature for

FIGURE 3.1
Constant-pressure change from liquid to vapor phase for a pure substance.

(a)

(b)

(c)

the existing pressure, it is called either a subcooled liquid (implying that the
temperature is lower than the saturation temperature for the given pressure) or a
compressed liquid (implying that the pressure is greater than the saturation
pressure for the given temperature). Either term may be used, but the latter term
will be used in this book.
When a substance exists as part liquid and part vapor at the saturation
temperature, its quality is defined as the ratio of the mass of vapor to the total
mass. Thus, in Fig. 3.1b, if the mass of the vapor is 0.2 kg and the mass of the
liquid is 0.8 kg, the quality is 0.2 or 20%. The quality may be considered an
intensive property and has the symbol x. Quality has meaning only when the
substance is in a saturated state, that is, at saturation pressure and temperature.
If a substance exists as vapor at the saturation temperature, it is called
saturated vapor. (Sometimes the term dry saturated vapor is used to emphasize that
the quality is 100%.) When the vapor is at a temperature greater than the
saturation temperature, it is said to exist as superheated vapor. The pressure and
temperature of superheated vapor are independent properties, since the temperature
may increase while the pressure remains constant. Actually, the substances we call
gases are highly superheated vapors.
Consider Fig. 3.1 again. Let us plot on the temperature�volume diagram of Fig.
3.3
heated from the initial state of 0.1 MPa and 20?C. Let state A represent the
initial state, B the constant-pressure line that represents the states through
which the water passes as it is the saturated-liquid state (99.6?C), and line AB
the process in which the liquid is heated
from the initial temperature to the saturation temperature. Point C is the
saturated-vapor
state, and line BC is the constant-temperature process in which the change of phase
from liquid to vapor occurs. Line CD represents the process in which the steam is
superheated at constant pressure. Temperature and volume both increase during this
process.
initial temperature of 20?C. Point E represents the initial state, in which
the specific volume Now let the process take place at a constant pressure of 1 MPa,
starting from an

FIGURE 3.2
Vapor-pressure curve of a pure substance.

Temperature

FIGURE 3.3
Temperature�volume diagram for water showing liquid and vapor phases (not to
scale).

Volume

is slightly less than that at 0.1 MPa and 20?C. Vaporization begins at point F,
where the temperature is 179.9?C. Point G is the saturated-vapor state, and line GH
is the constant- pressure process in which the steam in superheated.
which the saturation temperature is 311.1?C. In a similar
manner, a constant pressure of 10 MPa is represented by line IJKL, for
At a pressure of 22.09 MPa, represented by line MNO, we find, however, that there
is
no constant-temperature vaporization process. Instead, point N is a point of
inflection with a zero slope. This point is called the critical point. At the
critical point the saturated-liquid and saturated-vapor states are identical. The
temperature, pressure, and specific volume at the critical point are called the
critical temperature, critical pressure, and critical volume. The critical-point
data for some substances are given in Table 3.1. More extensive data are given in
Table A.2 in Appendix A.
sented by line PQ. If water at 40 MPa and 20?C is heated in a constant-
pressure process in a A constant-pressure process at a pressure greater than the
critical pressure is repre- cylinder, as shown in Fig. 3.1, two phases will never
be present and the state shown in Fig.
3.1b will never exist. Instead, there will be a continuous change in density, and
at all times only one phase will be present. The question then is, when do we have
a liquid and when do we have a vapor? The answer is that this is not a valid
question at supercritical pressures. We simply call the substance a fluid. However,
rather arbitrarily, at temperatures below the

TABLE 3.1
Some Critical-Point Data

critical temperature we usually refer to it as a compressed liquid and at

temperatures above the critical temperature as a superheated vapor. It should be
emphasized, however, that at pressures above the critical pressure a liquid phase
and a vapor phase of a pure substance never exist in equilibrium.
In Fig. 3.3, line NJFB represents the saturated-liquid line and line NKGC
represents the saturated-vapor line.
By convention, the subscript f is used to designate a property of a saturated
liquid and the subscript g a property of a saturated vapor (the subscript g being
used to denote saturation temperature and pressure). Thus, a saturation condition
involving part liquid and part vapor, such as that shown in Fig. 3.1b, can be shown
on T �v coordinates, as in Fig. 3.4. All of the liquid present is at state f with
specific volume vf and all of the vapor present is at state g with vg. The total
volume is the sum of the liquid volume and the vapor volume, or
V = Vliq + Vvap = mliqv f + mvapvg
The average specific volume of the system v is then

V
v = m =

mliq

m f

mvap v = (1 ? x )v + xv (3.1)

in terms of the definition of quality x mvap/m.

