Field and Wave Electromagnetic

Chapter11

Antennas and Radiating Systems

Introduction (1)
- Potential functions A and V
1
- H= ∇× A
μ
E = −∇V − jω A for time harmonic cases
- The potential functions A and V are solutions of
non-homogeneous wave equations.
- For harmonic time dependence, the phasor retarded potentials.
− jkR
μ Je
A=
4π ∫v ' R dv '
− jkR
1 ρe 2π
V=
4πε ∫
v' R
dv ' k = ω με =
λ
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 Introduction (2)
⎛ ∂V
⎜ ∇ • A + με =0 → Lorentz Gauge
cf) ∂t
⎜
⎜ i.e ∇ • A + jωμεV = 0
⎝

⎛ ∂ρ
⎜ ∇ • J = − → continuity equation
∂t
⎜
⎜ i.e ∇ • J = − jωρ
⎝

∴ No need to evaluate the both integrals

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Introduction (3)
- E and H
1
E= ∇× H
jωε

- Three steps to determine electromagnetic fields from

a current distribution.
1. Determine A from J
2. Find H from A
3. Find E from H

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 Radiation Fields of Elemental Dipoles
* Elemental electric dipoles

Elemental oscillating electric dipole.

⇒ Short conducting wire of length dl terminated in two small conductive
spheres Q disks (capacitive loading) assume the current in the wire to be
uniform and to vary sinusoidally with time i(t ) = cos ωt = ℜe[ Ie jωt ]

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The Elemental Electric Dipole (1)

- The current vanishes at the ends of the wire,
charge must be deposited there.
dq (t )
i (t ) = ± q (t ) = Re[Qe jωt ]
dt
I = ± jωQ
I
or Q = ± ⇒ + sign : for the charge on the upper end
jω
− sign : for the charge on the lower end
⇒ The pair of equal and opposite charges separated by
a short distance effectively form an electric dipole.
p = zQdl (C ⋅ m)
⇒ This kind of oscillating dipole is called a Hertzian dipole

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 The Elemental Electric Dipole (2)
- Electromagnetic fields of a Hertzian dipole
μ0 Idl e − j β R
A= z ( )
4π R
ω 2π
where β = k 0 = =
c λ

z = R cos θ - θ sin θ

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The Elemental Electric Dipole (3)

A = RAR + θ Aθ + φ Aφ
⎡ μ0 Idl e − j β R
⎢ AR = Az cos θ = 4π ( R ) cos θ
⎢
⎢ μ0 Idl e − j β R
A
⎢ θ = - A sin θ = − ( ) sin θ
4π
z
R
⎢
⎢ Aφ = 0
⎢
⎣

1 1 ∂ ∂A
H= ∇× A =φ [ ( RAθ ) − R ]
μ0 μ0 R ∂R ∂θ
Idl 2 1 1
= -φ β sin θ [ + ]e − j β R
4π j β R ( j β R) 2

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 The Elemental Electric Dipole (4)
1
E = ∇× H
jωε 0
1 1 ∂ 1 ∂
= [R ( H φ sin θ ) − θ ( RH φ )]
jωε 0 R sin θ ∂θ R ∂R
Idl 1 1
ER = − η0 β 2 2 cos θ [ + ]e − j β R
4π ( j β R) ( j β R)
2 3

Idl 1 1 1
Eθ = − η0 β 2 sin θ [ + + ]e − j β R
4π j β R ( j β R) ( j β R)
2 3

Eφ = 0
μ0
where η0 = = 120π
ε0

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The Elemental Electric Dipole - Near Field (1)

- Near field
2π R
In the near zone, β R = 1,
λ
Consider only leading term.
Idl ( β R)2
Hφ sin θ , where e − jβ R
= 1- j β R - + 1
4π R 2 2

Magnetic field intensity due to a current element

Idl is obtained using the Biot-Savart law in magnetostatics

μ0 I dl ' × R μ0 I dl '
cf ) dB =
4π
(
R2
) , A =
4π ∫C' R

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The Elemental Electric Dipole - Near Field (2)

E = RER + θ Eθ
p Electric field due to an elemental
ER = 2 cos θ
4πε 0 R 3 electric dipole of a moment ρ in the
e-direction
p
Eθ = sin θ
4πε 0 R 3
I p
cf ) p = zQdl , Q = ± , E= ( R 2 cos θ + θ sin θ )
jω 4πε 0 R 3
Note : the near field of an oscillating time-varying dipole
are the quasi-static field

