RESEARCH 2

LESSON 1 – NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

RESEARCH: is a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information-
data in order to increase our understanding of a phenomenon about which we are
interested or concerned.

DATA: collection of facts; unorganized and unrefined facts

INFORMATION: how you understand those facts in context; processed, organized data
presented

PHILOSOPHICAL WORLDVIEW IN RESEARCH:

POSITIVISTS: believe that, with appropriate measurement tools, scientists can objectively
uncover absolute, undeniable truths about cause-and-effect relationships within the
physical world and human experience. (Quali and Quanti)

POST-POSITIVISTS: point out that our observations cannot always be relied upon as they
can also be subjected to error (Quanti)

Philosophy: We cannot be positive in our claims of knowledge when studying behavior and
actions of humans
Main Concept: Everything should be quantified to produce meaningful concrete results

CONSTRUCTIVIST: not only acknowledge that they bring certain biases to their research
endeavors but also try to be as upfront as possible about these biases (Quali)

Philosophy: Individuals develop subjective meanings of their experiences

Main Concept: Experience expressed through words can paint a better picture of a certain
phenomena

TRANSFORMATIVE: The researcher often begins with one of these issues as the focal point
of the study: specific issues need to be addressed that speak to important social issues of
the day, issues such as empowerment, inequality, oppression, domination, suppression, and
alienation (Quali and Quanti)

Philosophy: Research inquiry should be intertwined with politics and political change
agenda
Main Concept: Research should be conducted to increase quality of life and produce better
societies

PRAGMATIC: based on practical rather than theoretical considerations (Quali and Quanti)

Philosophy: We need to look to many possibilities for collecting and analyzing data
Main Concept: Use of quantitative and qualitative data in expressing research findings

FRAMEWORK FOR RESEARCH:

1. PHILOSOPHICAL WORDVIEWS: Post-positivist, Constructivist, Transformative, Pragmatic

2. APPROACHES: Qualitative, Quantitative, Mixed

3. DESIGNS: Quanti (Experiments), Quali (Ethnographies), Mixed Methods (Explanatory

Sequential)

4. METHODS: Questions, Data Collection, Data Analysis, Interpretation, Validation

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: an attempt TO UNDERSTAND THE WORLD AS LIVED. It

encompasses studies about how an individual consider a particular experience and how
he/she reflects on it. (NO STATISTICAL ANALYSIS)

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Testing hypothesis Exploring ideas and formulating a theory
 Math and statistical analysis Summarizing, categorizing, and
interpreting
Numbers, graphs, and tables words
Many respondents Few respondents (participants)
Close (multiple choice) questions Open-ended questions
Testing, measurement, objectivity, Understanding, context, complexity,
replicability subjectivity

QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS:

SURVEYS: List of closed or multiple-choice questions that is distributed to a sample

EXPERIMENTS: Situation in which different types of variables are controlled and

manipulated to establish cause-and-effect relationships

OBSERVATIONS: Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables can’t be

controlled

QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS:

INTERVIEWS: Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents

FOCUS GROUPS: Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather opinions that
can be used for further research

ETHNOGRAPHY: Participating in a community or organization for an extended period of time

to closely observe culture and behavior

LITERATURE REVIEW: Survey of published works by other authors

MIXED METHODS RESEARCH: combines elements of quantitative research and qualitative

research in order to answer your research question. (often used in behavioral, health, and
social sciences)

CONVERGENT PARALLEL: collect quantitative and quantitative data at the same time

EXPLANATORY SEQUENTIAL: quantitative first, qualitative last

EXPLORATORY SEQUENTIAL: qualitative first, quantitative last

BASIC TERMINOLOGIES IN RESEARCH:

METHOD: What data is gathered? TYPES: Historical, Descriptive, Experimental

TECHNIQUE: How data is gathered? TYPES: Survey, Interview, Doodling

APPROACH: How data is processed? TYPES: Quantitative, Qualitative, or Mixed

LESSON 2 - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: aim is to find out the relationship of one variable to another (IV –
Cause; DV – Effect) CLUE: Independent - Topic Dependent – Respondent
- systematic empirical investigation
- experimental or non-experimental

