Atomic Structure

1.
Atomic Structure
Teacher: Maitane Gabilondo Nieto (gabilondo@imh.eus)
Materials for Engineering 1

INDEX
1.1 Introduction
1.2. Electrons in atoms
1.3. Periodic table
1.4. Atomic bonds in solids
1.5. Primary bonds

1.5.1. Ionic bond
1.5.2. Covalent bond
1.5.3. Metallic bond
1.6. Secondary bonds

1.1. Introduction
Some of the most important properties of materials depend on their atomic structure. An atom
is composed of a nucleus (neutrons+protons) and electrons around it.
Electrons and protons are electrically charged, firsts are negative and seconds are positives.
Each element has a number of protons in the nucleus, and this corresponds to the atomic
number (Z). For an electrically neutral atom, the atomic number is the same as the number of
electrons.
The atomic mass (A) is the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons. For all the atoms of a
given element the number of protons is the same, but the number of neutrons (N) can be
different. The atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons are
isotopes. The atomic mass is the average weight of the isotopes of an element.

1.2. Electrons in atoms
One of the most used models to explain the organization of the electrons in an atom is the Bohr
atomic model. According to this model, the electrons are assumed to move around the atomic
nucleus in discrete orbitals. The electron has an energy depending on the orbital and they
correspond to energy levels. The organization of electrons in orbitals results in the electron
configuration. The electron configuration shows how the orbitals are occupied.
The electrons that occupy the last shell are the valence electrons. They participate in the
bonding between atoms. Furthermore, many of the physical and chemical properties of solids
are based on these valence electrons.

1.3. Periodic table
All the elements are classified according to their electron configuration in the periodic table.
The elements are located in seven horizontal rows called periods. In the vertical direction,
there are 18 columns that are called groups. The elements of a group have similar valence
electrons structures, and similar chemical and physical properties.

The understanding of many physical properties of materials is based on the knowledge of the
interatomic forces that bind atoms.
The principles of atomic bonding can be explained by considering interactions between two
isolated atoms that are approaching.
𝐹𝑇 = 𝐹𝐴 + 𝐹𝑅
attractive repulsive
x0 In equilibrium:
𝐹𝑇 = 𝐹𝐴 + 𝐹𝑅 = 0
𝑥0 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
r1 r2

Many times it is better or more

recommendable to work with energies
instead of forces. The x0 distance
corresponds to the minimum in potential
energy, which is E0 and corresponds to the
bonding energy (the minimum energy
necessary to separate two atoms).
r1 r2
The magnitude of the bonding energy (E0) and the shape of the graph (E vs distance) vary
from material to material. Solid substances are characterized by having high bonding energy
values (high melting temperature and cohesion properties). Liquids present intermediate
values and gases the lowest.

1.5. Primary bonds
There are 3 types of primary bonds (chemical): ionic, covalent and metallic. In any of these
types, the bond involves the valence electrons.
The nature of the bond depends on the electron configuration of the atoms that take part.

1.5. Primary bonds
1.5.1. Ionic bond
We can find this type of bond in compounds formed by metallic and non-metallic elements.
Metallic elements give their valence electrons to the non-metallic, which accept them. In
this way, all the elements acquire the noble gas configuration (octet rule).
Example: NaCl
Na metallic Cl non-metallic
Na+(Neon) Cl-(Argon)

1.5. Primary bonds
1.5.1. Ionic bond
Energies in ionic bonds: EA (attractive) and ER (repulsive)
𝐴 𝑍1 𝑒 𝑍2 𝑒 1
𝐸𝐴 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = − = − ·
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Where Z1, Z2 are the valences of the ions, e is charge of an electron (1,6·10-19 C), ɛ0 is
the permittivity of vacuum (8,85·10-12 F/m).
𝐵
𝐸𝑅 = 𝑛 B and n are constant, n approximately 8
𝑟
The magnitude of this bond is equal in all directions around an
ion and is called non-directional.
Generally, ceramic materials have ionic bonds. The energy is
between 600-1500 KJ/mol, which results in high melting
temperatures.
Ionic materials: hard, brittle, and bad electrical and heat conductivities.
Coordinationation number: the number of adjacent ions that surround a reference ion. In ionic
compounds it is considered that the atoms are touching.

1.5. Primary bonds
The stable electron configuration of this type of bond is achieved by sharing electrons between
neighboring atoms. Two covalently bonded atoms share electrons and each contributes with at
least one electron, shared electrons are considered of both atoms.
Example: Methane
H obtains the electron configuration of He
C obtains the electron configuration of Ne
The covalent bond is directional, it exists between specific atoms and only in the direction in
which there are shared electrons. This type of bond appears in elemental solids such as
diamond, silicon... Covalent bonds can be very strong (diamond, Tmelting>3550 ºC), as well as very
weak (bismute, Tmelting=270 ºC). It is characteristic of polymers.

1.5. Primary bonds
Actually, very few compounds have pure ionic or covalent bond, they usually have mixed
interatomic bonds and it depends on the position of the atoms in the periodic table.
Higher degree of ionic character=> the atoms in the upper right part of the periodic table with
those in the lower left part. Example: NaCl.
Higher degree of covalent character=>non-metallic atoms bound together.

1.5. Primary bonds
Ionic character percentage: is the amount of electron sharing between two atoms; limited
electron sharing corresponds with a high percent ionic character.
The percentage of ionic character is determined with the atoms electronegativities:

2
%𝐼𝐶 = 1 − 𝑒 −0,25·(𝑥𝐴−𝑥𝐵) · 100
xA and xB are the electronegativities of the elements. A is the most electronegative

1.5. Primary bonds
1.5.3. Metallic bond
Metals and alloys have metallic bonds. In this tyoe of model, the valence electrons are in a
cloud (delocalised) and move freely.
The metallic bond is non-directional and it can be strong (chromium, Tmelting=1890 ºC) or weak
(cadmium, Tmelting=321 ºC). Due to the free electrons, they have good electric and thermal
conductivity.

1.6. Secondary bonds
Secondary bonds are weak in comparison to primary bonds. They are found in most materials,
but their effects are often hidden by the strength of the primary bonding. Secondary bonds are
not bonds with a valence electron being shared or donated, like covalent or ionic, they occur due
to forces produced by atomic or molecular dipoles. They are noticeable in inert gases.
There are two types of secondary bonds: Van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonds.
• Van der Waals forces: there are two types. The first type is as a result of electrostatic
attraction between two permanent dipoles. The second type of Van der Waal's bond is
formed due to temporary dipoles.
• Hydrogen bonding: are relatively stronger than Van der Waal's forces but compared to
primary bonds they are weak. Bonds between hydrogen atom and atoms of the most
electronegative elements (N, O, F) are called hydrogen bonds.

Table of electronegativities:

Periodic table:

Atomic Structure

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1.

Teacher: Maitane Gabilondo Nieto (gabilondo@imh.eus)

Materials for Engineering 1

1.2. Electrons in atoms

1.3. Periodic table

1.4. Atomic bonds in solids

1.5. Primary bonds

1.6. Secondary bonds

Materials for Engineering 2

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Many times it is better or more

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H obtains the electron configuration of He

C obtains the electron configuration of Ne

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Higher degree of covalent character=>non-metallic atoms bound together.

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The percentage of ionic character is determined with the atoms electronegativities:

xA and xB are the electronegativities of the elements. A is the most electronegative

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