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The Elemental Electric Dipole - Far Field (1)

- Far field
2π R
In the far zone, βR = 1,
λ

Far zone leading terms of E and H fields are

Idl e − j β R
Hφ = j ( ) β sin θ
4π R
Idl e − j β R
Eθ = j ( )η0 β sin θ , ( ER = 0)
4π R

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 The Elemental Electric Dipole - Far Field (2)
note 1. Eθ and Hφ are in space quardrature and in time phase.
Eθ
2. = η0 : constant equal to the intrinsic impedance of
Ηφ
the medium.
3. The same properties as those of a plane wave
(at very large distances from the dipole a spherical
wavefront closely resembles a plane wavefront)
4. The magnitude of the far-zone fields varies inversely
with the distance from the source.
5. The phase is a periodic function of R.
2π c λ
λ= = (R )
β f 2π
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The Elemental Magnetic Dipole (1)

* Elemental magnetic dipole

- Small filamentary loop of
radius b.
- Uniform time harmonic current

i (t ) = I cos ωt
m = zI π b 2 = zm :
vector phasor magnetic moment

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 The Elemental Magnetic Dipole (2)

μ I dl ' − j β R1
A= 0
4π ∫ R1
(e )

e − j β R1 = e − j β R e − j β ( R1 − R )
e − j β R [1 − j β ( R1 − R )]
μ 0 I − jβ R dl '
∴ A= e [(1 + j β R ) ∫ - j β ∫ dl ' ]
4π R1 0

cf ) dl '
= (- x sin φ ' + y cos φ ' )bd φ '

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The Elemental Magnetic Dipole (3)

For every Idl ' , there is another symmetrically

located differential current element on the
other side of the y-axis ⇒ an equal amount
of contribution to A in the - xˆ.
But an equal amount of contribution to A
in the opposite direction of yˆ

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The Elemental Magnetic Dipole (4)
π
μ0 Ib − j β R 2 sin φ
'
A = φ
2π
(1 + j β R)e ∫−
π
2 R1
dφ '

where R12 = R 2 + b 2 − 2bR cosψ

R cosψ = R sin θ sin φ '
1
1 1 b 2 2b −
∴ = (1 + 2 − sin θ sin φ )
' 2
(R 2 b2 )
R1 R R R
1
1 2b −
(1 − sin θ sin φ ) ' 2

R R
1 b
(1 + sin θ sin φ ' )
R R

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The Elemental Magnetic Dipole (5)

μ0 Ib 2
A = φ 2
(1 + j β R)e − j β R sin θ
4R
μm
= φ 0 2 (1 + j β R)e − j β R sin θ
4π R
jωμ0 m 2 1 1
∴ Eφ = β sin θ [ + ]e − j β R
4π j β R ( j β R) 2

jωμ0 m 2 1 1
HR = − β 2 cos θ [ + ]e − j β R
4πη0 ( j β R) ( j β R)
2 3

jωμ0 m 2 1 1 1
Hθ = − β sin θ [ + + ]e − j β R
4πη0 j β R ( j β R) ( j β R)
2 3

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 The Elemental Magnetic Dipole (6)
- Far field
ωμ0 m e − j β R
Eφ = ( ) β sin θ
4π R
ωμ0 m e − j β R
Hθ = − ( ) β sin θ
4πη0 R

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The Elemental Magnetic Dipole (7)

H.W 11-1, 11-2, 11-3, 11-4, 11-5

cf ) let ( Ee , H e ) : Electric and magnetic field of the electric dipole.

( Em , H m ) : Electric and magnetic field of the magnetic dipole.
Em Eφ
Ee = η0 H m , H e = − ( = η0 )
η0 Hθ
ωμ0
if Idl = j β m where β = = ω μ 0ε 0
η0
i.e Hertzian electric dipole and elemental
magnetic dipole are dual devices.

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Antenna Patterns and Antenna Parameters (1)

* Antenna patterns and antenna parameters

- Antenna pattern (radiation pattern) : the relative far-zone field
strength versus direction at a fixed distance from an antenna.