Using the definition

Eq. 3.1 can also be written as

v fg = vg ? v f
v = v f + xv fg (3.2)

Now the quality x can be viewed as the fraction (v v f )/v fg of the distance
between saturated liquid and saturated vapor, as indicated in Fig. 3.4.
pose that the cylinder contains 1 kg of ice at 20?C, 100 kPa. When heat is
transferred Let us now consider another experiment with the piston/cylinder
arrangement. Sup- temperature increases until it reaches 0?C, at which point the
ice melts and the temperature to the ice, the pressure remains constant, the
specific volume increases slightly, and the remains constant. In this state the ice
is called a saturated solid. For most substances
the specific volume increases during this melting process, but for water the
specific volume of the liquid is less than the specific volume of the solid. When
all the ice has melted, further heat transfer causes an increase in the temperature
of the liquid.
If the initial pressure of the ice at ?20?C is 0.260 kPa, heat transfer to the
ice results in an increase in temperature to ?10?C. At this point, however, the ice
passes directly from

vf v vg v

FIGURE 3.4 T �v diagram for the two-phase liquid�vapor region showing the
quality�specific volume relation.

TABLE 3.2
Some Solid�Liquid�Vapor Triple-Point Data

Hydrogen (normal)
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Carbon dioxide
Mercury
Water?259
?219
?210
?56.4
?39
0.017.194
0.15
12.53
520.8
0.000 000 13
0.6113Zinc4195.066Silver9610.01Copper10830.000 079

the solid phase to the vapor phase in the process known as sublimation. Further
heat transfer results in superheating of the vapor.
20?C. Through heat transfer, let the temperature increase until it reaches
0.01?C. At this Finally, consider an initial pressure of the ice of 0.6113 kPa and
a temperature of point, however, further heat transfer may cause some of the ice to
become vapor and some
to become liquid, for at this point it is possible to have the three phases in
equilibrium. This point is called the triple point, defined as the state in which
all three phases may be present in equilibrium. The pressure and temperature at the
triple point for a number of substances are given in Table 3.2.
This whole matter is best summarized by Fig. 3.5, which shows how the solid,
liquid, and vapor phases may exist together in equilibrium. Along the sublimation
line the solid

FIGURE 3.5 P�T

diagram for a substance such as water.

Temperature

and vapor phases are in equilibrium, along the fusion line the solid and liquid
phases are in equilibrium, and along the vaporization line the liquid and vapor
phases are in equilibrium. The only point at which all three phases may exist in
equilibrium is the triple point. The vaporization line ends at the critical point
because there is no distinct change from the liquid phase to the vapor phase above
the critical point.
Consider a solid in state A, as shown in Fig. 3.5. When the temperature
increases but the pressure (which is less than the triple-point pressure) is
constant, the substance passes directly from the solid to the vapor phase. Along
the constant-pressure line EF, the substance passes from the solid to the liquid
phase at one temperature and then from the liquid to the vapor phase at a higher
temperature. The constant-pressure line CD passes through the triple point, and it
is only at the triple point that the three phases may exist together in
equilibrium. At a pressure above the critical pressure, such as GH , there is no
sharp distinction between the liquid and vapor phases.
Although we have made these comments with specific reference to water (only
be- cause of our familiarity with water), all pure substances exhibit the same
general behavior. However, the triple-point temperature and critical temperature
vary greatly from one sub- stance to another. For example, the critical temperature
of helium, as given in Table A.2, is 5.3 K. Therefore, the absolute temperature of
helium at ambient conditions is over 50 times greater than the critical
temperature. In contrast, water has a critical temperature of
374.14?C (647.29 K), and at ambient conditions the temperature of water is less
than half
the critical temperature. Most metals have a much higher critical temperature than
water.
When we consider the behavior of a substance in a given state, it is often helpful
to think of this state in relation to the critical state or triple point. For
example, if the pressure is greater than the critical pressure, it is impossible to
have a liquid phase and a vapor phase in equilibrium. Or, to consider another
example, the states at which vacuum melting a given metal is possible can be
ascertained by a consideration of the properties at the triple point.
about 1535?C (the triple-point temperature). Iron at a pressure
just above 5 Pa (the triple-point pressure) would melt at a temperature of
Figure 3.6 shows the three-phase diagram for carbon dioxide, in which it is seen
(see
also Table 3.2) that the triple-point pressure is greater than normal atmospheric
pressure,

105

104

103

102

101

FIGURE 3.6 Carbon dioxide phase diagram.

100
150 200 250
T [K]

300 350