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:

- clearly defined research question
- generalize concepts more widely, predict future results
- gathered using structured research instruments
- uses tools, such as questionnaires
- based on larger sample sizes
- Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or
other non-textual forms
- can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability
ADVANTAGES:
- can be used when large quantities of data need to be collected.
- result is usually numerical (quantifiable) and hence considered more "objective"
- generalizable to larger population
- can provide a clear and quantitative measure to be used for grants and proposals.
- can be tested and checked
- straightforward and less open to error and subjectivity

DISADVANTAGES:
- results need to be calculated and analyzed thru the use of Excel, Access, or data analysis
software (such as SPSS), that may not be always available.
- the larger the sample, the more time it takes to analyze the data and analyze results.
- quantitative data ignores a very important human element
- tests can be intentionally manipulative
- more expensive than other forms of testing.

PROCESS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:

- Make observations about something unknown, unexplained or new.
- Investigate current theories or trends surrounding the problem or issue.
- Formulate a hypothesis to explain your observations.
- Predict outcomes based on your hypothesis and formulate a plan to test your predictions.
- Collect and process your data using one or more of the methods.
- If your prediction is confirmed, verify your results, draw your final conclusions and present
your findings. If it is disconfirmed, form a new hypothesis based on what you have learned
and start the process over.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: Establishes causality and often use when an intervention is

being studied. (With the manipulation of variables)

TRUE EXPERIMENTAL: the researcher has control over the experiment. (who, where, when
and how is the experiment going to be conducted.)
- This involves an experimental group and a control group, that must have similar qualities.
- The experimental group receives the intervention and the control group remains
unmanipulated.

QUASI EXPERIMENTAL: This design depends on how the participants were recruited for the
study, if there is no randomization in the sampling procedure then the study automatically
becomes a quasi-experimental.

- Participants are not randomly assigned

- attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship by using criteria other than
randomization.

NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: Establishes the association or connection between

variables. (Without the manipulation of variables)

SURVEY RESEARCH: most common method used for quantitative study and be in a form of
questionnaire or interview.

CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH: determine the relationship between two variables.

COMPARATIVE RESEARCH: Comparisons are based on descriptive data, showing that a

difference exists but does not imply causation.

2 TYPES OF SURVEY RESEARCH:

CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY: A type of survey research that collects data from a population or
subset population through observation, survey or interview at a specific point in time.

LONGITUDINAL STUDY: A type of survey research that collects data through observation,
survey or interview of the same subjects over a period of time up and can last up to several
years.
LESSON 3 - VARIABLES
VARIABLES: These are anything that varies. They are anything that takes on different
values, typically numerical values. EX: age, gender, height, hair color, health parameters
like vital signs, hobbies

TWO MAJOR TYPES OF VARIABLES:

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: the presumed cause; variable that is being manipulated; It is

stable and unaffected by the other variable

DEPENDENT VARIABLE: the presumed effect; variable assumes the change brought about by
the other variable; variable that is being measured by the researcher

EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE: unwanted variable; called confounding variables because their

presence influences the outcome of the experiment in an undesirable way, they add error to
an experiment.
- It’s a variable that it not intentionally studied but can affect the results
- These are factors related to the phenomenon under study, but not specifically included in
the research
EX. weather, participant’s motivation, emotional state, age, location, cultural background

LESSON 4 – RESEARCH TITLE

HOW TO MAKE A RESEARCH TITLE:
1. Select a topic and a title that should embody the main idea of the research paper
2. It can stand alone on its own, without any further explanation needed
3. Concise

A GOOD RESEARCH TITLE SHOULD…

1. Contain as few words as possible: many journals limit titles to 12 words.
2. Be easy to understand.
3. Describe the contents of the paper accurately and specifically.
4. Avoid abbreviations, formulas, and jargon.
5. NOT include any verb
6. NOT contain low-impact words such as “Some notes on ...”, “Observations on...”,
“Investigations on ...”, “Study of ...”, and “Effect of ...”
7. Not be flashy as in newspapers (e.g., “Agroforestry can stop deforestation”)
8. Report the subject of the research rather than the results.