- E-plane pattern = the magnitude of the normalized field strength

(with respect to the peak value) versus θ for a constant φ

- H-plane pattern = the magnitude of the normalized field strength

π
versus φ for θ =
2

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Antenna Patterns and Antenna Parameters (2)

™ e.g. Hertzian dipole

θ φ
φ θ = π/2

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Antenna Patterns and Antenna Parameters (3)
- Antenna parameters
(1) Width of main beam = beamwidth (3dB beamwidth)
(2) Sidelobe levels ⇒ unwanted radiation (first sidelobe : -40dB)
(3) Directivity
- Directive gain in terms of radiation intensity.
- Radiation intensity = the time-average power per unit solid angle
: (W/sr) cf) sr : steradian (solid angle)
∴ Radiation intensity U = R 2Pav (W/sr)
- Total time-average power radiated
Pr = ∫ Pav ids = ∫ Ud Ω (W)
d Ω = differential solid angle = sin θ dθ dφ

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Antenna Patterns and Antenna Parameters (4)

- Directive gain
GD (θ , φ ) = the ratio of the radiation intensity
in the direction (θ , φ ) to the
average radiation intensity
U (θ , φ ) 4π U (θ , φ )
= =
Pr / 4π ∫ Ud Ω
- Directivity = the maximum directive gain of an antenna
U 4π U max
D = max = (Dimensionless)
U av Pr
4π Emax
2

= 2π π
∫ ∫ E (θ , φ ) sin θ dθ dφ
2
0 0

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Antenna Patterns and Antenna Parameters (5)

− Ex.: Hertzian dipole

1 1 ( Idl ) 2
∗
Pav = ℜe E × H = Eθ Hφ = η β 2
sin 2
θ
32π 2 R 2
0
2 2
( Idl ) 2
U = R Pav =
2
η0 β 2 sin 2 θ
32π 2

4π U (θ , φ ) 4π sin 2 θ 3
∴ GD (θ , φ ) = = 2π π = sin 2 θ
∫ Ud Ω ∫ ∫
0
(sin 2 θ ) sin θ dθ dφ 2
0

π
D = GD ( , φ ) = 1.5 → 1.76dB
2

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Antenna Patterns and Antenna Parameters (6)

- Power gain G p = the ratio of its maximum radiation intensity
to the radiation intensity of a
lossless isotropic source with
the same input power Pi
total input power Pi = Pr + Pl (Pl : ohmic loss power)
4π U max
Gp =
Pi
Gp Pr
- Radiation efficiency ηr = =
D Pi
- Radiation resistance = the value of a hypothetical resistance
1 2P
Pr = I m 2 Rr ∴ Rr = 2r
2 Im
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 Thin Linear Antennas (1)
* Thin linear antennas

I ( z ) = I m sin β (h − z ),
⎧ I m sin β (h − z ), z > 0
=⎨
⎩ I m sin β ( h + z ), z < 0.

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Thin Linear Antennas (2)

- The far-field contribution from the differential current element Idz is
Idz e − j β R
'

dEθ = η0 dH φ = j ( ' )η0 β sin θ .

4π R
1
R = ( R + z − 2 Rz cos θ ) ≅ R − z cos θ
' 2 2 2

1 1
≅
R' R
I mη0 β sin θ - j β R h
Eθ = η0 Hφ = j e ∫ sin β (h − z )e j β z cosθ dz
4π R −h

sin β (h − z ) : even function

e j β z cosθ = cos( β z cos θ ) + j sin( β z cos θ )
even function Odd function

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 Thin Linear Antennas (3)
I mη0 β sin θ - j β R h
Eθ = η0 Hφ = j e ∫ sin β (h − z ) cos( β z cos θ ) dz
2π R 0

j 60 I m - j β R
= e F (θ ),
R
cos( β h cos θ ) − cos β h
where F (θ ) = H.W
sin θ

∫e sin( Bx + C )dx = ?
Ax
cf )
1 Ax
u ' = e Ax , u = e , v = sin( Bx + C ), v ' = B cos( Bx + C )
A

I = ∫ e Ax sin( Bx + C )dx
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Thin Linear Antennas (4)

1 Ax B
= e sin( Bx + C ) − ∫ e Ax cos( Bx + C )dx
A A
1 B
= e Ax sin( Bx + C ) − 2 [e Ax cos( Bx + C ) + B ∫ e Ax sin( Bx + C ) dx
A A
1 Ax B Ax B2
= e sin( Bx + C ) − 2 e cos( Bx + C ) − 2 I
A A A
e Ax
∴I= 2 [ A sin( Bx + C ) − B cos( Bx + C )]
A + B2
let A = jk cos θ , B = k , C = -kh

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 Thin Linear Antennas (5)
- Half wave dipole
λ 2π λ π
cos( β cos θ ) − cos( ) cos( cos θ )
F (θ ) = 4 λ 4 = 2
sin θ sin θ
⎧ π ⎫
j 60 I m − j β R ⎪
cos( cos θ ) ⎪
∴ Eθ = 2
e ⎨ ⎬
R ⎪ sin θ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
⎧ π ⎫
jI ⎪ cos( cos θ ) ⎪
Hφ = m e− jβ R ⎨ 2
⎬
2π R ⎪ sin θ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
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Thin Linear Antennas (6)

π
2
⎧ ⎫
1 15 I m ⎪
2 cos( cos θ ) ⎪
Pav = Eθ H φ∗ = 2
⎨ ⎬
2 π R2 ⎪ sin θ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
π
2π π π
cos 2
( cos θ )
Pr = ∫ ∫ Pav R sin θ dθ dφ = 30 I m ∫
2 2 2 dθ
0 0 0 sin θ
π
π
cos 2 ( cos θ )
∫0 sin2 θ dθ = 1.218 ⇒ obtained by numerical solution
using Simpson's law

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 Thin Linear Antennas (7)
2 Pr
∴ Rr = = 73.1Ω
I m2
15
U max = R 2 Pav (900 ) = I m2
π
4π U max 60
D = = = 1.64
Pr 36.54

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Thin Linear Antennas (8)

- Effective antenna length
Assume a center-feed linear dipole
and a general phasor current distribution I ( z )
j 30 − j β R h
Eθ = η0 Hφ = β e {sin θ ∫ I ( z )e jβ z cosθ dz}
R −h

I (0) : the input current at the feed point of the antenna

j 30 I (0) − j β R
⇒ Eθ = η0 H φ = β e le (θ )
R
sin θ h
where le (θ ) = ∫
Ι(0) − h
I ( z )e j β z cosθ dz

⇒ the effective length of the transmitting antenna

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 Thin Linear Antennas (9)
π 1 h
I (0) ∫− h
le (θ = )= I ( z )dz
2
⇒ The length of an equivalent linear antenna with
a uniform current I (0) such that it radiates the
π
same far-zone field in the θ = plane
2

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Thin Linear Antennas (10)

Ex 11-6) Assume a sinusoidal current distribution on a center-fed, thin
straight half-wave dipole. Find its effective lenth.
What is its maximum value?

λ
λ
le (θ ) = sin θ ∫ 4λ sin β ( − z )e j β z cosθ dz
− 4
4

⎡ π ⎤
2⎢
cos( cos θ ) ⎥
le (θ ) = ⎢ 2
⎥
β⎢ sin θ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

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 Thin Linear Antennas (11)
π 2 λ λ
maximum value of le (θ ) = le ( ) = = <
2 β π 2

note
1 h
I (0) ∫− h
le = I ( z )dz

⇒ Valid only for relatively short antennas having

a current maximum at the feed point

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Thin Linear Antennas (12)

Voc
le (θ ) = −
Ei
⇒ Negative sign is to conform with the convention that the
electric potential increases in a direction opposite to
that of the electric field
⇒ The effective length of an antenna
for receiving is the same as that
for transmitting.

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 Receiving Antennas and Reciprocity

39

Circuit relation for Radiation into Free Space

40
Effective Area of Receiving Antenna

41

Effective Area for Hertzian Dipole

h
Δz e − jkr
f (θ )
r'
E = aθ ZI
z r
0 f (θ ) = 3 2 sin θ
l
Z = j η 2 3
-h
2λ
g (θ ) = ( 3 2 ) sin 2 θ
cf) Normalization ∫ g(θ ,φ )dΩ=4π
4π ⎛ l ⎞
2

Rr = η ⎜ ⎟
For matched termination: 6 ⎝λ ⎠
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ V ( l E sin θ ) 2
PR = P ⋅ ar Ae = Ae ⎜⎜ E
2
⎟⎟ PR = OC =
⎝ 2 η ⎠ 8 Rr 8η ( l / λ ) 2 ( 4π / 6 )
3 λ2
Ae = ( λ sin θ ) 2 = g (θ )
8π 4π
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