SOURCES OF RESEARCH TOPIC:

1. OWN EXPERIENCE AND INTEREST: Identify your own interests and formulate a problem
that reflects them; familiarity in your territory and terminology.
2. COLLEAGUES: Brainstorming with friends about problems they have encountered may
help clarify research ideas.
3. CRITICAL FRIENDS: Experts are good sources of research problems.
4. LITERATURE: Previous studies and research findings in which gaps were identified

3 Ts: TIMELY (napapanahon) TRENDING (nauuso) TRAILBLAZING (nangingibabaw)

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH TITLES:

INTERROGATIVE FORM: What is the motivation for using Facebook?

COMBINATORIAL: QUESTION AND TITLE: Who uses Facebook? An investigation into the
relationship between the Big Five, shyness, narcissism, loneliness, and Facebook usage

COMBINATORIAL: POWERFUL PHRASE AND TITLE: Too much face and not enough books: The
relationship between multiple indices of Facebook use and academic performance

USE OF NOVEL METHOD: Attitudes of elderly Korean patients toward death and dying: an
application of Q-methodology

RESULTS OF THE PAPER: Preventive health behaviors influenced by self-perceptions of

aging

LESSON 5 – RESEARCH PROBLEM

RESEARCH PROBLEM: This is a clear statement of an inquiry or gap that needs to be
addressed through a systematic approach.

IMPORTANCE OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM:

1. This gives an overview on the relevance of the topic being studied.
2. Places the topic into a specific context that discuss the variables and characteristics
being studied.
3. Indicates a possible framework for reporting of findings and how these will be presented
and interpreted.

GUIDELINES IN MAKING A RESEARCH PROBLEM:

1. Create a research problem that is SMART.

SPECIFIC MEASURABLE ATTAINABL REALISTIC TIME-BOUND

E
DO Set real Make sure your goal Work Be honest with Give yourself a
numbers is trackable towards a yourself – you deadline
with real goal that is know what you
deadlines challenging and your team
but are capable of
possible
DON’ Say, “I Hide behind Try to take Forget any Keep pushing
T want more buzzwords like, over the hurdles you towards a goal
visitors” “brand world in may have to you might hit,
engagement,” or, one night overcome “some day.”
“social influence.”

2. Formulate a research problem that reflects the significance of seeking solutions and
answers.
3. Do not state your research problem/questions that is answerable by yes or no.
4. Research can be stated in a declarative or interrogative manner.
5. Make sure that the quantitative research problem is answerable by an appropriate
statistical method.
6. Formulate a research problem that is aligned with your research topic.

LESSON 6 - LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND REVIEWING THE

LITERATURE
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE: summary of the state of existing knowledge on a
research problem or topic. It is an analysis and synthesis of articles related to the research
topic being studied.

WHAT ARE THE PURPOSES OF LITERATURE REVIEW?

1. To identify a research problem
2. To improve a research question or hypothesis (for quantitative research)
3. To determine what is known and unknown about the topic of Inquiry
4. To determine whether a study needs to be replicated in a different setting or different
group of the population
5. To identify suitable designs or methods for a specific study
6. To assist researchers in interpreting findings

TYPES OF LITERATURE:
1. RESEARCH LITERATURE: these are literature based on research findings. These are data
supported by pieces of evidence, also known as “empirical references”. EX. journal articles,
literature reviews, abstracts of research studies
2. NON-RESEARCH LITERATURE: these are literature which are not based on research
findings. These literatures can provide insights and may broaden understanding regarding
a topic. However, since they are not based on research findings, they have limited use and
they do not serve the purpose of review of related literature. EX. literary or artistic works,
opinion articles, brochures, magazines, anecdotes

SOURCES OF LITERATURE:
1. PRIMARY SOURCE: these refer to description of studies written by the researchers
themselves.
EX: researches published in a journal, abstract prepared by the researcher(s), dissertations,
thesis, undergraduate research, presentation done by the researcher
2. SECONDARY SOURCE: these are descriptions of studies written by someone else, other
than the researchers who conducted them. EX: literature review, abstract prepared by a
reviewer, presentation of research done by someone else other than the researcher

THE PROCESSES OF LITERATURE REVIEW:

1) searching relevant articles;
2) reading and analysing research reports; and
3) writing the description of the existing information on a topic in a manner that is ethical
and based on standards.

I. SEARCHING RELEVANT RESOURCES: In the past, searching for literature is done manually.
With the advent of technology comes the expanding use of the Internet.
✔ one must understand that there are certain accessible search engines that might give
you interesting yet questionable data.
✔ a researcher must learn the skill of investigating which data are research-based or not.

II. SEARCHING print RESOURCES: Another reason to do manual search for printed materials
is when a researcher needs to perform a search to include early literature on a topic. For
example, published articles before the 1970s may not be available in some online
databases.
✔ Print Indexes are books that are used to locate articles in journals and periodicals, books,
dissertations, publications of professional organizations, and government documents.
✔ Abstract Journals summarize articles that have appeared in other journals.

III. READING AND ANALYZING RESEARCH REPORTS:

✔ Research papers may come in various formats. Different groups and institutions have
procedures and policies that must be adhered to by their students. But the more common
format of presenting research articles come in the form of a research report as found in
journals.

ABSTRACT: a brief summary of the study placed at the beginning of the journal article. It is
usually composed of 150-250 words. In that limited number of words, the abstract will
inform you of the background, the methodology, the results, and the conclusion of the
study.

INTRODUCTION SECTION: The main topic, concept, phenomenon, or variable under study.
The introduction identifies the central problem area that is under Investigation —The issues
or problems surrounding the topic is presented as a mean to justify the need to conduct the
study.
KNOWLEDGE GAP: that the study wilt fut. What is it that is missing in the field of knowledge
that has to be filled?
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: This portion must be clear, concise, and direct to the point. This is
usually placed in the last paragraph.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY: This portion must answer the question, Why is this study
important to the field? What will be its contribution?"
METHOD SECTION: This section mentions the strategies used to answer the research
question —research design, subject, study locale, research instruments, data collection,
data analysis. For qualitative researches, several data analysis techniques are also
available.

RESULT SECTION: The actual findings of the study are presented here. This section usually
contains tables or figures highlighting important results. In quantitative researches, one
will usually see calculated numerical values. For qualitative studies, what will be seen are
emerged themes or categories that were identified from the data

DISCUSSION SECTION: In this section, the researcher interprets the findings presented in
the result section. The researcher explains what the results mean or what are the plausible
reason why the results are the way they are—How are findings can be used practically may
also be added here. The researcher is also in the best position to enumerate the
weaknesses or limitations that the study may have and how he considers them in
interpreting the findings.

REFERENCE SECTION: This includes a list of journal articles, books and other documents
that were referenced in the written research manuscript. It follows a certain standard
format (e.g. APA, Chicago, etc.).

TIPS ON READING RESEARCH REPORTS:

1. Make research reading a habit. With this, you will become familiar with its style of
writing.
2. Highlight significant information and do not hesitate to write marginal notes on
photocopies of research reports.
3. Initially scan the report then read them more slowly next time.
4. Ensure that you understand what you read. This must be a constant effort on the part of
the reader. Asking one's self whether comprehension of the material is taking place.
5. Do not be discouraged by technical terms or even statistical data. Try to understand the
general idea of the report.
6. Translate research jargon into more familiar terms. Glossary or Terminologies sections of
research textbooks may guide you in this activity.
7. For beginning student researchers, critical evaluation of research reports may be
challenging. But do not underestimate the value of your sense while reading.

CITATION: both a signpost and an acknowledgment

- As a signpost, it signals the location of a source.
- As an acknowledgment, it reveals that you are indebted to that source.
- It also provides evidence that scholarly writing is done and your position is well-
researched
- A citation can appear in different formats: within the text (in-text citation) at the bottom
of the page (footnotes), or at the end of the paper (endnotes).

HOW TO PARAPHRASE EFFECTIVELY?

When one borrows other people's ideas for his assignment or research project, he must put
these ideas into his own words. How can one possibly achieve this? Here are the guidelines:
✔ Read the text several times until you understand it.
✔ Set the work aside to avoid copying.
✔ Re-write the passage in your own words.
✔ Record the bibliographic information with your paraphrased version of the original.

PROPERLY CITING SOURCES:

1. IMPLICIT STATEMENT_(AUTHORS, YEAR): An e-learning system with higher educational

compatibility is believed to effectively facilitate the learning processes of students (Xu &
Wang, 2006).
2. EXPLICIT AUTHOR_(YEAR)_VERB_STATEMENT.: Taylor and Todd (1995) suggested that
Social Influence (Sl) affects other people's opinion, superior influence, and peer influence.

3. INTRODUCTORY PHRASE with VERB_AUTHOR_(YEAR)_STATEMENT.: As suggested by Taylor

and Todd (1995 ) Social Influence (SI) affects other people's opinion, superior influence, and
peer influence.

PLAGIARISM: is the wrongful use of idea or language of another author and representing
them as if they are your original work. There must be adequate citing of sources in one' s
manuscript. Taking credit for other people's work is stealing. It is offensive whether it is
done intentionally or by accident. As a writer, one must be cautions and familiar with
different types of plagiarism.

LITERATURE: published materials (books, journals, newspaper articles, internet articles,

pamphlets, etc.)

STUDIES: unpublished materials (researches, theses, and dissertations)

*should include both works from foreign and local authors

APA DOCUMENTATION FORMAT: below is the format designed by American Psychological

Association for the development of the reference list:

BOOK REFERENCE:

Book (1): Basic form, single author

Baxter, C. (1997). Race equality in health care and education. Philadelphia: Ballire Tindall.

Book (2): Editors in place of authors

Stock, G., & Campbell, J. (Eds.).(2000). Engineering the human genome: An exploration of
the science and ethics of altering the genes we pass to our children. New York: Oxford
University Press.

Book manuscript: Submitted but not yet accepted; 3-6 authors

Walrath, C., Bruns, E., Anderson, K., Glass-Siegel, M. & Wiest, M. D. (2000). The nature of
expanded school mental health services in Baltimore City. Manuscript submitted for
publication.

Chapter in edited work: Second or later edition

Roy, A. (1995). Psychiatric emergencies. In H. I. Kaplan & B. J. Sadock (Eds.),
Comprehensive textbook of psychiatry. (6th ed., pp. 1739-1752). Baltimore: Williams &
Wilkins.

MAGAZINE OR NEWSPAPER REFERENCE:

Magazine article: Basic form

Greenberg, G. (2001, August 13). As good as dead: Is there really such a thing as brain
death? New Yorker, 36-41. [Note: Use vol. no. if available.]

Newspaper Article: No author; electronic version found on searchable, aggregated database

Mad-cow may tighten blood-donor curbs. (2001, April 19). The Gazette [Montreal], p. A13.
Retrieved August 25, 2001, from Lexis Nexis database.

Journal article (1): Basic form, single author

Roy, A. (1982). Suicide in chronic schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 171-177.
Journal article (2): Journal paginated by issue, 3-6 authors
Baldwin, C. M., Bevan, C., & Beshalske, A. (2000). At-risk minority populations in a church-
based clinic: Communicating basic needs. Journal of Multicultural Nursing & Health, 6(2),
26-28.

CONFERENCE PAPER:

Binh, N. X., McCue, C., & O'Brien, K. (1999 October). English language and development
work at Vinh University, Nghe An Province. Poster session presented at the Fourth
International Conference on Language and Development, Hanoi, Vietnam. Retrieved August
23, 200 1, from http://www.languages.ait.ac.th/hanoi/binh .htm

GOVERNMENT REPORT:

Government report (1): From Government Printing Office (GPO); organization as author
(group author) National Institute of Mental Health. (1998). Priorities for prevention
research (NIH Publication No. 98-4321) Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
[Note: Any document available from GPO should show GPO as publisher.]